Chesterton was, among very many other things, a literary critic of the sort that has become lamentably rarer as the business of criticism has become increasingly a province claimed by academic scholars. That is to say, he wrote about what he loved. For the new Fourteenth Edition of Britannica (1929) he wrote this biographical appreciation.
DICKENS, Charles John Huffam (1812-1870), certainly the most popular and perhaps the greatest of the great English novelists, was born in Landport, a division of Portsea; in a house in Mile End terrace, Commercial road. The house can be identified and is in some sense a popular shrine or memorial, enabling the sightseer to link up in one journey two of the most romantic national names, associating Dickens with Portsea and Nelson with Portsmouth. But beyond this symbolic and almost legendary local interest, the actual address indicates little more than the drifting and often decaying fortunes of the class and family from which he came. It would be an exaggeration to compare it to Lant street, in the Borough, of which, it will be remembered, “the inhabitants were migratory, disappearing usually towards the verge of quarter-day.” But there is the note of something nomadic about the social world to which he belonged. We talk of the solid middle class; he belonged, one might almost say, to the liquid middle class; certainly to the insecure middle class. His father, John Dickens, was a clerk in the Navy-Pay Office, and all through life a man of wavering and unstable status, partly by his misfortunes and partly by his fault. It is said that Dickens sketched him in a lighter spirit as Micawber and in a sadder and more realistic aspect as Dorrit. The contrast between the two men, as well as the two moods, should be a warning against the weakness of taking too literally the idea of Dickensian “originals.” The habit has done grave injustice to many people, such as Leigh Hunt; and it may involve a grave injustice to John Dickens; and perhaps an even greater injustice to Mrs. John Dickens, nee Elizabeth Barrow, whom a similar rumour reports as the real Mrs. Nickleby. Some may question, not without grief, whether there really could be a real Mrs. Nickleby. But in any case there certainly could not be a man who was both Dorrit and Micawber. The truth is that we shall misunderstand from the beginning the nature of the Dickensian imagination, if we suppose these things to be mechanical portraits in black and white, taken by “the profeel machine,” as Mr. Weller said. It is the whole point of Dickens that he took hints from human beings; and turned them, one may say, into superhuman beings. But it is true that John Dickens was of the type that is often shifted from place to place; and this is the chief significance of Charles Dickens’s connection with Portsea, or rather of his lack of connection with it. He can only have been two years old when the household moved for a short time to London and then for a longer time to Chatham. It was perhaps lucky that the formative period of his first childhood was also the most fortunate period of his not very fortunate family. The dockyard of Chatham, the towers of Rochester, the gardens and the great roads of Kent remained to him through life as the only normal memory of a nursery and a native soil; his house in later years looked down on the great road from Gads hill and the cathedral tower rose again in his last vision, in the opium dream called “Edwin Drood.” Here he had leisure to learn a little from books, who was so soon to learn only from life; first in the stricter sense of school-books, from a Mr. Giles, a Baptist minister in Chatham; and second, and probably with greater profit, from a random heap of old novels that included much of the greatest English literature and even more of the type of literature from which he could learn most; Roderick Random and Robinson Crusoe and Tom Jones and The Vicar of Wakefield.
He can hardly have been ten years old when the household was once more upon the march. John Dickens had fallen heavily into debt; he continued the tendency to change his private address; and his next private address was the Debtors’ Prison of the Marshalsea. His wife, the mother of eight children of whom Charles was the second, had to encamp desolately in Camden Town and open a dingy sort of “educational establishment.” Meanwhile the unfortunate Charles was learning his lessons at a very different sort of educational establishment. After helping his mother in every sort of menial occupation, he was thrown forth to earn his own living by tying and labelling pots of blacking in a blacking warehouse at Old Hungerford Stairs. The blacking was symbolical enough; Dickens never doubted that this piece of his childhood was the darkest period of his life; and he seems indeed to have been in a mood to black himself all over, like the Othello of the Crummles Company. Of his pessimistic period, of the heartrending monotony and ignominy, he has given little more than a bitter abbreviation in David Copperfield. But he was storing up much more than bitterness; it is obvious that he had already developed an almost uncanny vigilance and alertness of attention. By the time his servitude came to an end, by his father falling into a legacy as he had fallen into a jail (there was really a touch of Micawber in the way in which things turned up and turned down for him) the boy was no longer a normal boy, let alone a child. He called his wandering parent “the Prodigal Father”; and there was something of the same fantastic family inversion in the very existence of so watchful and critical a son. We are struck at once with an almost malicious maturity of satire; some of the best passages of the prison life of the Pickwicks and the Dorrits occur in private letters about his own early life. He had shared, of course, the improvement in the family condition; which was represented in his case by a period of service as a clerk to a Mr. Blackmore, a Grays Inn solicitor, and afterwards in the equally successful, and much more congenial, occupation of a newspaper reporter and ultimately a Parliamentary reporter. His father had taken up the trade; but his son was already making a mark in it, as reporter to The True Sun, The Mirror of Parliament and The Morning Chronicle. In all these aspects and attitudes, at this time, he appears as alert, sharp-witted and detached; recalling that sort of metallic brightness which an observer at this period so often saw flash upon his face. It is worthy of note, because certain healthy social emotions which he always championed have somewhat falsified his personality in the eyes of the prigs whom he loved to rap over the head. He was a genuine champion of geniality; but he was not always genial; certainly not only genial. One of his earliest sketches, published not long after this time, was a defence of the Christian festivity of Christmas against the Puritans and the Utilitarians; it was called “Christmas Under Three Heads.” All his life he defended valiantly the pleasures of the poor; and insisted that God had given ale and rum, as well as wine, to make glad the heart of man. But all this has clouded his character with fumes of mere conviviality and irresponsibility which were very far from being really characteristic. Even in youth, which is the period of irresponsibility, Dickens appears in some ways as highly responsible. He was in sharp reaction against the futility of his family; he was both ambitious and industrious; and there were some who even found him hard. In many moods he had as angry a dislike of the Skimpoles as of the Gradgrinds.
Indeed he had come in more ways than one to the high turning-point of his fortunes. His marriage and his first real literary work can be dated at about the same time. He had already begun to write sketches, chiefly in The Old Monthly Magazine, which were in the broadest sense caricatures, of the common objects of the street or the market-place. They were illustrated by Cruikshank; and in these early stages of the story the illustrator is often more important than the author. This was notoriously true of his next and perhaps his greatest experiment; but it is typical in any case of his time and his time of life. The prose sketches were signed “Boz” and the signature had become a recognized pseudonym when Messrs. Chapman and Hall, the publishers, approached him with the suggestion of a larger scheme. A well known humorous artist of that epoch, Seymour, was to produce a series of plates illustrating the adventures, or misadventures, of the Nimrod Club, a group of amateur sportsmen, destined to dwindle and yet to grow infinitely greater in the single figure of Mr. Nathaniel Winkle. Dickens consented to write the letter-press, which was little more than a running accompaniment like an ornamental border around the drawings; and in that strange fashion, secondary, subordinate and even trivial, first formed itself in the human fancy the epic and pantomime of Pickwick (1837). Dickens persuaded the publishers to let the Pickwick Club represent more varied interests or eccentricities, retained Mr. Winkle to represent or misrepresent the original notion of sport; and by that one stroke of independence cut himself free from a stale fashion and started a new artistic adventure and revolution. He gave as one of his reasons the fact that he had no special knowledge of sports or games, and proceeded to drive his argument home triumphantly by his description of the cricket-match at Dingley Dell. And yet that cricket-match alone might illustrate exactly the game which Dickens so gloriously won; and why that wild and ill-instructed batsman has had so many thousand runs and is not out. What did a few mistakes in the description of cricket, or even in the description of real life, matter in a man who could invent that orator at the cricket-dinner, who complimented the defeated eleven by saying, with the gesture of Alexander, “If I were not Dumkins, I would be Luffey; if I were not Podder, I would be Struggles”? Men do not read that sort of thing to learn about cricket, or even about life, but to find something more living than either. There had broken through the entanglements of that trumpery bargain a force of comic genius which swallowed up its own origin and excuses; a wild animal big enough to eat all its direction labels. People forgot about Seymour; forgot about sport; forgot about the Nimrod Club; soon forgot about the Pickwick Club. They forgot all that he forgot and followed whatever he followed; much bigger and wilder game than any aimed at by the mere gun of Mr. Winkle. The track of the story wandered; the tone of the story changed; a servant whom Pickwick found cleaning boots in an inn-yard took the centre of the stage and towered even over Pickwick; Pickwick from being a pompous buffoon became a generous and venerable old English gentleman; and the world still followed that incredible transformation-scene and wishes there were more of it to this day. This was the emergence of Dickens into literature. It had, of course, many secondary effects in life. One was the first and almost the most bitter of his quarrels; Seymour may be excused for having been annoyed at the relations of artist and author being thus turned upside down in a whirlwind; but Seymour was not therefore necessarily justified in saying, as he did say and his widow long continued to say, that Dickens had gained glory from another man’s ideas. Nobody, we may well imagine, believes that the oration of Sergeant Buzfuz or the poem of Mrs. Leo Hunter, were Mr. Seymour’s ideas. Dickens had an inexhaustible torrent of such ideas; and no man on earth could pretend to have provided them. But it is true that in this quarrel, as in others, some found a touch of sharpness and acid self-defence in Dickens; and he was never without his enemies. His ideal was certainly the leisure and geniality of Pickwick; but he was fighting rather too hard for his own hand and had too much at stake and too pressing a knowledge of poverty to be anything but practical.
As Pickwick was the foundation of his public life, his marriage was naturally the foundation of his private life; and in this also he has been an object of criticism as he was certainly an object of sympathy. Very little good is done by making guesses about a story of which the spiritual balance and proportion were probably never known to more than three or four people. It is sufficiently significant that those who were nearest to it, and who survive to speak or rather to be silent, agree in laying no very heavy blame upon anyone involved. One of the principals of the Morning Chronicle, George Hogarth, had been so much struck by the “Boz” sketches as to insist on an improvement in the payment of the writer; he introduced Dickens to his family and especially (we may say) to his daughters, with all of whom the young journalist seems to have been on very friendly and even affectionate terms. One of them, Catherine, he married, and certainly married for love; but not perhaps with the sort of love which gives a man a full and serious realization of what he is doing. It is the pathos of the story that in a sense the friendship outlasted the love; for another sister, who understood him better, remained his friend long after his marriage had become a prolonged misunderstanding. All this, however, happened long afterwards; for the moment his marriage may be taken as marking his step into security and success; especially as he was probably stimulated and, as it were, intoxicated, by a romance that brought him into more refined social surroundings than his own. From that moment he was launched as a popular writer and a power in the world; and he never went back, until he died of popularity thirty years afterwards.
It is notable that his next work was Oliver Twist (1838); which might be meant for a contrast to Pickwick. If the first trick had succeeded, nobody could accuse the conjurer of trying the same trick twice. He was probably proud of proving his range; but he was certainly courageous in testing his popularity. It is true that Oliver Twist consists of a queer mixture of melodrama and realism; but both the realism and the melodrama are deliberately dark and grim. Nevertheless it is fortunate that with his second book he thus brought into play what may be called his second talent. It is too common to compare his humour with his pathos; for indeed there is no comparison. But there really is a comparison between his humour and his horror; and he really had a talent for a certain sort of horror, which is exactly rendered by the popular phrase of supping on horrors. For there is a sort of lurid conviviality that accompanies the panic; as if the nightmare could accompany and not follow the heavy meal. This suppressed vitality is due to his never for an instant losing the love of life; the love of death, which is despair and pessimism, was meaningless to him till he died. The sort of horror which afterwards conceived the death of Krook is already found in Oliver Twist; as in that intolerable repetition throbbing in the murderer’s ears; “will wash out mud-stains, blood-stains” and so on. For the rest, the plot is preposterous and the flashes of fun excellent but few; yet there is another aspect of the book which makes it important in the story of Dickens. It is not only the first of his nightmare novels, but also the first of his social tracts. Something of social protest could be read between the lines of Pickwick in prison; but the prison of Pickwick was very mild compared with the charitable almshouse of Oliver. Dickens is witness, with Hood and Cobbett and many others, that the workhouse was felt by all generous people as something quite unnaturally new and hard and inhuman. It is sometimes said that he killed Bumble; it would be easier to say that, by making Bumble live, he created something by which it will always be possible to kill bureaucracies.
Whether we call the transition from Pickwick to Oliver Twist a change from comedy to tragedy, or merely a change from farce to melodrama, it is notable that the next act of Dickens is to mix the two in about equal proportions. Having shown how much he can vary, he tries to show how well he can combine. It is worth noting because it explains much of the failure as well as the success of his art as a whole. We may even say that, to the last, this sort of exhibition of power remained his principal weakness. When the critics, like those of The Quarterly, called him vulgar, it meant nothing except that the critics themselves were snobbish. There is nothing vulgar about drinking beer or describing the drinking of beer, or enjoying the humours of really humorous people who happen to black boots, like Sam Weller. But there is something just a little vulgar about professing to be a Universal Provider; a man who writes not only something that he wants to write, but anything that anybody wants to read. Anything in his work that can really be called failure is very largely due to this appetite for universal success. There is nothing wrong about the jester laughing at his own jokes; indeed they must be very poor jokes if even he cannot laugh at them. Dickens, in one of those endless private letters which are almost more entertaining than his published novels, describes himself as “a if he thought he was very funny indeed”; and so he was. But when he set out to prove that he was not only very funny, but very pathetic, very tragic, very powerful, he was not always enjoying the sense of power over his work, he was enjoying the sense of power over his audience. He was an admirable actor in private theatricals; and sometimes, unfortunately, they were public theatricals. And on this side of his character he had the proverbial itch of Toole to act Hamlet. When he was rendering the humours of the crowd, he was that rather rare thing, a real democrat. But when he was trying to command the tears and thrills of the crowd, he was something of a demagogue; that is, not one mingling with the crowd, but one trying to dazzle and to drive it. One of the ways in which he displayed this attribute, if not of vulgarity at least of vanity, was in his habit, from this time onwards, of running side by side in the same book about five different stories in about five different styles. It pleased the actor in him to show his versatility and his ease in turning from one to the other. He did not realize clearly enough that in some of the parts he was a first-rate actor and in some a second-rate and in some a fifth-rate actor. He did not remind himself that though he turned to each topic with equal ease, he did not turn to each with equal effect. But, whatever the disadvantages of the universal ambition, it definitely dates from the period of his next book. Pickwick has a prevailing tint of gaiety and Oliver Twist of gravity, not to say grimness; but with Nicholas Nickleby (1839) we have the new method, which is like a pattern of bright and dark stripes. The melodrama is if possible even more melodramatic than in Oliver Twist; but what there is of it is equally black and scowling. But the comedy or farce has already displayed the rapid ripening of his real genius in letters. There is no better company in all literature than the strolling company of Mr. Vincent Crummles; though it is to be hoped that in any convivial meeting of it, Miss Snevellicci will remember to invite her incomparable papa. Mr. Mantalini also is one of the great gifts of Dickens to the enduring happiness of humanity. For the rest, it is very difficult to take the serious part of the story seriously. There is precious little difference between the rant and claptrap of the Crummles plays, which Dickens makes fun of, and the rant and claptrap of Ralph Nickleby and Mulberry Hawke which Dickens gravely narrates to us. All that, however, was of little consequence either immediate or permanent. Dickens was not proving that he could write smooth and probable narratives, which many people could do. He was proving that he could create Mantalini and Snevellicci, which nobody could do.
Nevertheless, this pretence of providing for all tastes, which produced the serio-comic novel, is also the explanation of the next stage of his career. There runs or recurs throughout his whole life a certain ambition to preside over a more or less complex or many-sided publication; a large framework for many pictures; a system of tales within tales like the Arabian Nights or the tales of the Tabard. It is the ambition that he afterwards gratified by becoming the editor of two magazines, Household Words and All the Year Round. But there is here something of a shadow of the original meaning of the word magazine, in the sense of a shop; and another hint of that excessive desire to keep a shop that sells everything. He had been for a time editor of something of the sort in Bentley’s Miscellany, but the final form taken by this mild and genial megalomania (if we may so describe it) was the plan which Dickens formed immediately after the success of Nicholas Nickleby. The serial scheme was to be called, “Master Humphrey’s Clock,” and was to consist of different stories told by a group of friends. With the idea of making them the more friendly he turned some of them into old friends; reintroducing Mr. Pickwick and the two Wellers, though these characters were hardly at their best, the author’s mind being already on other things. One of these things was a historical novel, perhaps conceived more in the romantic manner of Scott than the prosaic manner of Smollett, which Dickens generally followed. It was called Barnaby Rudge (1840) and the most interesting part of it perhaps is the business of the Gordon Riots; and the mob that has a madman for its mascot and penny-dreadful prentice for its comic relief. But there is also a plot as complicated as, though rather clearer than, that of Oliver Twist; a plot that intensely interested the detective mind of Poe. Barnaby Rudge, however, is not so directly Dickensian as the romance that preceded or the romance that followed it. The second story, somewhat insecurely wedged into the framework of Master Humphrey’s Clock, was The Old Curiosity Shop (1841), as the opening and some of the references in the story still vaguely attest. The public reception of this story very sharply illustrates what has been said about the double character of his success. On the one side was his true success as a craftsman carving figures of a certain type, generally gargoyles and grotesques. On the other side was his inferior success as a jack-of-all-trades tending only too much to be a cheapjack. As a matter of fact, The Old Curiosity Shop contains some of the most attractive and imaginative humour in all his humorous work; there is nothing better anywhere than Mr. Swiveller’s imitation of the brigand or Mr. Brass’s funeral oration over the dwarf. But in general gossip and association, everything else in the story is swallowed up in the lachrymose subject of Little Nell. There can be no doubt that this unfortunate female had a most unfortunate effect on Dickens’s whole conception of his literary function. He was flattered because silly people wrote him letters imploring him not to let Little Nell die; and forgot how many sensible people there were, only hoping that the Marchioness would live for ever. Little Nell was better dead, but she was an unconscionable long time dying; and we cannot altogether acquit Dickens of keeping her lingering in agony as an exhibition of his power. It tended to fix him in that unfortunate attitude, of something between a showman and a magician, which explains almost all the real mistakes of his life.
About this time a very determining event interrupted his purely literary development, his first visit to America. It was destined to have, apart from any other results, a direct effect upon his next book, which was Martin Chuzzlewit (1844). There were, of course, many purely practical and personal elements in the criticism which he directed against the western democracy. An unjust copyright law, or one which he at any rate thought very unjust, had enabled Americans to pirate his most popular works; and it would seem that the people he met were, in their breezy way, but little inclined to apologize for the anomaly. But it would be very unjust to Dickens to deny that his sense and sensibility were alike irritated by some real divisions in the international relation. There were things in the American culture, or lack of culture, which he could not be expected to understand but which he might reasonably be expected to dislike. His English law-abiding liberalism would in any case have been startled by a certain streak of ferocity and persecution that there really is in the Americans; just as he might have recoiled from the same fierceness in the Irish or the Italians. But in the Americans it was also connected with something crude and incomplete in the society, and was not softened by tradition or romance. He was also both annoyed and amused at the American habit of uttering solemn idealistic soliloquies and of using rhetoric very rhetorically. But all these impressions are important chiefly as they changed the course of his next important narrative; and illustrated a certain condition or defect of his whole narrative method.
All these early books of Dickens, from Pickwick onward, appeared, it must always be remembered, serially and in separate parts. They were anticipated eagerly like bulletins; and they were often written up to time almost as hastily as newspaper reports. One effect of this method was that it encouraged the novelist in a sort of opportunism and something of a hand to mouth habit of work. And a character that always belonged, in varying degrees, to his novels is first and most sharply illustrated in Martin Chuzzlewit. The earlier numbers, though they contained the two superb caricatures called Pecksniff and Mrs. Gamp, had not for some reason been so popular as the caricatures called Pickwick and Miss Squeers. Dickens was already beginning to show something of that feverish fatigue which was the natural reaction of his fervid industry. He feared that the public was bored with the book; he became perhaps subconsciously a little bored with it himself. He conceived the bold idea of breaking the story in the middle and putting in a purple patch woven from his wild memories of the Yankees. It was completely successful, in the comedy sense; but it is worth noting that Dickens did something curiously Dickensian in thus suddenly sending Martin Chuzzlewit across the sea to America. It is not easy to imagine Thackeray suddenly hurling Pendennis from Mayfair into the middle of Australia; or George Eliot dislodging Felix Holt and flinging him as far as the North Pole. The difference was partly the result of the Dickensian temper and partly of the method of publication. But it will be well to remember it: for there is more than one example of what looks like a positive change of plan in the Dickens stories, made more possible by this early habit of not producing the work of art as a whole. Some have suggested that the degeneration of Boffin was originally meant to be real, and his rather clumsy plot an afterthought: and the same idea has figured in the reconstructions of Edwin Drood.
At this point there is a break in the life of Dickens, in more ways than one. It is represented by his decision to live abroad for a time, chiefly on grounds of economy; the last lingering results of the relative failure of Martin Chuzzlewit. He took a villa in the neighbourhood of Genoa in 1844; and he and his family, already a fairly large one, settled down there with a certain air of finality that deserved for a time the name of exile. But it is curious to note that the literary work done there has something of the character of an interlude, and indeed of a rather incongruous interlude. For it was in that Italian landscape that he concentrated on a study so very domestic, insular and even cockney as The Chimes (1845); and industriously continued the series of short Christmas stories which had recently begun in the very London fog of A Christmas Carol (1843). Whatever be the merits or demerits of the Christmas Carol, it really is a carol; in the sense of being short and direct and having the same chorus throughout. The same is true in another way of The Chimes; and of most things that occupied him in his Italian home. He had not settled down to another long and important book; and it soon became apparent that he had not settled down at all. He returned to London, the landscape which for him was really the most romantic and even historic; and did something so ominously typical of the place and time as almost to seem like tempting Providence. He became the first editor of the Daily News, a paper started to maintain those Liberal, if not Radical opinions of which he always shared the confident outlook and the humane simplicity. He did not long remain attached to the editorial chair or even to the metropolis, for this was the most restless period in all his restless life. He immediately went back to Lausanne and immediately wanted to go back to London. It seems probable that this break in his social life corresponded to a break in his artistic life: which was in a sense just about to begin all over again and begin at the other end. He did indeed write one more full-size novel of the earlier type, Dombey and Son (1846-48); but it has very much the character of the winding up of an old business, like the winding up of the Dombey firm at the end of it. It is comic as the earlier books were comic, and no praise can be higher; it is conventional as the earlier plots were conventional, and never really pretended to be anything else; it contains a dying child upon the pattern of Little Nell; it contains a very amusing major much improved from the pattern of Mr. Dowler. But underneath all this easy repetition of the old dexterity and the old clumsiness the mind of the conjurer is already elsewhere. Dombey and Son was more successful in a business sense than Martin Chuzzlewit; though really less successful in many others. Dickens settled again in England in a more prosperous style; sent his son to Eton and, what was more sensational, took a rest. It was after a long holiday at Broadstairs, in easier circumstances more favourable to imaginative growth and a general change of view, that there appeared in 1849 an entirely new novel in an entirely new style.
There is all the difference between the life and adventures of David Copperfield and the life and adventures of Nicholas Nickleby, that there is between the life of Charles Dickens and the life of Amadis of Gaul. The latter is a good or bad romance; the former is a romantic biography, only the more realistic for being romantic. For romance is a very real part of life and perhaps the most real part of youth. Dickens had turned the telescope round or was looking through the other end of it; looking perhaps into a mirror, looking in any case out of a new window. It was life as he saw it, which was somewhat fantastically; but it was his own life as he knew it, and even as he had lived it. In other words, it is fanciful but it is not fictitious; because not merely invented in the manner of fiction. In Pickwick or Nickleby he had in a sense breathed fresh imaginative life into stock characters, but they were still stage characters; in the new style he may be extravagant, but he is not stagey. That vague glow of exaggeration and glamour which lies over all the opening chapters of David Copperfield, which dilates some figures and distorts others, is the genuine sentimentalism and suppressed passion of youth; it is no longer a convention or tradition of caricature. There are men like Steerforth and girls like Dora; they are not as boys see them; but boys do see them so. This passionate autobiography, though it stiffens into greater conventionality at the real period of passion, is really, in the dismally battered phrase, a human document. But something of the new spirit, more subtle and sympathetic but perhaps less purely creative, belongs to all the books written after this date. The next of the novels in point of time was Bleak House (1853), a satire chiefly directed against Chancery and the law’s delay, but containing some brilliant satire on other things, as on the philanthropic fool whose eyes are in the ends of the earth. But the description of the feverish idleness of Rick has the new note of one for whom a well-meaning young man is no longer merely a “first walking gentleman.” After a still more severe phase in Hard Times (1854) (historically important as the revolt of a Radical against the economic individualism which was originally identified with Radicalism) he continued the same tendency in Little Dorrit (1857), the tone of which is perhaps as sad as anything illustrated by Dickensian humours can be; broke off into an equally serious and more sensational experiment in historical romance in The Tale of Two Cities (1859), largely an effect of the influence of Carlyle; and finally reached what was perhaps the height of his new artistic method in a purely artistic sense. He never wrote anything better, considered as literature, than the first chapters of Great Expectations (1861). But there is, after all, something about Dickens that prevents the critic from being ever quite content with criticizing his work as literature. Something larger seems involved, which is not literature, but life; and yet the very opposite of a mere recorded way of living. And he who remembers Pickwick and Pecksniff, creatures like Puck or Pan, may sometimes wonder whether the work had not most life when it was least lifelike.
The stretch of stories following on David Copperfield, from 1850 onwards, fall into the framework of another of Dickens’s editorial schemes; and this time a much more successful one. He began to edit Household Words, in which some, though not all of his later tales appeared; and continued to do so until he exchanged it in 1859 for another and similar periodical called All the Year Round. Just as we find him about this time induced at last to settle down finally in a comparatively comfortable editorial chair, so we find him at last settled more comfortably in a domicile that could really be called a home, when, returning at last to his beloved Rochester district on the great road of Kent, he set up his house at Gads hill. It is sad to realize that this material domestic settlement had followed on a moral unsettlement; and the separation of Dickens and his wife, by agreement (of which the little that needs saying has already been said) had already taken place in 1856. But indeed, even apart from that tragedy, it is typical of Dickens that his repose could never be taken as final. His life was destined to end in a whirlwind of an entirely new type of activity; which none the less never interrupted that creative work which was the indwelling excitement of all his days. He wrote one more complete novel, Our Mutual Friend (1864-65), and it is more complete than most. Indeed it is one of the best though not one of the most Dickensian of the Dickens novels. He then turned his restless talent to something in the nature of a detective story, more in the manner of his friend Wilkie Collins; the sort of story which begins by asking a question; in this case a question about the secret and the sequel of the fate of the hero, Edwin Drood. The question will never be answered; for it was cut short by the only thing that could be more dramatic than the death of the hero; the death of the author. Charles Dickens was dead.
He died very suddenly, dropping from his chair at the dinner-table, in the year 1870 at the comparatively early age of fifty-eight. A death so abrupt, and essentially so premature, could not but raise doubts about the wisdom of his impetuous industry and debates almost as varied as those round the secret of Edwin Drood. But without exaggerating any one of the elements that contributed to it, we may note that the very last phase of his life was a new phase; and was almost entirely filled with his new activity in giving public readings from his works. He had gone to America once more in the November of 1867, with this particular purpose; and his campaign of public speaking in this style was truly American in its scope and scale. If he had indeed been unjust to America as a writer, it is curious that he should have reached his final popularity and perhaps his final collapse, in a character so supremely American. Differences exist about how far he exaggerated the function or how far his biographer exaggerated the danger; but his own letters, ragged with insomnia and impatience, full of desperate fatigue and more desperate courage, are alone enough to show that he was playing a very dangerous game for a man approaching sixty. But it is certainly true, as is alleged on the other side, that this was nothing new in the general conduct of Dickens; that he had long ago begun burning the candle at both ends; and there have been few men, in the matter of natural endowments, with so great and glorious a candle to burn.
He was buried in the Poet’s Corner of Westminster Abbey; and new and vulgar as many critics had called his work, he was far more of a poet than many who were buried there as poets. He left a will commending his soul to God, and to the mercy of Jesus Christ, and leaving his works to the judgment of posterity; and in both respects the action was symbolic and will remain significant in history. Intellectually limited as he was by the rather cheap and cheery negations of an age of commercial rationalism, he had never been a bitter secularist or anti-clerical; he was at heart traditional and was drawn much more towards Anglican than Puritan Christianity; and his greatest work may yet prove to be the perpetuation of the joyful mystery of Christmas. On the other side, he has suffered and may suffer again the changes in the mere fashions of criticism; but his work was creative, it added something to life; and it is hard to believe that something so added will ever be entirely taken away. The defects of his work are glaring; they hardly need to be detected; they need the less to be emphasized because, unfortunately, he always emphasized them himself. It may be a fault, it is certainly a fact, that he enjoyed writing his worst work as much as his best.
The charge of exaggeration is itself exaggerated. It is also, which is much more important, merely repeated mechanically, without any consideration of its true meaning. Dickens did exaggerate; but his exaggeration was purely Dickensian. In this sense his very vulgarity had the quality of distinction. Mere overstatement, to say that a tall man is ten feet high, to say that a frosty morning froze Niagara; this is something relatively easy to do, though sometimes very cleverly done, especially by Americans. But the distinction of Dickens can be stated even in the common charge against him. He is said to have turned men into monsters of humour or horror, whereas the men were really commonplace and conventional persons in shops and offices. If any critic depreciates the Dickensian method as mere overstatement, the answer is obvious: let him take some of these commonplace people and overstate them. He will soon discover that he has not the vaguest notion of what to overstate. He will soon realise that it is not a simple matter of mere exaggeration, in the sense of mere extension. It is not a matter of making a man a little taller or a morning a little colder; the challenge to imagination is not whether he can exaggerate, but whether he can find anything worth exaggerating. Now the genius of Dickens consisted in seeing in somebody, whom others might call merely prosaic, the germ of a sort of prose poem. There was in this or that man’s attitude, or affectation, or habit of thought, something which only needed a touch of exaggeration to be a charming fantasy or a dramatic contradiction. The books of Dickens are in fact full of bores; of bores who do not bore us, merely because they did not bore him. We have all of us heard a hundred times the tiresome trick of public speakers, of asking themselves rhetorical questions which they do not want answered. Any of us might have heard a fat Dissenting minister doing it at a tea-party and thankfully forgotten all about him. But Dickens seized on the fallacy and turned it into a fantasy; into Mr. Chadband’s demands to know why he could not fly, or his wild and beautiful apologue about the elephant and the eel. We talk of the power of drawing people out; and that is the nearest parallel to the power of Dickens. He drew reels and reels of highly coloured caricature out of an ordinary person, as dazzlingly as a conjurer draws reels and reels of highly coloured paper out of an ordinary hat. But if anybody thinks the conjuring-trick is easy to perform, let him try it with the next ordinary person he sees. The exaggeration is always the logical extension of something that really exists; but genius appears, first in seeing that it exists, and second in seeing that it will bear to be thus exaggerated. That is something totally different from giving a man a long nose; it is the delicate surgical separation or extension of a living nerve. It is carrying a ludicrous train of thought further than the actual thinker carries it; but it requires a little thinking. It is making fools more gloriously foolish than they can be in this vale of tears; and it is not every fool who can do it.
There were other reasons for the injustice in the particular case of Dickens. Though his characters often were caricatures, they were not such wild caricatures as was supposed by those who had never met such characters. And the critics had never met the characters; because the critics did not live in the common life of the English people; and Dickens did. England was a much more amusing and horrible place than it appeared to the sort of man who wrote reviews in The Quarterly; and, in spite of all scientific progress or social reform, it is still. The poverty and anarchy of Dickens’s early life had stuffed his memory with strange things and people never to be discovered in Tennysonian country houses or even Thackerayan drawing-rooms. Poverty makes strange bedfellows, the same sort of bedfellows whom Mr. Pickwick fought for the recovery of his nightcap. In the vivid phrase, he did indeed live in Queer street and was acquainted with very queer fish. And it is something of an irony that his tragedy was the justification of his farce. He not only learnt in suffering what he taught in song, but what he rendered, so to speak, in a comic song.
It is also true, however, that he caught many of these queer fish because he liked fishing in such troubled waters. A good example of this combination of opportunity and eccentricity is to be found in his affection for travelling showmen and vagabond entertainments of all sorts, especially those that exhibited giants and dwarfs and such monstrosities. Some might see in this truth a sort of travesty of all his travesties. It would be easy to suggest a psychological theory, by which all his art tended to the antics of the abnormal; it would also be entirely false. It would be much truer to say that Dickens created so many wild and fantastic caricatures because he was himself commonplace. He never identifies himself with anything abnormal, in the more modern manner. In his travelling show, the Giant always falls far short of being a Superman. And though he was tempted only too easily to an obvious pathos, there was never anything particularly pathetic about his dwarfs. His fun is more robust; and even, in that sense, more callous. The truth is that Dickens’s attitude to the abnormal has been misunderstood owing to the modern misunderstanding of the idea of the normal. He was in many ways a wild satirist, but still a satirist; and satire is founded on sanity. He has his real Cockney limitations. But his moderation was not a limitation but a liberty; for it allowed him to hit out in all directions. It was precisely because he had an ordinary and sensible view of life that he could measure the full madness both of Gradgrind’s greed or Micawber’s improvidence. It was because he was what we call commonplace that Dombey appeared to him so stiff or Jellaby so slovenly. In a later generation a real person often assumed such an unreal pose and lost the power of merely laughing at it; as, for example, when Oscar Wilde said seriously all that Skimpole had said absurdly. The Victorian commonsense was not a complete commonsense; and Dickens did suffer from having a narrower culture than Swift or Rabelais. But he did not suffer from being sensible; it was even more from his sense than his sensibility, it was from a sort of inspired irritation and impatience of good sense, that he was able to give us so radiant a fairyland of fools.
His literary work produced of course much more than a literary effect. He was the last great poet, in the true sense of maker, who made something for the people and was in the highest sense popular. He still gives his name, not to a literary clique, but to a league or fellowship numbering thousands all over the world. In this connection it is often noted that he achieved many things even considered as a practical political and social reformer. He let light into dark corners, like the dens of dirt and brutality often called schools, especially in Yorkshire; he probably had much to do with making the professional nurse a duller but more reliable person than Mrs. Gamp; it is likely enough that his vivid descriptions, assisted by the whole trend of the time, hastened the extinction of ordinary imprisonment for debt and clarified much of the original chaos of Chancery. But precisely because this has often been said, it will be well not to say it too often. It has the effect of making his satire appear much more superficial and utilitarian than it really was; for the great satirist is concerned with things not so easily destroyed. We do more honour to Dickens in noting the evils he did not destroy than those he did. The eager worship of a man merely wealthy, however dull and trivial, which appears in the affair of Merdle, has by no means disappeared from our own more recent affairs. The pompous old Barnacle and the agreeable young Barnacle are still almost as much alive as in Dickens’s day. The sweeping away of a genuine gentry, in the person of Mr. Twemlow, on the tide of a new plutocracy, represented by Mr. Veneering, has gone much further than in Dickens’s day. But this makes Dickens’s satire the more rather than the less valuable to posterity. The other mood, which pictures all such abuses as things of the past, tends not to reform but only too much to repose; and to the perpetuation of a rather snobbish and paltry version of the Dickensian tradition. In that spirit we may hear to this day a Stiltstalkings telling the House of Commons that Stiltstalkings have perished before the march of progress; or in the law courts a Buzfuz quoting Buzfuz and jeering at himself as an extinct monster.
The future of the fame of Dickens is no part of the Dickens record and a very dubious part of the Dickens criticism. Some have suggested that his glory will fade as new fashions succeed those he satirized; others have said, at least equally reasonably, that the difference itself fades when all the fashions have grown old; and that Aristophanes and Cervantes have outlived their descendants as well as their contemporaries. But there can be no question of the importance of Dickens as a human event in history; a sort of conflagration and transfiguration in the very heart of what is called the conventional Victorian era; a naked flame of mere natural genius, breaking out in a man without culture, without tradition, without help from historic religions or philosophies or from the great foreign schools; and revealing a light that never was on sea or land, if only in the long fantastic shadows that it threw from common things.
(G. K. C.)
Bibliography. W.Bagehot, Charles Dickens, Preface to Cheap Edition of Works of Dickens (1857-58); J. Forster, Life of Charles Dickens, 3 vols. (1872-74), new ed., 2 vols. (1927); Mary Dickens, Letters of Charles Dickens (1898); G. K. Chesterton, Charles Dickens (1906), Appreciations and Criticisms of the Work of Charles Dickens (1911); S. J. A. Fitz-Gerald, Dickens and the Drama (1910); W. G. Wilkins, Charles Dickens in America (1911); E. P. Whipple, Charles Dickens, 2 vols. (1912); A. C. Swinburne, Charles Dickens (new ed., 1913); W. Dexter, The London of Dickens (1923); The Kent of Dickens (1924); The England of Dickens (1925); Dickens (1927); J. B. van Amerongen, The Actor in Dickens (1926); G. R. Gissing, Dickens, a critical study (1926); W. J. Carlton, Charles Dickens, Shorthand Writer (1926); P. Delattre, Dickens et la France (1927); see also G. E. B. Saintsbury, Dickens, Chap. X., Vol. XIII., Cambs. Hist. Mod. Lit.
Copyright (c) 1997 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Chesterton was, among very many other things, a literary critic of the sort that has become lamentably rarer as the business of criticism has become increasingly a province claimed by academic scholars. That is to say, he wrote about what he loved. For the new Fourteenth Edition of Britannica (1929) he wrote this biographical appreciation.
DICKENS, Charles John Huffam (1812-1870), certainly the most popular and perhaps the greatest of the great English novelists, was born in Landport, a division of Portsea; in a house in Mile End terrace, Commercial road. The house can be identified and is in some sense a popular shrine or memorial, enabling the sightseer to link up in one journey two of the most romantic national names, associating Dickens with Portsea and Nelson with Portsmouth. But beyond this symbolic and almost legendary local interest, the actual address indicates little more than the drifting and often decaying fortunes of the class and family from which he came. It would be an exaggeration to compare it to Lant street, in the Borough, of which, it will be remembered, “the inhabitants were migratory, disappearing usually towards the verge of quarter-day.” But there is the note of something nomadic about the social world to which he belonged. We talk of the solid middle class; he belonged, one might almost say, to the liquid middle class; certainly to the insecure middle class. His father, John Dickens, was a clerk in the Navy-Pay Office, and all through life a man of wavering and unstable status, partly by his misfortunes and partly by his fault. It is said that Dickens sketched him in a lighter spirit as Micawber and in a sadder and more realistic aspect as Dorrit. The contrast between the two men, as well as the two moods, should be a warning against the weakness of taking too literally the idea of Dickensian “originals.” The habit has done grave injustice to many people, such as Leigh Hunt; and it may involve a grave injustice to John Dickens; and perhaps an even greater injustice to Mrs. John Dickens, nee Elizabeth Barrow, whom a similar rumour reports as the real Mrs. Nickleby. Some may question, not without grief, whether there really could be a real Mrs. Nickleby. But in any case there certainly could not be a man who was both Dorrit and Micawber. The truth is that we shall misunderstand from the beginning the nature of the Dickensian imagination, if we suppose these things to be mechanical portraits in black and white, taken by “the profeel machine,” as Mr. Weller said. It is the whole point of Dickens that he took hints from human beings; and turned them, one may say, into superhuman beings. But it is true that John Dickens was of the type that is often shifted from place to place; and this is the chief significance of Charles Dickens’s connection with Portsea, or rather of his lack of connection with it. He can only have been two years old when the household moved for a short time to London and then for a longer time to Chatham. It was perhaps lucky that the formative period of his first childhood was also the most fortunate period of his not very fortunate family. The dockyard of Chatham, the towers of Rochester, the gardens and the great roads of Kent remained to him through life as the only normal memory of a nursery and a native soil; his house in later years looked down on the great road from Gads hill and the cathedral tower rose again in his last vision, in the opium dream called “Edwin Drood.” Here he had leisure to learn a little from books, who was so soon to learn only from life; first in the stricter sense of school-books, from a Mr. Giles, a Baptist minister in Chatham; and second, and probably with greater profit, from a random heap of old novels that included much of the greatest English literature and even more of the type of literature from which he could learn most; Roderick Random and Robinson Crusoe and Tom Jones and The Vicar of Wakefield.
He can hardly have been ten years old when the household was once more upon the march. John Dickens had fallen heavily into debt; he continued the tendency to change his private address; and his next private address was the Debtors’ Prison of the Marshalsea. His wife, the mother of eight children of whom Charles was the second, had to encamp desolately in Camden Town and open a dingy sort of “educational establishment.” Meanwhile the unfortunate Charles was learning his lessons at a very different sort of educational establishment. After helping his mother in every sort of menial occupation, he was thrown forth to earn his own living by tying and labelling pots of blacking in a blacking warehouse at Old Hungerford Stairs. The blacking was symbolical enough; Dickens never doubted that this piece of his childhood was the darkest period of his life; and he seems indeed to have been in a mood to black himself all over, like the Othello of the Crummles Company. Of his pessimistic period, of the heartrending monotony and ignominy, he has given little more than a bitter abbreviation in David Copperfield. But he was storing up much more than bitterness; it is obvious that he had already developed an almost uncanny vigilance and alertness of attention. By the time his servitude came to an end, by his father falling into a legacy as he had fallen into a jail (there was really a touch of Micawber in the way in which things turned up and turned down for him) the boy was no longer a normal boy, let alone a child. He called his wandering parent “the Prodigal Father”; and there was something of the same fantastic family inversion in the very existence of so watchful and critical a son. We are struck at once with an almost malicious maturity of satire; some of the best passages of the prison life of the Pickwicks and the Dorrits occur in private letters about his own early life. He had shared, of course, the improvement in the family condition; which was represented in his case by a period of service as a clerk to a Mr. Blackmore, a Grays Inn solicitor, and afterwards in the equally successful, and much more congenial, occupation of a newspaper reporter and ultimately a Parliamentary reporter. His father had taken up the trade; but his son was already making a mark in it, as reporter to The True Sun, The Mirror of Parliament and The Morning Chronicle. In all these aspects and attitudes, at this time, he appears as alert, sharp-witted and detached; recalling that sort of metallic brightness which an observer at this period so often saw flash upon his face. It is worthy of note, because certain healthy social emotions which he always championed have somewhat falsified his personality in the eyes of the prigs whom he loved to rap over the head. He was a genuine champion of geniality; but he was not always genial; certainly not only genial. One of his earliest sketches, published not long after this time, was a defence of the Christian festivity of Christmas against the Puritans and the Utilitarians; it was called “Christmas Under Three Heads.” All his life he defended valiantly the pleasures of the poor; and insisted that God had given ale and rum, as well as wine, to make glad the heart of man. But all this has clouded his character with fumes of mere conviviality and irresponsibility which were very far from being really characteristic. Even in youth, which is the period of irresponsibility, Dickens appears in some ways as highly responsible. He was in sharp reaction against the futility of his family; he was both ambitious and industrious; and there were some who even found him hard. In many moods he had as angry a dislike of the Skimpoles as of the Gradgrinds.
Chesterton fu, tra moltissime altre cose, un critico letterario di quella specie divenuta lamentevolmente più rara man mano che il mestiere della critica è andato sempre più tramutandosi in un dominio rivendicato dagli studiosi accademici. Vale a dire: scriveva di ciò che amava. Per la nuova quattordicesima edizione della Britannica (1929) scrisse questo apprezzamento biografico.
DICKENS, Charles John Huffam (1812-1870), certamente il più popolare e forse il più grande dei grandi romanzieri inglesi, nacque a Landport, un quartiere di Portsea; in una casa di Mile End terrace, Commercial strada. La casa è individuabile ed è in un certo senso un santuario o memoriale popolare, che consente al turista di collegare in un solo viaggio due dei più romantici nomi nazionali, associando Dickens a Portsea e Nelson a Portsmouth. Ma al di là di questo interesse locale simbolico e quasi leggendario, l’indirizzo effettivo indica poco più delle sorti alla deriva e spesso in decadenza della classe e della famiglia da cui proveniva. Sarebbe un’esagerazione paragonarlo a Lant street, nel Borough, i cui abitanti, si ricorderà, «erano migratori, e sparivano di solito verso lo scadere del giorno di pagamento». Ma c’è la nota di qualcosa di nomade nel mondo sociale a cui apparteneva. Parliamo della solida classe media; egli apparteneva, si potrebbe quasi dire, alla classe media liquida; certamente alla classe media malsicura. Suo padre, John Dickens, era un impiegato dell’Ufficio Paghe della Marina, e per tutta la vita un uomo di condizione vacillante e instabile, in parte per le sue disgrazie e in parte per sua colpa. Si dice che Dickens lo abbia ritratto in tono più leggero nei panni di Micawber e in un aspetto più triste e più realistico in quelli di Dorrit. Il contrasto fra i due uomini, così bene come fra i due stati d’animo, dovrebbe mettere in guardia contro la debolezza di prendere troppo alla lettera l’idea degli «originali» dickensiani. L’abitudine ha fatto grave ingiustizia a molte persone, come Leigh Hunt; e potrebbe comportare una grave ingiustizia verso John Dickens; e forse un’ingiustizia ancor più grande verso la signora John Dickens, nata Elizabeth Barrow, che una simile diceria addita come la vera signora Nickleby. Taluni potrebbero chiedersi, non senza dolore, se davvero potesse esistere una vera signora Nickleby. Ma in ogni caso non poteva certo esistere un uomo che fosse insieme Dorrit e Micawber. La verità è che fraintenderemo fin dal principio la natura dell’immaginazione dickensiana, se supponiamo che queste cose siano ritratti meccanici in bianco e nero, presi con «la macchina del profeel», come diceva il signor Weller. È tutto il punto di Dickens: prendeva spunti da esseri umani e li trasformava, si può dire, in esseri sovrumani. Ma è vero che John Dickens era del tipo che viene spesso spostato di luogo in luogo; e questo è il significato principale del legame di Charles Dickens con Portsea, o meglio della sua mancanza di legame con essa. Non poteva avere più di due anni quando la famiglia si trasferì per breve tempo a Londra e poi, per un tempo più lungo, a Chatham. Fu forse una fortuna che il periodo formativo della sua prima infanzia fosse anche il periodo più fortunato della sua non molto fortunata famiglia. Il cantiere navale di Chatham, le torri di Rochester, i giardini e le grandi strade del Kent gli rimasero per tutta la vita come l’unico normale ricordo di una stanza dei bambini e di un suolo natio; la sua casa, negli anni successivi, guardava dall’alto la grande strada presso Gads collina e la torre della cattedrale si levò di nuovo nella sua ultima visione, nel sogno d’oppio chiamato «Edwin Drood». Qui ebbe l’agio di imparare un poco dai libri, lui che così presto avrebbe imparato soltanto dalla vita; dapprima nel senso più stretto dei libri di scuola, da un certo signor Giles, pastore battista a Chatham; e in secondo luogo, e probabilmente con maggior profitto, da un mucchio casuale di vecchi romanzi che comprendeva molta della più grande letteratura inglese e ancor più di quel genere di letteratura da cui poteva imparare di più; Roderick Random e Robinson Crusoe e Tom Jones e Il vicario di Wakefield.
Non poteva avere neppure dieci anni quando la famiglia fu di nuovo in marcia. John Dickens era caduto pesantemente nei debiti; proseguì nella tendenza a cambiare il proprio recapito privato; e il recapito privato successivo fu la Prigione per debitori della Marshalsea. Sua moglie, madre di otto figli di cui Charles era il secondo, dovette accamparsi desolatamente a Camden Town e aprire una sorta di squallido «istituto di istruzione». Nel frattempo lo sfortunato Charles apprendeva le sue lezioni in un istituto di istruzione di tutt’altra specie. Dopo aver aiutato la madre in ogni sorta di umile mansione, fu gettato fuori a guadagnarsi da vivere legando ed etichettando barattoli di lucido da scarpe in un magazzino di lucido presso Old Hungerford Stairs. Il lucido nero era abbastanza simbolico; Dickens non dubitò mai che questo frammento della sua infanzia fosse il periodo più tenebroso della sua vita; e pare in effetti che fosse in vena di tingersi di nero da capo a piedi, come l’Otello della compagnia Crummles. Del suo periodo pessimistico, della straziante monotonia e ignominia, non ci ha dato molto più di un’amara sintesi in David Copperfield. Ma stava accumulando molto più che amarezza; è evidente che aveva già sviluppato una vigilanza e una prontezza d’attenzione quasi inquietanti. Ormai giunto il tempo in cui la sua servitù ebbe fine, col padre caduto in un’eredità come era caduto in prigione (c’era davvero un tocco di Micawber nel modo in cui le cose gli capitavano e lo abbandonavano), il ragazzo non era più un ragazzo normale, tanto meno un fanciullo. Chiamava il suo errabondo genitore «il Padre Prodigo»; e c’era qualcosa della stessa fantastica inversione familiare nell’esistenza stessa di un figlio tanto vigile e critico. Siamo colpiti d’un tratto da una maturità di satira quasi maliziosa; alcuni dei migliori passi sulla vita in prigione dei Pickwick e dei Dorrit si trovano in lettere private sulla sua stessa prima giovinezza. Aveva condiviso, naturalmente, il miglioramento delle condizioni familiari; che nel suo caso fu rappresentato da un periodo di servizio come impiegato presso un certo signor Blackmore, un procuratore legale di Gray’s Inn, e in seguito nell’occupazione altrettanto proficua, e assai più congeniale, di cronista di giornale e infine di cronista parlamentare. Suo padre aveva intrapreso quel mestiere; ma il figlio vi si stava già facendo un nome, come cronista per The True Sun, The Specchio of Parliament e The Morning Chronicle. In tutti questi aspetti e atteggiamenti, a quel tempo, appare sveglio, di mente acuta e distaccato; richiamando quella sorta di lucentezza metallica che un osservatore, in quel periodo, vedeva così spesso balenargli sul volto. Vale la pena di notarlo, perché certi sani sentimenti sociali che egli sempre difese hanno in qualche modo falsato la sua personalità agli occhi dei saccenti che amava colpire sulla testa. Fu un genuino campione della cordialità; ma non era sempre cordiale; e certo non soltanto cordiale. Uno dei suoi primissimi bozzetti, pubblicato non molto dopo quel tempo, era una difesa della festività cristiana del Natale contro i Puritani e gli Utilitaristi; si intitolava «Christmas Under Three Heads». Per tutta la vita difese valorosamente i piaceri dei poveri; e insisteva che Dio aveva dato la birra e il rum, così bene come il vino, per rallegrare il cuore dell’uomo. Ma tutto ciò ha annebbiato il suo carattere con fumi di mera convivialità e irresponsabilità che erano ben lontani dall’essere davvero caratteristici. Persino in gioventù, che è l’età dell’irresponsabilità, Dickens appare per certi versi assai responsabile. Era in netta reazione contro la futilità della sua famiglia; era insieme ambizioso e industrioso; e vi fu chi lo trovò persino duro. In molti stati d’animo nutriva un’avversione altrettanto adirata per gli Skimpole quanto per i Gradgrind.
Indeed he had come in more ways than one to the high turning-point of his fortunes. His marriage and his first real literary work can be dated at about the same time. He had already begun to write sketches, chiefly in The Old Monthly Magazine, which were in the broadest sense caricatures, of the common objects of the street or the market-place. They were illustrated by Cruikshank; and in these early stages of the story the illustrator is often more important than the author. This was notoriously true of his next and perhaps his greatest experiment; but it is typical in any case of his time and his time of life. The prose sketches were signed “Boz” and the signature had become a recognized pseudonym when Messrs. Chapman and Hall, the publishers, approached him with the suggestion of a larger scheme. A well known humorous artist of that epoch, Seymour, was to produce a series of plates illustrating the adventures, or misadventures, of the Nimrod Club, a group of amateur sportsmen, destined to dwindle and yet to grow infinitely greater in the single figure of Mr. Nathaniel Winkle. Dickens consented to write the letter-press, which was little more than a running accompaniment like an ornamental border around the drawings; and in that strange fashion, secondary, subordinate and even trivial, first formed itself in the human fancy the epic and pantomime of Pickwick (1837). Dickens persuaded the publishers to let the Pickwick Club represent more varied interests or eccentricities, retained Mr. Winkle to represent or misrepresent the original notion of sport; and by that one stroke of independence cut himself free from a stale fashion and started a new artistic adventure and revolution. He gave as one of his reasons the fact that he had no special knowledge of sports or games, and proceeded to drive his argument home triumphantly by his description of the cricket-match at Dingley Dell. And yet that cricket-match alone might illustrate exactly the game which Dickens so gloriously won; and why that wild and ill-instructed batsman has had so many thousand runs and is not out. What did a few mistakes in the description of cricket, or even in the description of real life, matter in a man who could invent that orator at the cricket-dinner, who complimented the defeated eleven by saying, with the gesture of Alexander, “If I were not Dumkins, I would be Luffey; if I were not Podder, I would be Struggles”? Men do not read that sort of thing to learn about cricket, or even about life, but to find something more living than either. There had broken through the entanglements of that trumpery bargain a force of comic genius which swallowed up its own origin and excuses; a wild animal big enough to eat all its direction labels. People forgot about Seymour; forgot about sport; forgot about the Nimrod Club; soon forgot about the Pickwick Club. They forgot all that he forgot and followed whatever he followed; much bigger and wilder game than any aimed at by the mere gun of Mr. Winkle. The track of the story wandered; the tone of the story changed; a servant whom Pickwick found cleaning boots in an inn-yard took the centre of the stage and towered even over Pickwick; Pickwick from being a pompous buffoon became a generous and venerable old English gentleman; and the world still followed that incredible transformation-scene and wishes there were more of it to this day. This was the emergence of Dickens into literature. It had, of course, many secondary effects in life. One was the first and almost the most bitter of his quarrels; Seymour may be excused for having been annoyed at the relations of artist and author being thus turned upside down in a whirlwind; but Seymour was not therefore necessarily justified in saying, as he did say and his widow long continued to say, that Dickens had gained glory from another man’s ideas. Nobody, we may well imagine, believes that the oration of Sergeant Buzfuz or the poem of Mrs. Leo Hunter, were Mr. Seymour’s ideas. Dickens had an inexhaustible torrent of such ideas; and no man on earth could pretend to have provided them. But it is true that in this quarrel, as in others, some found a touch of sharpness and acid self-defence in Dickens; and he was never without his enemies. His ideal was certainly the leisure and geniality of Pickwick; but he was fighting rather too hard for his own hand and had too much at stake and too pressing a knowledge of poverty to be anything but practical.
As Pickwick was the foundation of his public life, his marriage was naturally the foundation of his private life; and in this also he has been an object of criticism as he was certainly an object of sympathy. Very little good is done by making guesses about a story of which the spiritual balance and proportion were probably never known to more than three or four people. It is sufficiently significant that those who were nearest to it, and who survive to speak or rather to be silent, agree in laying no very heavy blame upon anyone involved. One of the principals of the Morning Chronicle, George Hogarth, had been so much struck by the “Boz” sketches as to insist on an improvement in the payment of the writer; he introduced Dickens to his family and especially (we may say) to his daughters, with all of whom the young journalist seems to have been on very friendly and even affectionate terms. One of them, Catherine, he married, and certainly married for love; but not perhaps with the sort of love which gives a man a full and serious realization of what he is doing. It is the pathos of the story that in a sense the friendship outlasted the love; for another sister, who understood him better, remained his friend long after his marriage had become a prolonged misunderstanding. All this, however, happened long afterwards; for the moment his marriage may be taken as marking his step into security and success; especially as he was probably stimulated and, as it were, intoxicated, by a romance that brought him into more refined social surroundings than his own. From that moment he was launched as a popular writer and a power in the world; and he never went back, until he died of popularity thirty years afterwards.
In verità, in più di un senso, era giunto all’alto punto di svolta delle sue sorti. Il suo matrimonio e la sua prima vera opera letteraria si possono datare pressappoco allo stesso tempo. Aveva già cominciato a scrivere bozzetti, soprattutto su The Old Monthly Magazine, che erano nel senso più ampio caricature degli oggetti comuni della strada o della piazza del mercato. Erano illustrati da Cruikshank; e in queste prime fasi della vicenda l’illustratore è spesso più importante dell’autore. Ciò fu notoriamente vero per il suo esperimento successivo e forse più grande; ma è in ogni caso tipico della sua epoca e del suo tempo di vita. I bozzetti in prosa erano firmati «Boz» e la firma era divenuta uno pseudonimo riconosciuto quando i signori Chapman e Hall, gli editori, gli si rivolsero con la proposta di un progetto più ampio. Un ben noto artista umoristico di quell’epoca, Seymour, doveva produrre una serie di tavole che illustravano le avventure, o disavventure, del Nimrod Club, un gruppo di sportivi dilettanti, destinato a ridursi eppure a farsi infinitamente più grande nell’unica figura del signor Nathaniel Winkle. Dickens acconsentì a scrivere il testo, che era poco più di un accompagnamento continuo, come una cornice ornamentale intorno ai disegni; e in quel modo strano, secondario, subordinato e persino insignificante, prese forma per la prima volta nella fantasia umana l’epopea e la pantomima del Pickwick (1837). Dickens persuase gli editori a lasciare che il Club Pickwick rappresentasse interessi o eccentricità più varie, mantenne il signor Winkle a rappresentare, o travisare, l’idea originaria dello sport; e con quel solo colpo d’indipendenza si affrancò da una moda stantia e diede avvio a una nuova avventura e rivoluzione artistica. Diede come una delle sue ragioni il fatto di non avere alcuna particolare conoscenza di sport o di giochi, e procedette a rincarare trionfalmente la sua tesi fino in fondo con la sua descrizione della partita di cricket a Dingley Dell. Eppure quella sola partita di cricket potrebbe illustrare con esattezza il gioco che Dickens vinse così gloriosamente; e perché quel battitore selvaggio e mal istruito abbia realizzato così tante migliaia di punti e non sia ancora eliminato. Che importavano pochi errori nella descrizione del cricket, o persino nella descrizione della vita reale, in un uomo capace di inventare quell’oratore al banchetto del cricket, che si complimentava con gli undici sconfitti dicendo, col gesto di Alessandro: «Se non fossi Dumkins, sarei Luffey; se non fossi Podder, sarei Struggles»? Gli uomini non leggono cose del genere per imparare a proposito del cricket, o persino della vita, ma per trovare qualcosa di più vivo dell’uno e dell’altra. Attraverso gli imbrogli di quel patto da quattro soldi aveva fatto irruzione una forza di genio comico che inghiottì la propria origine e le proprie scuse; un animale selvatico abbastanza grande da divorare tutte le proprie etichette di istruzioni. La gente dimenticò Seymour; dimenticò lo sport; dimenticò il Nimrod Club; presto dimenticò il Club Pickwick. Dimenticarono tutto ciò che egli dimenticò e seguirono qualunque cosa egli seguisse; una preda assai più grande e più selvaggia di qualunque bersaglio mirato dal semplice fucile del signor Winkle. Il tracciato della storia divagò; il tono della storia mutò; un servitore che Pickwick trovò a pulire stivali nel cortile di una locanda prese il centro della scena e torreggiò persino su Pickwick; Pickwick, da pomposo buffone, divenne un generoso e venerabile vecchio gentiluomo inglese; e il mondo ancora seguì quell’incredibile scena di trasformazione, e desidera tuttora che ve ne fosse di più. Questa fu l’emersione di Dickens nella letteratura. Ebbe, naturalmente, molti effetti secondari nella vita. Uno fu la prima e quasi la più amara delle sue liti; si può scusare Seymour per essersi irritato che i rapporti fra artista e autore fossero così capovolti in un turbine; ma non per questo Seymour era necessariamente giustificato nel dire, come disse e come la sua vedova continuò a lungo a dire, che Dickens aveva ottenuto gloria dalle idee di un altro. Nessuno, possiamo ben immaginare, crede che l’arringa del Sergente Buzfuz o la poesia della signora Leo Hunter fossero idee del signor Seymour. Dickens aveva un torrente inesauribile di simili idee; e nessun uomo sulla terra poteva pretendere di avergliele fornite. Ma è vero che in questa lite, come in altre, alcuni trovarono in Dickens un tocco di asprezza e di acida difesa di sé; ed egli non fu mai privo di nemici. Il suo ideale era certamente l’ozio e la cordialità di Pickwick; ma combatteva un po’ troppo strenuamente per il proprio tornaconto e aveva troppo in gioco e una conoscenza troppo assillante della povertà per essere altro che pratico.
Come Pickwick fu il fondamento della sua vita pubblica, il suo matrimonio fu naturalmente il fondamento della sua vita privata; e anche in questo è stato oggetto di critica come fu certamente oggetto di simpatia. Ben poco di buono si ottiene facendo congetture su una vicenda il cui equilibrio e la cui proporzione spirituale non furono probabilmente mai noti a più di tre o quattro persone. È abbastanza significativo che coloro che le furono più vicini, e che sopravvivono per parlare, o piuttosto per tacere, concordino nel non addossare colpa troppo grave a nessuno dei coinvolti. Uno dei dirigenti del Morning Chronicle, George Hogarth, era stato talmente colpito dai bozzetti di «Boz» da insistere per un miglioramento del compenso dello scrittore; presentò Dickens alla sua famiglia e specialmente (possiamo dire) alle sue figlie, con tutte le quali il giovane giornalista pare fosse in rapporti assai amichevoli e persino affettuosi. Una di loro, Catherine, la sposò, e certamente la sposò per amore; ma forse non con quella specie di amore che dà a un uomo piena e seria consapevolezza di ciò che sta facendo. È il pathos di questa vicenda che, in un certo senso, l’amicizia sopravvisse all’amore; poiché un’altra sorella, che lo comprendeva meglio, rimase sua amica molto tempo dopo che il suo matrimonio era divenuto un prolungato malinteso. Tutto ciò, però, accadde molto tempo dopo; per il momento il suo matrimonio si può considerare come il segno del suo ingresso nella sicurezza e nel successo; tanto più che fu probabilmente stimolato e, per così dire, inebriato, da un idillio che lo introdusse in ambienti sociali più raffinati del suo. Da quel momento fu lanciato come scrittore popolare e come potenza nel mondo; e non tornò mai indietro, finché non morì di popolarità trent’anni più tardi.
It is notable that his next work was Oliver Twist (1838); which might be meant for a contrast to Pickwick. If the first trick had succeeded, nobody could accuse the conjurer of trying the same trick twice. He was probably proud of proving his range; but he was certainly courageous in testing his popularity. It is true that Oliver Twist consists of a queer mixture of melodrama and realism; but both the realism and the melodrama are deliberately dark and grim. Nevertheless it is fortunate that with his second book he thus brought into play what may be called his second talent. It is too common to compare his humour with his pathos; for indeed there is no comparison. But there really is a comparison between his humour and his horror; and he really had a talent for a certain sort of horror, which is exactly rendered by the popular phrase of supping on horrors. For there is a sort of lurid conviviality that accompanies the panic; as if the nightmare could accompany and not follow the heavy meal. This suppressed vitality is due to his never for an instant losing the love of life; the love of death, which is despair and pessimism, was meaningless to him till he died. The sort of horror which afterwards conceived the death of Krook is already found in Oliver Twist; as in that intolerable repetition throbbing in the murderer’s ears; “will wash out mud-stains, blood-stains” and so on. For the rest, the plot is preposterous and the flashes of fun excellent but few; yet there is another aspect of the book which makes it important in the story of Dickens. It is not only the first of his nightmare novels, but also the first of his social tracts. Something of social protest could be read between the lines of Pickwick in prison; but the prison of Pickwick was very mild compared with the charitable almshouse of Oliver. Dickens is witness, with Hood and Cobbett and many others, that the workhouse was felt by all generous people as something quite unnaturally new and hard and inhuman. It is sometimes said that he killed Bumble; it would be easier to say that, by making Bumble live, he created something by which it will always be possible to kill bureaucracies.
Whether we call the transition from Pickwick to Oliver Twist a change from comedy to tragedy, or merely a change from farce to melodrama, it is notable that the next act of Dickens is to mix the two in about equal proportions. Having shown how much he can vary, he tries to show how well he can combine. It is worth noting because it explains much of the failure as well as the success of his art as a whole. We may even say that, to the last, this sort of exhibition of power remained his principal weakness. When the critics, like those of The Quarterly, called him vulgar, it meant nothing except that the critics themselves were snobbish. There is nothing vulgar about drinking beer or describing the drinking of beer, or enjoying the humours of really humorous people who happen to black boots, like Sam Weller. But there is something just a little vulgar about professing to be a Universal Provider; a man who writes not only something that he wants to write, but anything that anybody wants to read. Anything in his work that can really be called failure is very largely due to this appetite for universal success. There is nothing wrong about the jester laughing at his own jokes; indeed they must be very poor jokes if even he cannot laugh at them. Dickens, in one of those endless private letters which are almost more entertaining than his published novels, describes himself as “a if he thought he was very funny indeed”; and so he was. But when he set out to prove that he was not only very funny, but very pathetic, very tragic, very powerful, he was not always enjoying the sense of power over his work, he was enjoying the sense of power over his audience. He was an admirable actor in private theatricals; and sometimes, unfortunately, they were public theatricals. And on this side of his character he had the proverbial itch of Toole to act Hamlet. When he was rendering the humours of the crowd, he was that rather rare thing, a real democrat. But when he was trying to command the tears and thrills of the crowd, he was something of a demagogue; that is, not one mingling with the crowd, but one trying to dazzle and to drive it. One of the ways in which he displayed this attribute, if not of vulgarity at least of vanity, was in his habit, from this time onwards, of running side by side in the same book about five different stories in about five different styles. It pleased the actor in him to show his versatility and his ease in turning from one to the other. He did not realize clearly enough that in some of the parts he was a first-rate actor and in some a second-rate and in some a fifth-rate actor. He did not remind himself that though he turned to each topic with equal ease, he did not turn to each with equal effect. But, whatever the disadvantages of the universal ambition, it definitely dates from the period of his next book. Pickwick has a prevailing tint of gaiety and Oliver Twist of gravity, not to say grimness; but with Nicholas Nickleby (1839) we have the new method, which is like a pattern of bright and dark stripes. The melodrama is if possible even more melodramatic than in Oliver Twist; but what there is of it is equally black and scowling. But the comedy or farce has already displayed the rapid ripening of his real genius in letters. There is no better company in all literature than the strolling company of Mr. Vincent Crummles; though it is to be hoped that in any convivial meeting of it, Miss Snevellicci will remember to invite her incomparable papa. Mr. Mantalini also is one of the great gifts of Dickens to the enduring happiness of humanity. For the rest, it is very difficult to take the serious part of the story seriously. There is precious little difference between the rant and claptrap of the Crummles plays, which Dickens makes fun of, and the rant and claptrap of Ralph Nickleby and Mulberry Hawke which Dickens gravely narrates to us. All that, however, was of little consequence either immediate or permanent. Dickens was not proving that he could write smooth and probable narratives, which many people could do. He was proving that he could create Mantalini and Snevellicci, which nobody could do.
È degno di nota che la sua opera successiva fu Oliver Twist (1838); che poteva essere concepita come un contrasto rispetto a Pickwick. Se il primo trucco era riuscito, nessuno poteva accusare il prestigiatore di tentare lo stesso trucco due volte. Era probabilmente fiero di dimostrare la propria ampiezza di registro; ma fu certamente coraggioso nel mettere alla prova la propria popolarità. È vero che Oliver Twist consiste in una bizzarra mescolanza di melodramma e realismo; ma tanto il realismo quanto il melodramma sono deliberatamente cupi e tetri. Nondimeno è una fortuna che col suo secondo libro egli abbia così messo in gioco quello che si può chiamare il suo secondo talento. È troppo consueto paragonare il suo umorismo al suo pathos; giacché in verità non v’è paragone. Ma un paragone c’è davvero fra il suo umorismo e il suo orrore; ed egli aveva realmente un talento per un certo genere di orrore, reso con esattezza dall’espressione popolare del cenare a base di orrori. Poiché c’è una sorta di sinistra convivialità che accompagna il panico; come se l’incubo potesse accompagnare e non seguire il pasto pesante. Questa vitalità repressa è dovuta al fatto che egli non perdette mai, neppure per un istante, l’amore per la vita; l’amore per la morte, che è disperazione e pessimismo, gli fu privo di senso finché non morì. Il genere di orrore che più tardi concepì la morte di Krook si trova già in Oliver Twist; come in quell’intollerabile ripetizione che pulsa nelle orecchie dell’assassino: «laverà via le macchie di fango, le macchie di sangue» e così via. Per il resto, la trama è assurda e i lampi di comicità eccellenti ma rari; eppure c’è un altro aspetto del libro che lo rende importante nella storia di Dickens. Non è soltanto il primo dei suoi romanzi da incubo, ma anche il primo dei suoi opuscoli sociali. Qualcosa di protesta sociale si poteva leggere fra le righe di Pickwick in prigione; ma la prigione di Pickwick era assai mite in confronto all’ospizio caritatevole di Oliver. Dickens è testimone, con Hood e Cobbett e molti altri, che la casa di lavoro era sentita da tutte le persone generose come qualcosa di innaturalmente nuovo, duro e inumano. Talvolta si dice che egli uccise Bumble; sarebbe più esatto dire che, facendo vivere Bumble, creò qualcosa per mezzo di cui sarà sempre possibile uccidere le burocrazie.
Sia che chiamiamo il passaggio da Pickwick a Oliver Twist un mutamento dalla commedia alla tragedia, sia soltanto un mutamento dalla farsa al melodramma, è degno di nota che l’atto successivo di Dickens sia di mescolare i due in proporzioni pressoché uguali. Avendo mostrato quanto sappia variare, cerca di mostrare quanto bene sappia combinare. Vale la pena notarlo perché spiega gran parte del fallimento così bene come del successo della sua arte nel complesso. Possiamo persino dire che, fino all’ultimo, questa sorta di ostentazione di potenza rimase la sua principale debolezza. Quando i critici, come quelli del Quarterly, lo dissero volgare, ciò non significava nulla se non che i critici stessi erano snob. Non c’è nulla di volgare nel bere birra o nel descrivere il bere birra, o nel godersi gli umori di persone davvero spiritose che per caso lucidano stivali, come Sam Weller. Ma c’è qualcosa di appena un po’ volgare nel professarsi Fornitore Universale; un uomo che scrive non soltanto qualcosa che desidera scrivere, ma qualunque cosa chiunque desideri leggere. Tutto ciò che nella sua opera si possa davvero chiamare fallimento è in gran parte dovuto a questo appetito di successo universale. Non c’è nulla di male se il buffone ride delle proprie battute; anzi, devono essere ben misere battute se nemmeno lui riesce a riderne. Dickens, in una di quelle interminabili lettere private che sono quasi più divertenti dei suoi romanzi pubblicati, descrive sé stesso «come se pensasse di essere davvero molto buffo»; e così era. Ma quando si accingeva a dimostrare di essere non solo molto buffo, ma molto patetico, molto tragico, molto potente, non sempre si godeva il senso di potere sulla propria opera: si godeva il senso di potere sul proprio pubblico. Era un attore ammirevole nelle recite private; e talvolta, purtroppo, si trattava di recite pubbliche. E in questo lato del suo carattere aveva la proverbiale smania di Toole di recitare l’Amleto. Quando rendeva gli umori della folla, era quella cosa piuttosto rara, un vero democratico. Ma quando cercava di comandare le lacrime e i brividi della folla, era in qualche modo un demagogo; cioè non uno che si mescola alla folla, ma uno che cerca di abbagliarla e di guidarla. Uno dei modi in cui manifestava questo attributo, se non di volgarità almeno di vanità, era la sua abitudine, da quel tempo in poi, di far correre fianco a fianco nello stesso libro circa cinque storie diverse in circa cinque stili diversi. Piaceva all’attore che era in lui mostrare la propria versatilità e la propria disinvoltura nel passare dall’una all’altra. Non si rendeva conto abbastanza chiaramente che in alcune parti era un attore di prim’ordine, in altre di second’ordine e in altre di quint’ordine. Non si rammentava che, per quanto affrontasse ogni argomento con uguale facilità, non lo affrontava con uguale efficacia. Ma, quali che fossero gli svantaggi dell’ambizione universale, essa risale senz’altro al periodo del suo libro successivo. Pickwick ha una tinta prevalente di allegria e Oliver Twist di gravità, per non dire di cupezza; ma con Nicholas Nickleby (1839) abbiamo il nuovo metodo, che è come un disegno di strisce chiare e scure. Il melodramma è, se possibile, ancor più melodrammatico che in Oliver Twist; ma quel poco che ve n’è è ugualmente nero e accigliato. Ma la commedia o farsa ha già rivelato la rapida maturazione del suo vero genio letterario. Non c’è compagnia migliore in tutta la letteratura della compagnia girovaga del signor Vincent Crummles; benché sia da sperare che, in ogni suo convito, Miss Snevellicci si ricordi di invitare il suo incomparabile papà. Anche il signor Mantalini è uno dei grandi doni di Dickens alla durevole felicità dell’umanità. Per il resto, è assai difficile prendere sul serio la parte seria della storia. C’è ben poca differenza fra la retorica ampollosa e gli effettacci delle recite dei Crummles, di cui Dickens si fa beffe, e la retorica ampollosa e gli effettacci di Ralph Nickleby e di Mulberry Hawke che Dickens ci narra con gravità. Tutto ciò, comunque, ebbe scarsa importanza tanto immediata quanto duratura. Dickens non stava dimostrando di saper scrivere narrazioni scorrevoli e verosimili, cosa che molti sapevano fare. Stava dimostrando di saper creare Mantalini e Snevellicci, cosa che nessuno sapeva fare.
Nevertheless, this pretence of providing for all tastes, which produced the serio-comic novel, is also the explanation of the next stage of his career. There runs or recurs throughout his whole life a certain ambition to preside over a more or less complex or many-sided publication; a large framework for many pictures; a system of tales within tales like the Arabian Nights or the tales of the Tabard. It is the ambition that he afterwards gratified by becoming the editor of two magazines, Household Words and All the Year Round. But there is here something of a shadow of the original meaning of the word magazine, in the sense of a shop; and another hint of that excessive desire to keep a shop that sells everything. He had been for a time editor of something of the sort in Bentley’s Miscellany, but the final form taken by this mild and genial megalomania (if we may so describe it) was the plan which Dickens formed immediately after the success of Nicholas Nickleby. The serial scheme was to be called, “Master Humphrey’s Clock,” and was to consist of different stories told by a group of friends. With the idea of making them the more friendly he turned some of them into old friends; reintroducing Mr. Pickwick and the two Wellers, though these characters were hardly at their best, the author’s mind being already on other things. One of these things was a historical novel, perhaps conceived more in the romantic manner of Scott than the prosaic manner of Smollett, which Dickens generally followed. It was called Barnaby Rudge (1840) and the most interesting part of it perhaps is the business of the Gordon Riots; and the mob that has a madman for its mascot and penny-dreadful prentice for its comic relief. But there is also a plot as complicated as, though rather clearer than, that of Oliver Twist; a plot that intensely interested the detective mind of Poe. Barnaby Rudge, however, is not so directly Dickensian as the romance that preceded or the romance that followed it. The second story, somewhat insecurely wedged into the framework of Master Humphrey’s Clock, was The Old Curiosity Shop (1841), as the opening and some of the references in the story still vaguely attest. The public reception of this story very sharply illustrates what has been said about the double character of his success. On the one side was his true success as a craftsman carving figures of a certain type, generally gargoyles and grotesques. On the other side was his inferior success as a jack-of-all-trades tending only too much to be a cheapjack. As a matter of fact, The Old Curiosity Shop contains some of the most attractive and imaginative humour in all his humorous work; there is nothing better anywhere than Mr. Swiveller’s imitation of the brigand or Mr. Brass’s funeral oration over the dwarf. But in general gossip and association, everything else in the story is swallowed up in the lachrymose subject of Little Nell. There can be no doubt that this unfortunate female had a most unfortunate effect on Dickens’s whole conception of his literary function. He was flattered because silly people wrote him letters imploring him not to let Little Nell die; and forgot how many sensible people there were, only hoping that the Marchioness would live for ever. Little Nell was better dead, but she was an unconscionable long time dying; and we cannot altogether acquit Dickens of keeping her lingering in agony as an exhibition of his power. It tended to fix him in that unfortunate attitude, of something between a showman and a magician, which explains almost all the real mistakes of his life.
About this time a very determining event interrupted his purely literary development, his first visit to America. It was destined to have, apart from any other results, a direct effect upon his next book, which was Martin Chuzzlewit (1844). There were, of course, many purely practical and personal elements in the criticism which he directed against the western democracy. An unjust copyright law, or one which he at any rate thought very unjust, had enabled Americans to pirate his most popular works; and it would seem that the people he met were, in their breezy way, but little inclined to apologize for the anomaly. But it would be very unjust to Dickens to deny that his sense and sensibility were alike irritated by some real divisions in the international relation. There were things in the American culture, or lack of culture, which he could not be expected to understand but which he might reasonably be expected to dislike. His English law-abiding liberalism would in any case have been startled by a certain streak of ferocity and persecution that there really is in the Americans; just as he might have recoiled from the same fierceness in the Irish or the Italians. But in the Americans it was also connected with something crude and incomplete in the society, and was not softened by tradition or romance. He was also both annoyed and amused at the American habit of uttering solemn idealistic soliloquies and of using rhetoric very rhetorically. But all these impressions are important chiefly as they changed the course of his next important narrative; and illustrated a certain condition or defect of his whole narrative method.
All these early books of Dickens, from Pickwick onward, appeared, it must always be remembered, serially and in separate parts. They were anticipated eagerly like bulletins; and they were often written up to time almost as hastily as newspaper reports. One effect of this method was that it encouraged the novelist in a sort of opportunism and something of a hand to mouth habit of work. And a character that always belonged, in varying degrees, to his novels is first and most sharply illustrated in Martin Chuzzlewit. The earlier numbers, though they contained the two superb caricatures called Pecksniff and Mrs. Gamp, had not for some reason been so popular as the caricatures called Pickwick and Miss Squeers. Dickens was already beginning to show something of that feverish fatigue which was the natural reaction of his fervid industry. He feared that the public was bored with the book; he became perhaps subconsciously a little bored with it himself. He conceived the bold idea of breaking the story in the middle and putting in a purple patch woven from his wild memories of the Yankees. It was completely successful, in the comedy sense; but it is worth noting that Dickens did something curiously Dickensian in thus suddenly sending Martin Chuzzlewit across the sea to America. It is not easy to imagine Thackeray suddenly hurling Pendennis from Mayfair into the middle of Australia; or George Eliot dislodging Felix Holt and flinging him as far as the North Pole. The difference was partly the result of the Dickensian temper and partly of the method of publication. But it will be well to remember it: for there is more than one example of what looks like a positive change of plan in the Dickens stories, made more possible by this early habit of not producing the work of art as a whole. Some have suggested that the degeneration of Boffin was originally meant to be real, and his rather clumsy plot an afterthought: and the same idea has figured in the reconstructions of Edwin Drood.
Nondimeno, questa pretesa di provvedere a tutti i gusti, che generò il romanzo serio-comico, è anche la spiegazione della fase successiva della sua carriera. Attraversa e ritorna per tutta la sua vita una certa ambizione di presiedere a una pubblicazione più o meno complessa e dalle molte facce; una grande cornice per molti quadri; un sistema di racconti dentro i racconti, come le Mille e una notte o le novelle del Tabard. È l’ambizione che egli appagò poi divenendo direttore di due riviste, Household Words e All the Year Round. Ma c’è qui qualcosa come un’ombra del significato originario della parola magazine, nel senso di bottega; e un altro accenno a quell’eccessivo desiderio di tenere una bottega che venda ogni cosa. Era stato per un certo tempo direttore di qualcosa del genere nel Bentley’s Miscellany, ma la forma finale assunta da questa mite e gioviale megalomania (se così possiamo descriverla) fu il piano che Dickens concepì immediatamente dopo il successo di Nicholas Nickleby. Il progetto a puntate doveva chiamarsi “Master Humphrey’s Clock”, e doveva consistere di diverse storie narrate da un gruppo di amici. Con l’idea di renderli più amichevoli, ne trasformò alcuni in vecchi amici, reintroducendo il signor Pickwick e i due Weller, benché questi personaggi non fossero certo al loro meglio, poiché la mente dell’autore era già altrove. Una di quelle cose era un romanzo storico, concepito forse più nella maniera romantica di Scott che in quella prosaica di Smollett, che Dickens generalmente seguiva. Si chiamava Barnaby Rudge (1840) e la parte forse più interessante è la vicenda dei tumulti di Gordon; e la folla che ha un pazzo per mascotte e un apprendista da romanzo d’appendice come sollievo comico. Ma vi è pure un intreccio complicato quanto quello di Oliver Twist, sebbene un po’ più chiaro; un intreccio che interessò intensamente la mente da investigatore di Poe. Barnaby Rudge, tuttavia, non è così direttamente dickensiano come il romanzo che lo precedette o il romanzo che lo seguì. La seconda storia, incastonata in modo alquanto malfermo nella cornice del Master Humphrey’s Clock, fu The Old Curiosity Shop (1841), come ancora vagamente attestano l’apertura e alcuni riferimenti del racconto. L’accoglienza del pubblico a questa storia illustra assai nettamente ciò che si è detto sul duplice carattere del suo successo. Da un lato stava il suo autentico successo di artigiano che scolpisce figure di un certo tipo, per lo più gargolle e grotteschi. Dall’altro stava il suo inferiore successo di tuttofare che tendeva fin troppo a farsi imbonitore da mercato. Di fatto, The Old Curiosity Shop contiene alcuni tra i più attraenti e fantasiosi umorismi di tutta la sua opera comica; non c’è nulla di meglio, in alcun luogo, dell’imitazione del brigante fatta dal signor Swiveller o dell’orazione funebre del signor Brass sul nano. Ma nella chiacchiera e nella memoria comuni tutto il resto della storia è inghiottito dal lacrimoso soggetto della piccola Nell. Non può esserci dubbio che questa sventurata fanciulla ebbe un effetto assai sventurato su tutta la concezione dickensiana della propria funzione letteraria. Era lusingato perché gente sciocca gli scriveva lettere implorandolo di non lasciar morire la piccola Nell; e dimenticava quante persone assennate vi fossero, che speravano solo che la Marchesina vivesse per sempre. Era meglio che la piccola Nell morisse, ma ci mise uno smisurato tempo a morire; e non possiamo del tutto assolvere Dickens dall’averla tenuta a languire nell’agonia come un’esibizione del suo potere. Ciò tese a fissarlo in quell’infelice atteggiamento, a metà tra l’impresario di spettacoli e il mago, che spiega quasi tutti i veri errori della sua vita.
Verso questo periodo un evento assai determinante interruppe il suo sviluppo puramente letterario: la sua prima visita in America. Era destinato ad avere, a prescindere da ogni altro risultato, un effetto diretto sul suo libro successivo, che fu Martin Chuzzlewit (1844). Vi erano, naturalmente, molti elementi puramente pratici e personali nella critica ch’egli rivolse alla democrazia occidentale. Una legge iniqua sul diritto d’autore, o una ch’egli in ogni caso riteneva assai iniqua, aveva permesso agli americani di piratare le sue opere più popolari; e pare che le persone da lui incontrate fossero, nel loro modo spavaldo, poco inclini a scusarsi dell’anomalia. Ma sarebbe assai ingiusto verso Dickens negare che il suo senno e la sua sensibilità fossero del pari irritati da alcune reali divisioni nel rapporto internazionale. C’erano cose nella cultura americana, o nella sua mancanza di cultura, che non ci si poteva aspettare ch’egli comprendesse ma che ragionevolmente ci si poteva aspettare gli spiacessero. Il suo liberalismo inglese, rispettoso della legge, sarebbe stato in ogni caso sconcertato da una certa vena di ferocia e persecuzione che davvero esiste negli americani; proprio come avrebbe potuto arretrare dinanzi alla stessa asprezza negli irlandesi o negli italiani. Ma negli americani essa era anche legata a qualcosa di rozzo e incompiuto nella società, e non era addolcita dalla tradizione o dal romanzesco. Era altresì insieme infastidito e divertito dall’abitudine americana di pronunciare solenni soliloqui idealistici e di usare la retorica assai retoricamente. Ma tutte queste impressioni contano soprattutto in quanto mutarono il corso della sua narrazione importante successiva; e illustrarono una certa condizione o difetto di tutto il suo metodo narrativo.
Tutti questi primi libri di Dickens, da Pickwick in poi, apparvero, bisogna sempre ricordarlo, a puntate e in dispense separate. Erano attesi con avidità come bollettini; ed erano spesso scritti fino all’ultimo momento quasi con la stessa fretta dei resoconti giornalistici. Un effetto di questo metodo fu che incoraggiava il romanziere in una sorta di opportunismo e in una certa abitudine di lavorare alla giornata. E un tratto che appartenne sempre, in varia misura, ai suoi romanzi è illustrato per la prima volta e nel modo più netto in Martin Chuzzlewit. Le prime dispense, benché contenessero le due superbe caricature chiamate Pecksniff e la signora Gamp, non erano state per qualche ragione così popolari come le caricature chiamate Pickwick e la signorina Squeers. Dickens cominciava già a mostrare qualcosa di quella febbrile stanchezza che era la naturale reazione della sua fervida operosità. Temeva che il pubblico si fosse annoiato del libro; e ne divenne, forse inconsciamente, un poco annoiato egli stesso. Concepì l’audace idea di spezzare la storia nel mezzo e di inserirvi un brano di bravura intessuto dei suoi sfrenati ricordi degli yankee. Fu un pieno successo, in senso di commedia; ma vale la pena notare che Dickens fece qualcosa di curiosamente dickensiano nello spedire così all’improvviso Martin Chuzzlewit oltre il mare in America. Non è facile immaginare Thackeray scagliare d’un tratto Pendennis da Mayfair nel bel mezzo dell’Australia; o George Eliot sradicare Felix Holt e lanciarlo fino al Polo Nord. La differenza era in parte frutto del temperamento dickensiano e in parte del metodo di pubblicazione. Ma sarà bene ricordarlo: poiché vi è più d’un esempio di quel che pare un vero e proprio cambiamento di piano nelle storie di Dickens, reso più possibile da questa precoce abitudine a non produrre l’opera d’arte nella sua interezza. Alcuni hanno suggerito che la degenerazione di Boffin fosse in origine intesa come reale, e il suo intreccio piuttosto goffo un ripensamento; e la stessa idea è comparsa nelle ricostruzioni di Edwin Drood.
At this point there is a break in the life of Dickens, in more ways than one. It is represented by his decision to live abroad for a time, chiefly on grounds of economy; the last lingering results of the relative failure of Martin Chuzzlewit. He took a villa in the neighbourhood of Genoa in 1844; and he and his family, already a fairly large one, settled down there with a certain air of finality that deserved for a time the name of exile. But it is curious to note that the literary work done there has something of the character of an interlude, and indeed of a rather incongruous interlude. For it was in that Italian landscape that he concentrated on a study so very domestic, insular and even cockney as The Chimes (1845); and industriously continued the series of short Christmas stories which had recently begun in the very London fog of A Christmas Carol (1843). Whatever be the merits or demerits of the Christmas Carol, it really is a carol; in the sense of being short and direct and having the same chorus throughout. The same is true in another way of The Chimes; and of most things that occupied him in his Italian home. He had not settled down to another long and important book; and it soon became apparent that he had not settled down at all. He returned to London, the landscape which for him was really the most romantic and even historic; and did something so ominously typical of the place and time as almost to seem like tempting Providence. He became the first editor of the Daily News, a paper started to maintain those Liberal, if not Radical opinions of which he always shared the confident outlook and the humane simplicity. He did not long remain attached to the editorial chair or even to the metropolis, for this was the most restless period in all his restless life. He immediately went back to Lausanne and immediately wanted to go back to London. It seems probable that this break in his social life corresponded to a break in his artistic life: which was in a sense just about to begin all over again and begin at the other end. He did indeed write one more full-size novel of the earlier type, Dombey and Son (1846-48); but it has very much the character of the winding up of an old business, like the winding up of the Dombey firm at the end of it. It is comic as the earlier books were comic, and no praise can be higher; it is conventional as the earlier plots were conventional, and never really pretended to be anything else; it contains a dying child upon the pattern of Little Nell; it contains a very amusing major much improved from the pattern of Mr. Dowler. But underneath all this easy repetition of the old dexterity and the old clumsiness the mind of the conjurer is already elsewhere. Dombey and Son was more successful in a business sense than Martin Chuzzlewit; though really less successful in many others. Dickens settled again in England in a more prosperous style; sent his son to Eton and, what was more sensational, took a rest. It was after a long holiday at Broadstairs, in easier circumstances more favourable to imaginative growth and a general change of view, that there appeared in 1849 an entirely new novel in an entirely new style.
There is all the difference between the life and adventures of David Copperfield and the life and adventures of Nicholas Nickleby, that there is between the life of Charles Dickens and the life of Amadis of Gaul. The latter is a good or bad romance; the former is a romantic biography, only the more realistic for being romantic. For romance is a very real part of life and perhaps the most real part of youth. Dickens had turned the telescope round or was looking through the other end of it; looking perhaps into a mirror, looking in any case out of a new window. It was life as he saw it, which was somewhat fantastically; but it was his own life as he knew it, and even as he had lived it. In other words, it is fanciful but it is not fictitious; because not merely invented in the manner of fiction. In Pickwick or Nickleby he had in a sense breathed fresh imaginative life into stock characters, but they were still stage characters; in the new style he may be extravagant, but he is not stagey. That vague glow of exaggeration and glamour which lies over all the opening chapters of David Copperfield, which dilates some figures and distorts others, is the genuine sentimentalism and suppressed passion of youth; it is no longer a convention or tradition of caricature. There are men like Steerforth and girls like Dora; they are not as boys see them; but boys do see them so. This passionate autobiography, though it stiffens into greater conventionality at the real period of passion, is really, in the dismally battered phrase, a human document. But something of the new spirit, more subtle and sympathetic but perhaps less purely creative, belongs to all the books written after this date. The next of the novels in point of time was Bleak House (1853), a satire chiefly directed against Chancery and the law’s delay, but containing some brilliant satire on other things, as on the philanthropic fool whose eyes are in the ends of the earth. But the description of the feverish idleness of Rick has the new note of one for whom a well-meaning young man is no longer merely a “first walking gentleman.” After a still more severe phase in Hard Times (1854) (historically important as the revolt of a Radical against the economic individualism which was originally identified with Radicalism) he continued the same tendency in Little Dorrit (1857), the tone of which is perhaps as sad as anything illustrated by Dickensian humours can be; broke off into an equally serious and more sensational experiment in historical romance in The Tale of Two Cities (1859), largely an effect of the influence of Carlyle; and finally reached what was perhaps the height of his new artistic method in a purely artistic sense. He never wrote anything better, considered as literature, than the first chapters of Great Expectations (1861). But there is, after all, something about Dickens that prevents the critic from being ever quite content with criticizing his work as literature. Something larger seems involved, which is not literature, but life; and yet the very opposite of a mere recorded way of living. And he who remembers Pickwick and Pecksniff, creatures like Puck or Pan, may sometimes wonder whether the work had not most life when it was least lifelike.
A questo punto vi è una rottura nella vita di Dickens, e per più d’un verso. È rappresentata dalla sua decisione di vivere all’estero per un certo tempo, soprattutto per ragioni di economia; ultimo strascico del relativo insuccesso di Martin Chuzzlewit. Prese una villa nei dintorni di Genova nel 1844; ed egli e la sua famiglia, già abbastanza numerosa, vi si stabilirono con una certa aria di definitività che meritò per un periodo il nome di esilio. Ma è curioso notare che l’opera letteraria ivi compiuta ha qualcosa del carattere di un interludio, e per giunta di un interludio piuttosto incongruo. Poiché fu in quel paesaggio italiano ch’egli si concentrò su uno studio tanto domestico, insulare e persino cockney come The Chimes (1845); e continuò diligentemente la serie di brevi racconti natalizi che era di recente cominciata nella nebbia londinese di A Christmas Carol (1843). Quali che siano i pregi o i difetti del Christmas Carol, esso è davvero un canto natalizio; nel senso di essere breve e diretto e di avere lo stesso ritornello per tutto il suo corso. Lo stesso vale, in altro modo, per The Chimes; e per la maggior parte di ciò che lo occupò nella sua dimora italiana. Non si era ancora dedicato a un altro libro lungo e importante; e presto apparve chiaro che non si era affatto stabilito. Tornò a Londra, il paesaggio che per lui era davvero il più romantico e persino storico; e fece qualcosa di tanto ominosamente tipico del luogo e del tempo da sembrare quasi tentare la Provvidenza. Divenne il primo direttore del Daily News, un giornale fondato per sostenere quelle opinioni liberali, se non radicali, di cui condivise sempre la fiduciosa visione e l’umana semplicità. Non rimase a lungo legato alla poltrona di direttore né alla metropoli, poiché fu questo il periodo più irrequieto di tutta la sua irrequieta vita. Tornò immediatamente a Losanna e immediatamente volle tornare a Londra. Sembra probabile che questa rottura nella sua vita sociale corrispondesse a una rottura nella sua vita artistica: la quale stava in un certo senso per ricominciare tutta daccapo e ricominciare dall’altro capo. Scrisse invero ancora un romanzo di dimensioni intere e del tipo precedente, Dombey and Son (1846-48); ma esso ha assai il carattere della liquidazione di un vecchio commercio, come la liquidazione della ditta Dombey alla sua fine. È comico come lo erano i libri precedenti, e non vi può essere lode più alta; è convenzionale come lo erano i primi intrecci, e non pretese mai davvero di essere altro; contiene un bambino morente sul modello della piccola Nell; contiene un maggiore assai divertente, molto migliorato sul modello del signor Dowler. Ma sotto tutta questa facile ripetizione della vecchia destrezza e della vecchia goffaggine la mente del prestigiatore è già altrove. Dombey and Son ebbe più successo in senso commerciale di Martin Chuzzlewit; benché davvero meno riuscito sotto molti altri aspetti. Dickens si stabilì di nuovo in Inghilterra con più agiato stile; mandò il figlio a Eton e, cosa più clamorosa, si prese un riposo. Fu dopo una lunga vacanza a Broadstairs, in circostanze più facili e più propizie alla crescita immaginativa e a un mutamento generale di prospettiva, che apparve nel 1849 un romanzo interamente nuovo in uno stile interamente nuovo.
Vi è tutta la differenza, tra la vita e le avventure di David Copperfield e la vita e le avventure di Nicholas Nickleby, che corre tra la vita di Charles Dickens e la vita di Amadigi di Gaula. Quest’ultima è un buon o cattivo romanzo cavalleresco; la prima è una biografia romanzesca, tanto più realistica in quanto romanzesca. Poiché il romanzesco è una parte assai reale della vita e forse la parte più reale della giovinezza. Dickens aveva rovesciato il cannocchiale, ovvero guardava attraverso l’altro capo di esso; guardando forse in uno specchio, guardando in ogni caso fuori da una nuova finestra. Era la vita come egli la vedeva, ovvero in modo alquanto fantastico; ma era la sua propria vita come egli la conosceva, e persino come l’aveva vissuta. In altre parole, è fantasiosa ma non è fittizia; perché non meramente inventata alla maniera della finzione. In Pickwick o in Nickleby egli aveva in un certo senso infuso fresca vita immaginativa in personaggi di maniera, ma erano ancora personaggi da palcoscenico; nel nuovo stile può essere stravagante, ma non è teatrale. Quel vago bagliore di esagerazione e incanto che avvolge tutti i capitoli iniziali di David Copperfield, che dilata alcune figure e ne distorce altre, è l’autentico sentimentalismo e la passione repressa della giovinezza; non è più una convenzione o una tradizione della caricatura. Vi sono uomini come Steerforth e ragazze come Dora; non sono come i giovani li vedono; ma i giovani li vedono così. Questa appassionata autobiografia, benché s’irrigidisca in maggiore convenzionalità nel vero periodo della passione, è davvero, nella frase malinconicamente logora, un documento umano. Ma qualcosa del nuovo spirito, più sottile e partecipe ma forse meno puramente creativo, appartiene a tutti i libri scritti dopo questa data. Il successivo dei romanzi in ordine di tempo fu Bleak House (1853), una satira diretta principalmente contro la Cancelleria e le lungaggini della legge, ma contenente qualche brillante satira su altre cose, come sul filantropico sciocco i cui occhi sono ai confini della terra. Ma la descrizione della febbrile inerzia di Rick ha la nuova nota di chi per un giovane di buone intenzioni non è più semplicemente un “primo gentiluomo da palcoscenico”. Dopo una fase ancora più severa in Hard Times (1854) (storicamente importante come la rivolta di un radicale contro l’individualismo economico che era in origine identificato col radicalismo) egli proseguì la stessa tendenza in Little Dorrit (1857), il cui tono è forse triste quanto può esserlo qualsiasi cosa illustrata dagli umori dickensiani; ruppe verso un esperimento del pari serio e più sensazionale di romanzo storico in The Tale of Two Cities (1859), in gran parte effetto dell’influenza di Carlyle; e infine raggiunse quello che fu forse il culmine del suo nuovo metodo artistico in senso puramente artistico. Non scrisse mai nulla di meglio, considerato come letteratura, dei primi capitoli di Great Expectations (1861). Ma vi è, dopotutto, qualcosa in Dickens che impedisce al critico di appagarsi mai del tutto nel criticare la sua opera come letteratura. Sembra coinvolto qualcosa di più grande, che non è letteratura, ma vita; e tuttavia l’esatto opposto di un mero modo di vivere registrato. E chi ricorda Pickwick e Pecksniff, creature come Puck o Pan, può talvolta domandarsi se l’opera non avesse più vita quando era meno verosimile.
The stretch of stories following on David Copperfield, from 1850 onwards, fall into the framework of another of Dickens’s editorial schemes; and this time a much more successful one. He began to edit Household Words, in which some, though not all of his later tales appeared; and continued to do so until he exchanged it in 1859 for another and similar periodical called All the Year Round. Just as we find him about this time induced at last to settle down finally in a comparatively comfortable editorial chair, so we find him at last settled more comfortably in a domicile that could really be called a home, when, returning at last to his beloved Rochester district on the great road of Kent, he set up his house at Gads hill. It is sad to realize that this material domestic settlement had followed on a moral unsettlement; and the separation of Dickens and his wife, by agreement (of which the little that needs saying has already been said) had already taken place in 1856. But indeed, even apart from that tragedy, it is typical of Dickens that his repose could never be taken as final. His life was destined to end in a whirlwind of an entirely new type of activity; which none the less never interrupted that creative work which was the indwelling excitement of all his days. He wrote one more complete novel, Our Mutual Friend (1864-65), and it is more complete than most. Indeed it is one of the best though not one of the most Dickensian of the Dickens novels. He then turned his restless talent to something in the nature of a detective story, more in the manner of his friend Wilkie Collins; the sort of story which begins by asking a question; in this case a question about the secret and the sequel of the fate of the hero, Edwin Drood. The question will never be answered; for it was cut short by the only thing that could be more dramatic than the death of the hero; the death of the author. Charles Dickens was dead.
He died very suddenly, dropping from his chair at the dinner-table, in the year 1870 at the comparatively early age of fifty-eight. A death so abrupt, and essentially so premature, could not but raise doubts about the wisdom of his impetuous industry and debates almost as varied as those round the secret of Edwin Drood. But without exaggerating any one of the elements that contributed to it, we may note that the very last phase of his life was a new phase; and was almost entirely filled with his new activity in giving public readings from his works. He had gone to America once more in the November of 1867, with this particular purpose; and his campaign of public speaking in this style was truly American in its scope and scale. If he had indeed been unjust to America as a writer, it is curious that he should have reached his final popularity and perhaps his final collapse, in a character so supremely American. Differences exist about how far he exaggerated the function or how far his biographer exaggerated the danger; but his own letters, ragged with insomnia and impatience, full of desperate fatigue and more desperate courage, are alone enough to show that he was playing a very dangerous game for a man approaching sixty. But it is certainly true, as is alleged on the other side, that this was nothing new in the general conduct of Dickens; that he had long ago begun burning the candle at both ends; and there have been few men, in the matter of natural endowments, with so great and glorious a candle to burn.
He was buried in the Poet’s Corner of Westminster Abbey; and new and vulgar as many critics had called his work, he was far more of a poet than many who were buried there as poets. He left a will commending his soul to God, and to the mercy of Jesus Christ, and leaving his works to the judgment of posterity; and in both respects the action was symbolic and will remain significant in history. Intellectually limited as he was by the rather cheap and cheery negations of an age of commercial rationalism, he had never been a bitter secularist or anti-clerical; he was at heart traditional and was drawn much more towards Anglican than Puritan Christianity; and his greatest work may yet prove to be the perpetuation of the joyful mystery of Christmas. On the other side, he has suffered and may suffer again the changes in the mere fashions of criticism; but his work was creative, it added something to life; and it is hard to believe that something so added will ever be entirely taken away. The defects of his work are glaring; they hardly need to be detected; they need the less to be emphasized because, unfortunately, he always emphasized them himself. It may be a fault, it is certainly a fact, that he enjoyed writing his worst work as much as his best.
The charge of exaggeration is itself exaggerated. It is also, which is much more important, merely repeated mechanically, without any consideration of its true meaning. Dickens did exaggerate; but his exaggeration was purely Dickensian. In this sense his very vulgarity had the quality of distinction. Mere overstatement, to say that a tall man is ten feet high, to say that a frosty morning froze Niagara; this is something relatively easy to do, though sometimes very cleverly done, especially by Americans. But the distinction of Dickens can be stated even in the common charge against him. He is said to have turned men into monsters of humour or horror, whereas the men were really commonplace and conventional persons in shops and offices. If any critic depreciates the Dickensian method as mere overstatement, the answer is obvious: let him take some of these commonplace people and overstate them. He will soon discover that he has not the vaguest notion of what to overstate. He will soon realise that it is not a simple matter of mere exaggeration, in the sense of mere extension. It is not a matter of making a man a little taller or a morning a little colder; the challenge to imagination is not whether he can exaggerate, but whether he can find anything worth exaggerating. Now the genius of Dickens consisted in seeing in somebody, whom others might call merely prosaic, the germ of a sort of prose poem. There was in this or that man’s attitude, or affectation, or habit of thought, something which only needed a touch of exaggeration to be a charming fantasy or a dramatic contradiction. The books of Dickens are in fact full of bores; of bores who do not bore us, merely because they did not bore him. We have all of us heard a hundred times the tiresome trick of public speakers, of asking themselves rhetorical questions which they do not want answered. Any of us might have heard a fat Dissenting minister doing it at a tea-party and thankfully forgotten all about him. But Dickens seized on the fallacy and turned it into a fantasy; into Mr. Chadband’s demands to know why he could not fly, or his wild and beautiful apologue about the elephant and the eel. We talk of the power of drawing people out; and that is the nearest parallel to the power of Dickens. He drew reels and reels of highly coloured caricature out of an ordinary person, as dazzlingly as a conjurer draws reels and reels of highly coloured paper out of an ordinary hat. But if anybody thinks the conjuring-trick is easy to perform, let him try it with the next ordinary person he sees. The exaggeration is always the logical extension of something that really exists; but genius appears, first in seeing that it exists, and second in seeing that it will bear to be thus exaggerated. That is something totally different from giving a man a long nose; it is the delicate surgical separation or extension of a living nerve. It is carrying a ludicrous train of thought further than the actual thinker carries it; but it requires a little thinking. It is making fools more gloriously foolish than they can be in this vale of tears; and it is not every fool who can do it.
La serie di storie che segue David Copperfield, dal 1850 in poi, rientra nella cornice di un altro dei progetti editoriali di Dickens; e questa volta uno assai più riuscito. Cominciò a dirigere Household Words, in cui apparvero alcuni, benché non tutti, dei suoi racconti più tardi; e continuò a farlo finché nel 1859 non lo scambiò con un altro e simile periodico chiamato All the Year Round. Proprio come lo troviamo verso questo periodo indotto finalmente a stabilirsi in una poltrona editoriale comparativamente comoda, così lo troviamo alfine stabilito più comodamente in una dimora che poteva davvero chiamarsi una casa, quando, tornando alfine al suo amato distretto di Rochester, sulla grande strada del Kent, mise su la propria casa a Gads Hill. È triste rendersi conto che questa sistemazione domestica materiale era seguita a una destabilizzazione morale; e la separazione tra Dickens e la moglie, per accordo (di cui il poco che va detto è già stato detto), aveva già avuto luogo nel 1856. Ma davvero, anche a prescindere da quella tragedia, è tipico di Dickens che il suo riposo non potesse mai essere preso come definitivo. La sua vita era destinata a finire in un turbine di un tipo del tutto nuovo di attività; il quale nondimeno non interruppe mai quell’opera creativa che fu l’eccitazione intima di tutti i suoi giorni. Scrisse ancora un romanzo completo, Our Mutual Friend (1864-65), ed esso è più completo della maggior parte. Anzi è uno dei migliori, benché non uno dei più dickensiani tra i romanzi di Dickens. Volse poi il suo irrequieto talento a qualcosa nella natura di una storia poliziesca, più nella maniera del suo amico Wilkie Collins; quel genere di storia che comincia ponendo una domanda; in questo caso una domanda sul segreto e sull’epilogo del destino dell’eroe, Edwin Drood. La domanda non avrà mai risposta; poiché fu troncata dall’unica cosa che poteva essere più drammatica della morte dell’eroe: la morte dell’autore. Charles Dickens era morto.
Morì assai improvvisamente, accasciandosi dalla sedia a tavola, nell’anno 1870, alla comparativamente precoce età di cinquantotto anni. Una morte così repentina, ed essenzialmente così prematura, non poteva non sollevare dubbi sulla saggezza della sua impetuosa operosità e dibattiti quasi tanto vari quanto quelli intorno al segreto di Edwin Drood. Ma senza esagerare alcuno degli elementi che vi contribuirono, possiamo notare che l’ultimissima fase della sua vita fu una fase nuova; e fu quasi interamente colmata dalla sua nuova attività di dare letture pubbliche dalle proprie opere. Era andato in America ancora una volta nel novembre del 1867, con questo particolare scopo; e la sua campagna di oratoria pubblica in questo stile fu davvero americana per ampiezza e scala. Se davvero era stato ingiusto verso l’America come scrittore, è curioso ch’egli dovesse raggiungere la sua popolarità finale e forse il suo crollo finale in un ruolo così supremamente americano. Vi sono divergenze su quanto egli esagerasse la funzione o quanto il suo biografo esagerasse il pericolo; ma le sue stesse lettere, logore d’insonnia e d’impazienza, piene di disperata stanchezza e di più disperato coraggio, bastano da sole a mostrare che stava giocando una partita assai pericolosa per un uomo che si avvicinava ai sessant’anni. Ma è certamente vero, come si adduce dall’altra parte, che ciò non era nulla di nuovo nella condotta generale di Dickens; che egli aveva da tempo cominciato a bruciare la candela da entrambi i capi; e vi sono stati pochi uomini, in fatto di doti naturali, con una candela tanto grande e gloriosa da bruciare.
Fu sepolto nel Poet’s Corner dell’Abbazia di Westminster; e per quanto nuova e volgare molti critici avessero definito la sua opera, egli era assai più poeta di molti che vi furono sepolti come poeti. Lasciò un testamento che affidava la sua anima a Dio e alla misericordia di Gesù Cristo, e affidava le sue opere al giudizio dei posteri; e in entrambi i sensi l’atto fu simbolico e resterà significativo nella storia. Per quanto intellettualmente limitato dalle negazioni piuttosto dozzinali e gioviali di un’epoca di razionalismo mercantile, non era mai stato un aspro laicista o anticlericale; era in cuor suo tradizionale ed era attratto assai più verso il cristianesimo anglicano che verso quello puritano; e la sua opera più grande potrebbe ancora rivelarsi la perpetuazione del gioioso mistero del Natale. Dall’altra parte, egli ha sofferto e potrà ancora soffrire i mutamenti nelle mere mode della critica; ma la sua opera fu creativa, aggiunse qualcosa alla vita; ed è difficile credere che qualcosa così aggiunto sarà mai interamente tolto via. I difetti della sua opera sono lampanti; non hanno quasi bisogno di essere scoperti; hanno tanto meno bisogno di essere sottolineati in quanto, purtroppo, egli stesso li sottolineava sempre. Può essere una colpa, è certamente un fatto, che egli si divertisse a scrivere la sua opera peggiore quanto la migliore.
L’accusa di esagerazione è essa stessa esagerata. Ed è pure, cosa assai più importante, meramente ripetuta meccanicamente, senza alcuna considerazione del suo vero significato. Dickens esagerava, sì; ma la sua esagerazione era puramente dickensiana. In questo senso la sua stessa volgarità aveva la qualità della distinzione. La mera iperbole, dire che un uomo alto è alto tre metri, dire che un mattino gelido ha ghiacciato il Niagara: questo è qualcosa di relativamente facile a farsi, benché talvolta fatto con grande abilità, specialmente dagli americani. Ma la distinzione di Dickens si può enunciare persino nell’accusa comune che gli si muove. Si dice ch’egli abbia trasformato uomini in mostri di umorismo o di orrore, mentre gli uomini erano in realtà persone banali e convenzionali in botteghe e uffici. Se qualche critico svaluta il metodo dickensiano come mera iperbole, la risposta è ovvia: che prenda alcune di queste persone banali e le iperbolizzi. Scoprirà presto di non avere la più vaga idea di che cosa iperbolizzare. Si renderà presto conto che non è una semplice questione di mera esagerazione, nel senso di mero ingrandimento. Non è questione di rendere un uomo un po’ più alto o un mattino un po’ più freddo; la sfida all’immaginazione non è se egli sappia esagerare, ma se sappia trovare qualcosa che valga la pena esagerare. Ora, il genio di Dickens consisteva nel vedere in qualcuno, che altri potrebbero dire meramente prosaico, il germe di una sorta di poema in prosa. Vi era in questo o quell’atteggiamento, o affettazione, o abitudine di pensiero di un uomo qualcosa che aveva bisogno solo di un tocco di esagerazione per divenire una fantasia deliziosa o una contraddizione drammatica. I libri di Dickens sono infatti pieni di seccatori; di seccatori che non ci seccano, semplicemente perché non seccavano lui. Tutti noi abbiamo udito cento volte il tedioso trucco degli oratori pubblici, di porsi domande retoriche a cui non desiderano risposta. Ciascuno di noi potrebbe aver udito un grasso pastore dissenziente farlo a un tè, e averlo grazie a Dio del tutto dimenticato. Ma Dickens afferrò il sofisma e lo mutò in fantasia; nelle domande del signor Chadband su perché non potesse volare, o nel suo selvaggio e bell’apologo sull’elefante e l’anguilla. Parliamo del potere di far parlare la gente; e questo è il parallelo più prossimo al potere di Dickens. Egli estraeva rotoli su rotoli di caricatura dai colori vivaci da una persona comune, con l’abbagliante prodigio con cui un prestigiatore estrae rotoli su rotoli di carta dai colori vivaci da un cappello comune. Ma se qualcuno pensa che il gioco di prestigio sia facile da eseguire, che lo provi con la prossima persona comune che incontra. L’esagerazione è sempre l’estensione logica di qualcosa che davvero esiste; ma il genio appare, primo nel vedere che esiste, e secondo nel vedere che reggerà a essere così esagerato. È qualcosa di totalmente diverso dal dare a un uomo un lungo naso; è la delicata separazione chirurgica o l’estensione di un nervo vivo. È portare un ridicolo filo di pensiero più oltre di quanto lo porti il pensatore effettivo; ma richiede un poco di pensiero. È rendere gli sciocchi più gloriosamente sciocchi di quanto possano esserlo in questa valle di lacrime; e non ogni sciocco è capace di farlo.
There were other reasons for the injustice in the particular case of Dickens. Though his characters often were caricatures, they were not such wild caricatures as was supposed by those who had never met such characters. And the critics had never met the characters; because the critics did not live in the common life of the English people; and Dickens did. England was a much more amusing and horrible place than it appeared to the sort of man who wrote reviews in The Quarterly; and, in spite of all scientific progress or social reform, it is still. The poverty and anarchy of Dickens’s early life had stuffed his memory with strange things and people never to be discovered in Tennysonian country houses or even Thackerayan drawing-rooms. Poverty makes strange bedfellows, the same sort of bedfellows whom Mr. Pickwick fought for the recovery of his nightcap. In the vivid phrase, he did indeed live in Queer street and was acquainted with very queer fish. And it is something of an irony that his tragedy was the justification of his farce. He not only learnt in suffering what he taught in song, but what he rendered, so to speak, in a comic song.
It is also true, however, that he caught many of these queer fish because he liked fishing in such troubled waters. A good example of this combination of opportunity and eccentricity is to be found in his affection for travelling showmen and vagabond entertainments of all sorts, especially those that exhibited giants and dwarfs and such monstrosities. Some might see in this truth a sort of travesty of all his travesties. It would be easy to suggest a psychological theory, by which all his art tended to the antics of the abnormal; it would also be entirely false. It would be much truer to say that Dickens created so many wild and fantastic caricatures because he was himself commonplace. He never identifies himself with anything abnormal, in the more modern manner. In his travelling show, the Giant always falls far short of being a Superman. And though he was tempted only too easily to an obvious pathos, there was never anything particularly pathetic about his dwarfs. His fun is more robust; and even, in that sense, more callous. The truth is that Dickens’s attitude to the abnormal has been misunderstood owing to the modern misunderstanding of the idea of the normal. He was in many ways a wild satirist, but still a satirist; and satire is founded on sanity. He has his real Cockney limitations. But his moderation was not a limitation but a liberty; for it allowed him to hit out in all directions. It was precisely because he had an ordinary and sensible view of life that he could measure the full madness both of Gradgrind’s greed or Micawber’s improvidence. It was because he was what we call commonplace that Dombey appeared to him so stiff or Jellaby so slovenly. In a later generation a real person often assumed such an unreal pose and lost the power of merely laughing at it; as, for example, when Oscar Wilde said seriously all that Skimpole had said absurdly. The Victorian commonsense was not a complete commonsense; and Dickens did suffer from having a narrower culture than Swift or Rabelais. But he did not suffer from being sensible; it was even more from his sense than his sensibility, it was from a sort of inspired irritation and impatience of good sense, that he was able to give us so radiant a fairyland of fools.
His literary work produced of course much more than a literary effect. He was the last great poet, in the true sense of maker, who made something for the people and was in the highest sense popular. He still gives his name, not to a literary clique, but to a league or fellowship numbering thousands all over the world. In this connection it is often noted that he achieved many things even considered as a practical political and social reformer. He let light into dark corners, like the dens of dirt and brutality often called schools, especially in Yorkshire; he probably had much to do with making the professional nurse a duller but more reliable person than Mrs. Gamp; it is likely enough that his vivid descriptions, assisted by the whole trend of the time, hastened the extinction of ordinary imprisonment for debt and clarified much of the original chaos of Chancery. But precisely because this has often been said, it will be well not to say it too often. It has the effect of making his satire appear much more superficial and utilitarian than it really was; for the great satirist is concerned with things not so easily destroyed. We do more honour to Dickens in noting the evils he did not destroy than those he did. The eager worship of a man merely wealthy, however dull and trivial, which appears in the affair of Merdle, has by no means disappeared from our own more recent affairs. The pompous old Barnacle and the agreeable young Barnacle are still almost as much alive as in Dickens’s day. The sweeping away of a genuine gentry, in the person of Mr. Twemlow, on the tide of a new plutocracy, represented by Mr. Veneering, has gone much further than in Dickens’s day. But this makes Dickens’s satire the more rather than the less valuable to posterity. The other mood, which pictures all such abuses as things of the past, tends not to reform but only too much to repose; and to the perpetuation of a rather snobbish and paltry version of the Dickensian tradition. In that spirit we may hear to this day a Stiltstalkings telling the House of Commons that Stiltstalkings have perished before the march of progress; or in the law courts a Buzfuz quoting Buzfuz and jeering at himself as an extinct monster.
The future of the fame of Dickens is no part of the Dickens record and a very dubious part of the Dickens criticism. Some have suggested that his glory will fade as new fashions succeed those he satirized; others have said, at least equally reasonably, that the difference itself fades when all the fashions have grown old; and that Aristophanes and Cervantes have outlived their descendants as well as their contemporaries. But there can be no question of the importance of Dickens as a human event in history; a sort of conflagration and transfiguration in the very heart of what is called the conventional Victorian era; a naked flame of mere natural genius, breaking out in a man without culture, without tradition, without help from historic religions or philosophies or from the great foreign schools; and revealing a light that never was on sea or land, if only in the long fantastic shadows that it threw from common things.
(G. K. C.)
Bibliography. W.Bagehot, Charles Dickens, Preface to Cheap Edition of Works of Dickens (1857-58); J. Forster, Life of Charles Dickens, 3 vols. (1872-74), new ed., 2 vols. (1927); Mary Dickens, Letters of Charles Dickens (1898); G. K. Chesterton, Charles Dickens (1906), Appreciations and Criticisms of the Work of Charles Dickens (1911); S. J. A. Fitz-Gerald, Dickens and the Drama (1910); W. G. Wilkins, Charles Dickens in America (1911); E. P. Whipple, Charles Dickens, 2 vols. (1912); A. C. Swinburne, Charles Dickens (new ed., 1913); W. Dexter, The London of Dickens (1923); The Kent of Dickens (1924); The England of Dickens (1925); Dickens (1927); J. B. van Amerongen, The Actor in Dickens (1926); G. R. Gissing, Dickens, a critical study (1926); W. J. Carlton, Charles Dickens, Shorthand Writer (1926); P. Delattre, Dickens et la France (1927); see also G. E. B. Saintsbury, Dickens, Chap. X., Vol. XIII., Cambs. Hist. Mod. Lit.
Copyright (c) 1997 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Vi erano altre ragioni dell’ingiustizia nel caso particolare di Dickens. Benché i suoi personaggi fossero spesso caricature, non erano caricature tanto stravaganti quanto si supponeva da coloro che non avevano mai incontrato personaggi simili. E i critici non avevano mai incontrato quei personaggi; perché i critici non vivevano nella vita comune del popolo inglese; e Dickens sì. L’Inghilterra era un luogo assai più divertente e orribile di quanto apparisse al genere d’uomo che scriveva recensioni sulla Quarterly; e, malgrado ogni progresso scientifico o riforma sociale, lo è ancora. La povertà e l’anarchia della prima vita di Dickens gli avevano riempito la memoria di cose e persone strane, mai scoperte nelle case di campagna tennysoniane o persino nei salotti thackerayani. La povertà fa strani compagni di letto, la stessa sorta di compagni di letto per i quali il signor Pickwick lottò per riavere la sua berretta da notte. Nella vivida frase, egli visse davvero in Queer Street e conobbe pesci assai bizzarri. Ed è cosa alquanto ironica che la sua tragedia fosse la giustificazione della sua farsa. Non solo apprese nella sofferenza ciò che insegnò nel canto, ma ciò che rese, per così dire, in un canto comico.
È altresì vero, tuttavia, ch’egli pescò molti di questi pesci bizzarri perché gli piaceva pescare in acque tanto torbide. Un buon esempio di questa combinazione di occasione ed eccentricità si trova nel suo affetto per i saltimbanchi girovaghi e i divertimenti da vagabondo di ogni sorta, specialmente quelli che esibivano giganti e nani e simili mostruosità. Alcuni potrebbero vedere in questa verità una sorta di travestimento di tutti i suoi travestimenti. Sarebbe facile suggerire una teoria psicologica, secondo cui tutta la sua arte tendeva alle bizzarrie dell’anormale; e sarebbe pure interamente falsa. Sarebbe assai più vero dire che Dickens creò tante selvagge e fantastiche caricature perché egli stesso era banale. Non si identifica mai con alcunché di anormale, alla maniera più moderna. Nel suo spettacolo girovago, il Gigante rimane sempre assai al di sotto dell’essere un Superuomo. E benché fosse tentato fin troppo facilmente da un ovvio patetismo, non vi era mai nulla di particolarmente patetico nei suoi nani. Il suo divertimento è più robusto; e persino, in quel senso, più insensibile. La verità è che l’atteggiamento di Dickens verso l’anormale è stato frainteso a causa del moderno fraintendimento dell’idea di normale. Egli era per molti versi un satirico selvaggio, ma pur sempre un satirico; e la satira è fondata sulla sanità di mente. Ha i suoi reali limiti cockney. Ma la sua moderazione non era un limite bensì una libertà; poiché gli permetteva di menar colpi in ogni direzione. Fu proprio perché aveva una visione ordinaria e assennata della vita ch’egli poté misurare tutta la follia tanto dell’avidità di Gradgrind quanto della prodigalità di Micawber. Fu perché era ciò che chiamiamo banale che Dombey gli apparve così rigido o Jellaby così sciatta. In una generazione successiva una persona reale spesso assumeva una posa tanto irreale e perdeva il potere di limitarsi a riderne; come, per esempio, quando Oscar Wilde disse seriamente tutto ciò che Skimpole aveva detto assurdamente. Il buonsenso vittoriano non era un buonsenso completo; e Dickens soffrì effettivamente di avere una cultura più angusta di Swift o Rabelais. Ma non soffrì di essere assennato; fu anzi più dal suo senno che dalla sua sensibilità, fu da una sorta d’ispirata irritazione e impazienza del buonsenso, ch’egli poté darci un così radioso paese delle fate popolato di sciocchi.
La sua opera letteraria produsse naturalmente assai più di un effetto letterario. Egli fu l’ultimo grande poeta, nel vero senso di artefice, che creò qualcosa per il popolo e fu nel senso più alto popolare. Egli dà ancora il proprio nome, non a una consorteria letteraria, ma a una lega o confraternita che conta migliaia di membri in tutto il mondo. A questo proposito si nota spesso ch’egli conseguì molte cose persino considerato come pratico riformatore politico e sociale. Fece entrare la luce in angoli oscuri, come i covi di sporcizia e brutalità spesso chiamati scuole, specialmente nello Yorkshire; ebbe probabilmente molto a che fare col rendere l’infermiera professionale una persona più scialba ma più affidabile della signora Gamp; è assai verosimile che le sue vivide descrizioni, assecondate da tutta la tendenza del tempo, affrettassero l’estinzione dell’ordinaria prigionia per debiti e chiarissero molto del caos originario della Cancelleria. Ma proprio perché ciò è stato detto spesso, sarà bene non dirlo troppo spesso. Ha l’effetto di far apparire la sua satira assai più superficiale e utilitaristica di quanto in realtà fosse; poiché il grande satirico si occupa di cose non così facili da distruggere. Rendiamo maggiore onore a Dickens notando i mali ch’egli non distrusse piuttosto che quelli che distrusse. L’avida venerazione di un uomo meramente ricco, per quanto ottuso e triviale, che appare nella vicenda di Merdle, non è affatto scomparsa dalle nostre più recenti vicende. Il pomposo vecchio Barnacle e l’affabile giovane Barnacle sono ancora vivi quasi quanto ai giorni di Dickens. Lo spazzar via di una genuina piccola nobiltà, nella persona del signor Twemlow, sulla marea di una nuova plutocrazia, rappresentata dal signor Veneering, è andato assai più oltre che ai giorni di Dickens. Ma ciò rende la satira di Dickens tanto più, e non tanto meno, preziosa per i posteri. L’altro umore, che dipinge tutti questi abusi come cose del passato, tende non alla riforma ma fin troppo al riposo; e alla perpetuazione di una versione piuttosto snob e meschina della tradizione dickensiana. In quello spirito possiamo udire ancor oggi uno Stiltstalking dire alla Camera dei Comuni che gli Stiltstalking sono periti dinanzi alla marcia del progresso; oppure, nelle aule dei tribunali, un Buzfuz citare Buzfuz e schernirlo come un mostro estinto.
Il futuro della fama di Dickens non è affatto parte della cronaca dickensiana e una parte assai dubbia della critica dickensiana. Alcuni hanno suggerito che la sua gloria svanirà come nuove mode succederanno a quelle ch’egli satireggiò; altri hanno detto, con almeno pari ragionevolezza, che la differenza stessa svanisce quando tutte le mode sono invecchiate; e che Aristofane e Cervantes sono sopravvissuti ai loro discendenti tanto quanto ai loro contemporanei. Ma non può esservi dubbio sull’importanza di Dickens come evento umano nella storia; una sorta d’incendio e trasfigurazione nel cuore stesso di ciò che si chiama l’epoca convenzionale vittoriana; una nuda fiamma di puro genio naturale, che divampa in un uomo senza cultura, senza tradizione, senza aiuto dalle religioni o filosofie storiche o dalle grandi scuole straniere; e che rivela una luce che mai fu su mare o terra, non fosse che nelle lunghe e fantastiche ombre ch’essa proiettava dalle cose comuni.
(G. K. C.)
Bibliografia. W. Bagehot, Charles Dickens, Prefazione alla Cheap Edition of Works of Dickens (1857-58); J. Forster, Life of Charles Dickens, 3 voll. (1872-74), nuova ed., 2 voll. (1927); Mary Dickens, Letters of Charles Dickens (1898); G. K. Chesterton, Charles Dickens (1906), Appreciations and Criticisms of the Work of Charles Dickens (1911); S. J. A. Fitz-Gerald, Dickens and the Drama (1910); W. G. Wilkins, Charles Dickens in America (1911); E. P. Whipple, Charles Dickens, 2 voll. (1912); A. C. Swinburne, Charles Dickens (nuova ed., 1913); W. Dexter, The London of Dickens (1923); The Kent of Dickens (1924); The England of Dickens (1925); Dickens (1927); J. B. van Amerongen, The Actor in Dickens (1926); G. R. Gissing, Dickens, a critical study (1926); W. J. Carlton, Charles Dickens, Shorthand Writer (1926); P. Delattre, Dickens et la France (1927); si veda anche G. E. B. Saintsbury, Dickens, Cap. X, Vol. XIII, Cambs. Hist. Mod. Lit.
Copyright (c) 1997 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. All Rights Reserved