G. K. CHESTERTON
THE OUTLINE OF SANITY
New York DODD, MEAD & COMPANY 1927
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
CONTENTS
I SOME GENERAL IDEAS—
- THE BEGINNING OF THE QUARREL
- THE PERIL OF THE HOUR
- THE CHANCE OF RECOVERY
- ON A SENSE OF PROPORTION
II SOME ASPECTS OF BIG BUSINESS—
- THE BLUFF OF THE BIG SHOPS
- A MISUNDERSTANDING ABOUT METHOD
- A CASE IN POINT
- THE TYRANNY OF TRUSTS
III SOME ASPECTS OF THE LAND—
- THE SIMPLE TRUTH
- VOWS AND VOLUNTEERS
- THE REAL LIFE ON THE LAND
IV SOME ASPECTS OF MACHINERY—
V A NOTE ON EMIGRATION—
- THE NEED OF A NEW SPIRIT
- THE RELIGION OF SMALL PROPERTY
VI A SUMMARY
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
I SOME GENERAL IDEAS
- The Beginning of the Quarrel
- The Peril of the Hour
- The Chance of Recovery
- On a Sense of Proportion
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
I THE BEGINNING OF THE QUARREL
I have been asked to republish these notes—which appeared in a weekly paper—as a rough sketch of certain aspects of the institution of Private Property, now so completely forgotten amid the journalistic jubilations over Private Enterprise. The very fact that the publicists say so much of the latter and so little of the former is a measure of the moral tone of the times. A pickpocket is obviously a champion of private enterprise. But it would perhaps be an exaggeration to say that a pickpocket is a champion of private property. The point about Capitalism and Commercialism, as conducted of late, is that they have really preached the extension of business rather than the preservation of belongings; and have at best tried to disguise the pickpocket with some of the virtues of the pirate. The point about Communism is that it only reforms the pickpocket by forbidding pockets.
Pockets and possessions generally seem to me to have not only a more normal but a more dignified defence than the rather dirty individualism that talks about private enterprise. In the hope that it may possibly help others to understand it, I have decided to reproduce these studies as they stand, hasty and sometimes merely topical as they were. It is indeed very hard to reproduce them in this form, because they were editorial notes to a controversy largely conducted by others; but the general idea is at least present. In any case, “private enterprise” is no very noble way of stating the truth of one of the Ten Commandments. But there was at least a time when it was more or less true. The Manchester Radicals preached a rather crude and cruel sort of competition; but at least they practised what they preached. The newspapers now praising private enterprise are preaching the very opposite of anything that anybody dreams of practising. The practical tendency of all trade and business to-day is towards big commercial combinations, often more imperial, more impersonal, more international than many a communist commonwealth— things that are at least collective if not collectivist. It is all very well to repeat distractedly, “What are we coming to, with all this Bolshevism?” It is equally relevant to add, “What are we coming to, even without Bolshevism?” The obvious answer is—Monopoly. It is certainly not private enterprise. The American Trust is not private enterprise. It would be truer to call the Spanish Inquisition private judgment. Monopoly is neither private nor enterprising. It exists to prevent private enterprise. And that system of trust or monopoly, that complete destruction of property, would still be the present goal of all our progress, if there were not a Bolshevist in the world.
Now I am one of those who believe that the cure for centralization is decentralization. It has been described as a paradox. There is apparently something elvish and fantastic about saying that when capital has come to be too much in the hand of the few, the right thing is to restore it into the hands of the many. The Socialist would put it in the hands of even fewer people; but those people would be politicians, who (as we know) always administer it in the interests of the many. But before I put before the reader things written in the very thick of the current controversy, I foresee it will be necessary to preface them with these few paragraphs, explaining a few of the terms and amplifying a few of the assumptions. I was in the weekly paper arguing with people who knew the shorthand of this particular argument; but to be clearly understood, we must begin with a few definitions or, at least, descriptions. I assure the reader that I use words in quite a definite sense, but it is possible that he may use them in a different sense; and a muddle and misunderstanding of that sort does not even rise to the dignity of a difference of opinion.
For instance, Capitalism is really a very unpleasant word. It is also a very unpleasant thing. Yet the thing I have in mind, when I say so, is quite definite and definable; only the name is a very unworkable word for it. But obviously we must have some word for it. When I say “Capitalism,” I commonly mean something that may be stated thus: “That economic condition in which there is a class of capitalists, roughly recognizable and relatively small, in whose possession so much of the capital is concentrated as to necessitate a very large majority of the citizens serving those capitalists for a wage.” This particular state of things can and does exist, and we must have some word for it, and some way of discussing it. But this is undoubtedly a very bad word, because it is used by other people to mean quite other things. Some people seem to mean merely private property. Others suppose that capitalism must mean anything involving the use of capital. But if that use is too literal, it is also too loose and even too large. If the use of capital is capitalism, then everything is capitalism. Bolshevism is capitalism and anarchist communism is capitalism; and every revolutionary scheme, however wild, is still capitalism. Lenin and Trotsky believe as much as Lloyd George and Thomas that the economic operations of to-day must leave something over for the economic operations of to-morrow. And that is all that capital means in its economic sense. In that case, the word is useless. My use of it may be arbitrary, but it is not useless. If capitalism means private property, I am capitalist. If capitalism means capital, everybody is capitalist. But if capitalism means this particular condition of capital, only paid out to the mass in the form of wages, then it does mean something, even if it ought to mean something else.
The truth is that what we call Capitalism ought to be called Proletarianism. The point of it is not that some people have capital, but that most people only have wages because they do not have capital. I have made an heroic effort in my time to walk about the world always saying Proletarianism instead of Capitalism. But my path has been a thorny one of troubles and misunderstandings. I find that when I criticize the Duke of Northumberland for his Proletarianism, my meaning does not get home. When I say I should often agree with the Morning Post if it were not so deplorably Proletarian, there seems to be some strange momentary impediment to the complete communion of mind with mind. Yet that would be strictly accurate; for what I complain of, in the current defence of existing capitalism, is that it is a defence of keeping most men in wage dependence; that is, keeping most men without capital. I am not the sort of precision who prefers conveying correctly what he doesn’t mean, rather than conveying incorrectly what he does. I am totally indifferent to the term as compared to the meaning. I do not care whether I call one thing or the other by this mere printed word beginning with a “C,” so long as it is applied to one thing and not the other. I do not mind using a term as arbitrary as a mathematical sign, if it is accepted like a mathematical sign. I do not mind calling Property x and Capitalism y, so long as nobody thinks it necessary to say that x=y. I do not mind saying “cat” for capitalism and “dog” for distributism, so long as people understand that the things are different enough to fight like cat and dog. The proposal of the wider distribution of capital remains the same, whatever we call it, or whatever we call the present glaring contradiction of it. It is the same whether we state it by saying that there is too much capitalism in the one sense or too little capitalism in the other. And it is really quite pedantic to say that the use of capital must be capitalist. We might as fairly say that anything social must be Socialist; that Socialism can be identified with a social evening or a social glass. Which, I grieve to say, is not the case.
Nevertheless, there is enough verbal vagueness about Socialism to call for a word of definition. Socialism is a system which makes the corporate unity of society responsible for all its economic processes, or all those affecting life and essential living. If anything important is sold, the Government has sold it; if anything important is given, the Government has given it; if anything important is even tolerated, the Government is responsible for tolerating it. This is the very reverse of anarchy; it is an extreme enthusiasm for authority. It is in many ways worthy of the moral dignity of the mind; it is a collective acceptance of a very complete responsibility. But it is silly of Socialists to complain of our saying that it must be a destruction of liberty. It is almost equally silly of Anti-Socialists to complain of the unnatural and unbalanced brutality of the Bolshevist Government in crushing a political opposition. A Socialist Government is one which in its nature does not tolerate any true and real opposition. For there the Government provides everything; and it is absurd to ask a Government to provide an opposition.
You cannot go to the Sultan and say reproachfully, “You have made no arrangements for your brother dethroning you and seizing the Caliphate.” You cannot go to a medieval king and say, “Kindly lend me two thousand spears and one thousand bowmen, as I wish to raise a rebellion against you.” Still less can you reproach a Government which professes to set up everything, because it has not set up anything to pull down all it has set up. Opposition and rebellion depend on property and liberty. They can only be tolerated where other rights have been allowed to strike root, besides the central right of the ruler. Those rights must be protected by a morality which even the ruler will hesitate to defy. The critic of the State can only exist where a religious sense of right protects his claims to his own bow and spear; or at least, to his own pen or his own printing-press. It is absurd to suppose that he could borrow the royal pen to advocate regicide or use the Government printing-presses to expose the corruption of the Government. Yet it is the whole point of Socialism, the whole case for Socialism, that unless all printing-presses are Government printing-presses, printers may be oppressed. Everything is staked on the State’s justice; it is putting all the eggs in one basket. Many of them will be rotten eggs; but even then you will not be allowed to use them at political elections.
About fifteen years ago a few of us began to preach, in the old New Age and New Witness, a policy of small distributed property (which has since assumed the awkward but accurate name of Distributism), as we should have said then, against the two extremes of Capitalism and Communism. The first criticism we received was from the most brilliant Fabians, especially Mr. Bernard Shaw. And the form which that first criticism took was simply to tell us that our ideal was impossible. It was only a case of Catholic credulity about fairy-tales. The Law of Rent, and other economic laws, made it inevitable that the little rivulets of property should run down into the pool of plutocracy. In truth, it was the Fabian wit, and not merely the Tory fool, who confronted our vision with that venerable verbal opening, “If it were all divided up to-morrow—”
Nevertheless, we had an answer even in those days, and though we have since found many others, it will clarify the question if I repeat this point of principle. It is true that I believe in fairy-tales— in the sense that I marvel so much at what does exist that I am the readier to admit what might. I understand the man who believes in the Sea Serpent on the ground that there are more fish in the sea than ever came out of it. But I do it the more because the other man, in his ardour for disproving the Sea Serpent, always argues that there are not only no snakes in Iceland, but none in the world. Suppose Mr. Bernard Shaw, commenting on this credulity, were to blame me for believing (on the word of some lying priest) that stones could be thrown up into the air and hang there suspended like a rainbow. Suppose he told me tenderly that I should not believe this Popish fable of the magic stones, if I had ever had the Law of Gravity scientifically explained to me. And suppose, after all this, I found he was only talking about the impossibility of building an arch. I think most of us would form two main conclusions about him and his school. First, we should think them very ill-informed about what is really meant by recognizing a law of nature. A law of nature can be recognized by resisting it, or out-manoeuvring it, or even using it against itself, as in the case of the arch. And second, and much more strongly, we should think them astonishingly ill-informed about what has already been done upon this earth.
Similarly, the first fact in the discussion of whether small properties can exist is the fact that they do exist. It is a fact almost equally unmistakable that they not only exist but endure. Mr. Shaw affirmed, in a sort of abstract fury, that “small properties will not stay small.” Now it is interesting to note here that the opponents of anything like a several proprietary bring two highly inconsistent charges against it. They are perpetually telling us that the peasant life in Latin or other countries is monotonous, is unprogressive, is covered with weedy superstitions, and is a sort of survival of the Stone Age. Yet even while they taunt us with its survival, they argue that it can never survive. They point to the peasant as a perennial stick-in-the-mud; and then refuse to plant him anywhere, on the specific ground that he would not stick. Now, the first of the two types of denunciation is arguable enough; but in order to denounce peasantries, the critics must admit that there are peasantries to denounce. And if it were true that they always tended rapidly to disappear, it would not be true that they exhibited those primitive customs and conservative opinions which they not only do, in fact, exhibit, but which the critics reproach them with exhibiting. They cannot in common sense accuse a thing at once of being antiquated and of being ephemeral. It is, of course, the dry fact, to be seen in broad daylight, that small peasant properties are not ephemeral. But anyhow, Mr. Shaw and his school must not say that arches cannot be built, and then that they disfigure the landscape. The Distributive State is not a hypothesis for him to demolish; it is a phenomenon for him to explain.
The truth is that the conception that small property evolves into Capitalism is a precise picture of what practically never takes place. The truth is attested even by facts of geography, facts which, as it seems to me, have been strangely overlooked. Nine times out of ten, an industrial civilization of the modern capitalist type does not arise, wherever else it may arise, in places where there has hitherto been a distributive civilization like that of a peasantry. Capitalism is a monster that grows in deserts. Industrial servitude has almost everywhere arisen in those empty spaces where the older civilization was thin or absent. Thus it grew up easily in the North of England rather than the South; precisely because the North had been comparatively empty and barbarous through all the ages when the South had a civilization of guilds and peasantries. Thus it grew up easily in the American continent rather than the European; precisely because it had nothing to supplant in America but a few savages, while in Europe it had to supplant the culture of multitudinous farms. Everywhere it has been but one stride from the mudhut to the manufacturing town. Everywhere the mudhut which really turned into the free farm has never since moved an inch towards the manufacturing town. Wherever there was the mere lord and the mere serf, they could almost instantly be turned into the mere employer and the mere employee. Wherever there has been the free man, even when he was relatively less rich and powerful, his mere memory has made complete industrial capitalism impossible. It is an enemy that has sown these tares, but even as an enemy he is a coward. For he can only sow them in waste places, where no wheat can spring up and choke them.
To take up our parable again, we say first that arches exist; and not only exist but remain. A hundred Roman aqueducts and amphitheatres are there to show that they can remain as long or longer than anything else. And if a progressive person informs us that an arch always turns into a factory chimney, or even that an arch always falls down because it is weaker than a factory chimney, or even that wherever it does fall down people perceive that they must replace it by a factory chimney—why, we shall be so audacious as to cast doubts on all these three assertions. All we could possibly admit is that the principle supporting the chimney is simpler than the principle of the arch; and for that very reason the factory chimney, like the feudal tower, can rise the more easily in a howling wilderness.
But the image has yet a further application. If at this moment the Latin countries are largely made our model in the matter of the small property, it is only in the sense in which they would have been, through certain periods of history, the only exemplars of the arch. There was a time when all arches were Roman arches; and when a man living by the Liffey or the Thames would know as little about them as Mr. Shaw knows about peasant proprietors. But that does not mean that we fight for something merely foreign, or advance the arch as a sort of Italian ensign; any more than we want to make the Thames as yellow as the Tiber, or have any particular taste in macaroni or malaria. The principle of the arch is human, and applicable to and by all humanity. So is the principle of well-distributed private property. That a few Roman arches stood in ruins in Britain is not a proof that arches cannot be built, but on the contrary, a proof that they can.
And now, to complete the coincidence or analogy, what is the principle of the arch? You can call it, if you like, an affront to gravitation; you will be more correct if you call it an appeal to gravitation. The principle asserts that by combining separate stones of a particular shape in a particular way, we can ensure that their very tendency to fall shall prevent them from falling. And though my image is merely an illustration, it does to a great extent hold even as to the success of more equalized properties. What upholds an arch is an equality of pressure of the separate stones upon each other. The equality is at once mutual aid and mutual obstruction. It is not difficult to show that in a healthy society the moral pressure of different private properties acts in exactly the same way. But if the other school finds the key or comparison insufficient, it must find some other. It is clear that no natural forces can frustrate the fact. To say that any law, such as that of rent, makes against it is true only in the sense that many natural laws make against all morality and the very essentials of manhood. In that sense, scientific arguments are as irrelevant to our case for property as Mr. Shaw used to say they were to his case against vivisection.
Lastly, it is not only true that the arch of property remains, it is true that the building of such arches increases, both in quantity and quality. For instance, the French peasant before the French Revolution was already indefinitely a proprietor; it has made his property more private and more absolute, not less. The French are now less than ever likely to abandon the system, when it has proved for the second, if not the hundredth time, the most stable type of prosperity in the stress of war. A revolution as heroic, and even more unconquerable, has already in Ireland disregarded alike the Socialist dream and the Capitalist reality, with a driving energy of which no one has yet dared to foresee the limits. So, when the round arch of the Romans and the Normans had remained for ages as a sort of relic, the rebirth of Christendom found for it a further application and issue. It sprang in an instant to the titanic stature of the Gothic; where man seemed to be a god who had hanged his worlds upon nothing. Then was unsealed again something of that ancient secret which had so strangely described the priest as the builder of bridges. And when I look to-day at some of the bridges which he built above the air, I can understand a man still calling them impossible, as their only possible praise.
What do we mean by that “equality of pressure” as of the stones in an arch? More will be said of this in detail; but in general we mean that the modern passion for incessant and restless buying and selling goes along with the extreme inequality of men too rich or too poor. The explanation of the continuity of peasantries (which their opponents are simply forced to leave unexplained) is that, where that independence exists, it is valued exactly as any other dignity is valued when it is regarded as normal to a man; as no man goes naked or is beaten with a stick for hire.
The theory that those who start reasonably equal cannot remain reasonably equal is a fallacy founded entirely on a society in which they start extremely unequal. It is quite true that when capitalism has passed a certain point, the broken fragments of property are very easily devoured. In other words, it is true when there is a small amount of small property; but it is quite untrue when there is a large amount of small property. To argue from what happened in the rush of big business and the rout of scattered small businesses to what must always happen when the parties are more on a level, is quite illogical. It is proving from Niagara that there is no such thing as a lake. Once tip up the lake and the whole of the water will rush one way; as the whole economic tendency of capitalist inequality rushes one way. Leave the lake as a lake, or the level as a level, and there is nothing to prevent the lake remaining until the crack of doom— as many levels of peasantry seem likely to remain until the crack of doom. This fact is proved by experience, even if it is not explained by experience; but, as a matter of fact, it is possible to suggest not only the experience but the explanation. The truth is that there is no economic tendency whatever towards the disappearance of small property, until that property becomes so very small as to cease to act as property at all. If one man has a hundred acres and another man has half an acre, it is likely enough that he will be unable to live on half an acre. Then there will be an economic tendency for him to sell his land and make the other man the proud possessor of a hundred and a half. But if one man has thirty acres and the other man has forty acres, there is no economic tendency of any kind whatever to make the first man sell to the second. It is simply false to say that the first man cannot be secure of thirty or the second man content with forty. It is sheer nonsense; like saying that any man who owns a bull terrier will be bound to sell it to somebody who owns a mastiff. It is like saying that I cannot own a horse because I have an eccentric neighbour who owns an elephant.
Needless to say, those who insist that roughly equalized ownership cannot exist, base their whole argument on the notion that it has existed. They have to suppose, in order to prove their point, that people in England, for instance, did begin as equals and rapidly reached inequality. And it only rounds off the humour of their whole position that they assume the existence of what they call an impossibility in the one case where it has really not occurred. They talk as if ten miners had run a race, and one of them became the Duke of Northumberland. They talk as if the first Rothschild was a peasant who patiently planted better cabbages than the other peasants. The truth is that England became a capitalist country because it had long been an oligarchical country. It would be much harder to point out in what way a country like Denmark need become oligarchical. But the case is even stronger when we add the ethical to the economic common sense. When there is once established a widely scattered ownership, there is a public opinion that is stronger than any law; and very often (what in modern times is even more remarkable) a law that is really an expression of public opinion. It may be very difficult for modern people to imagine a world in which men are not generally admired for covetousness and crushing their neighbours but I assure them that such strange patches of an earthly paradise do really remain on earth.
The truth is that this first objection of impossibility in the abstract flies flat in the face of all the facts of experience and human nature. It is not true that a moral custom cannot hold most men content with a reasonable status, and careful to preserve it. It is as if we were to say that because some men are more attractive to women than others, therefore the inhabitants of Balham under Queen Victoria could not possibly have been arranged on a monogamous model, with one man one wife. Sooner or later, it might be said, all females would be found clustering round the fascinating few, and nothing but bachelorhood be left for the unattractive many. Sooner or later the suburb must consist of a hundred hermitages and three harems. But this is not the case. It is not the case at present, whatever may happen if the moral tradition of marriage is really lost in Balham. So long as that moral tradition is alive, so long as stealing other people’s wives is reprobated or being faithful to a spouse is admired, there are limits to the extent to which the wildest profligate in Balham can disturb the balance of the sexes. So any land-grabber would very rapidly find that there were limits to the extent to which he could buy up land in an Irish or Spanish or Serbian village. When it is really thought hateful to take Naboth’s vineyard, as it is to take Uriah’s wife, there is little difficulty in finding a local prophet to pronounce the judgment of the Lord. In an atmosphere of capitalism the man who lays field to field is flattered; but in an atmosphere of property he is promptly jeered at or possibly stoned. The result is that the village has not sunk into plutocracy or the suburb into polygamy.
Property is a point of honour. The true contrary of the word “property” is the word “prostitution.” And it is not true that a human being will always sell what is sacred to that sense of self-ownership, whether it be the body or the boundary. A few do it in both cases; and by doing it they always become outcasts. But it is not true that a majority must do it; and anybody who says it is, is ignorant, not of our plans and proposals, not of anybody’s visions and ideals, not of distributism or division of capital by this or that process, but of the facts of history and the substance of humanity. He is a barbarian who has never seen an arch.
In the notes I have here jotted down it will be obvious, of course, that the restoration of this pattern, simple as it is, is much more complicated in a complicated society. Here I have only traced it in the simplest form as it stood, and still stands, at the beginning of our discussion. I disregard the view that such “reaction” cannot be. I hold the old mystical dogma that what Man has done, Man can do. My critics seem to hold a still more mystical dogma: that Man cannot possibly do a thing because he has done it. That is what seems to be meant by saying that small property is “antiquated.” It really means that all property is dead. There is nothing to be reached upon the present lines except the increasing loss of property by everybody, as something swallowed up into a system equally impersonal and inhuman, whether we call it Communism or Capitalism. If we cannot go back, it hardly seems worth while to go forward.
There is nothing in front but a flat wilderness of standardization either by Bolshevism or Big Business. But it is strange that some of us should have seen sanity, if only in a vision, while the rest go forward chained eternally to enlargement without liberty and progress without hope.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
II THE PERIL OF THE HOUR
When we are for a moment satisfied, or sated, with reading the latest news of the loftiest social circles, or the most exact records of the most responsible courts of justice, we naturally turn to the serial story in the newspaper, called “Poisoned by Her Mother” or “The Mystery of the Crimson Wedding Ring,” in search of something calmer and more quietly convincing, more restful, more domestic, and more like real life. But as we turn over the pages, in passing from the incredible fact to the comparatively credible fiction, we are very likely to encounter a particular phrase on the general subject of social degeneracy. It is one of a number of phrases that seem to be kept in solid blocks in the printing-offices of newspapers. Like most of these solid statements, it is of a soothing character. It is like the headline of “Hopes of a Settlement,” by which we learn that things are unsettled; or that topic of the “Revival of Trade,” which it is part of the journalistic trade periodically to revive. The sentence to which I refer is to this effect: that the fears about social degeneracy need not disturb us, because such fears have been expressed in every age; and there are always romantic and retrospective persons, poets, and such riff-raff, who look back to imaginary “good old times.”
It is the mark of such statements that they seem to satisfy the mind; in other words, it is the mark of such thoughts that they stop us from thinking. The man who has thus praised progress does not think it necessary to progress any further. The man who has dismissed a complaint, as being old, does not himself think it necessary to say anything new. He is content to repeat this apology for existing things; and seems unable to offer any more thoughts on the subject. Now, as a matter of fact, there are a number of further thoughts that might be suggested by the subject. Of course, it is quite true that this notion of the decline of a state has been suggested in many periods, by many persons, some of them, unfortunately, poets. Thus, for instance, Byron, notoriously so moody and melodramatic, had somehow or other got it into his head that the Isles of Greece were less glorious in arts and arms in the last days of Turkish rule than in the days of the battle of Salamis or the Republic of Plato. So again Wordsworth, in an equally sentimental fashion, seems to insinuate that the Republic of Venice was not quite so powerful when Napoleon trod it out like a dying ember as when its commerce and art filled the seas of the world with a conflagration of colour. So many writers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have even gone so far as to suggest that modern Spain played a less predominant part than Spain in the days of the discovery of America or the victory of Lepanto. Some, even more lacking in that Optimism which is the soul of commerce, have made an equally perverse comparison between the earlier and the later conditions of the commercial aristocracy of Holland. Some have even maintained that Tyre and Sidon are not quite so fashionable as they used to be; and somebody once said something about “the ruins of Carthage.”
In somewhat simpler language, we may say that all this argument has a very big and obvious hole in it. When a man says, “People were as pessimistic as you are in societies which were not declining, but were even advancing,” it is permissible to reply, “Yes, and people were probably as optimistic as you are in societies which really declined.” For, after all, there were societies which really declined. It is true that Horace said that every generation seemed to be worse than the last, and implied that Rome was going to the dogs, at the very moment when all the external world was being brought under the eagles. But it is quite likely that the last forgotten court poet, praising the last forgotten Augustulus at the stiff court of Byzantium, contradicted all the seditious rumours of social decline, exactly as our newspapers do, by saying that, after all, Horace had said the same thing. And it is also possible that Horace was right; that it was in his time that the turn was taken which led from Horatius on the bridge to Heracleius in the palace; that if Rome was not immediately going to the dogs, the dogs were coming to Rome, and their distant howling could first be heard in that hour of the uplifted eagles; that there had begun a long advance that was also a long decline, but ended in the Dark Ages. Rome had gone back to the Wolf.
I say this view is at least tenable, though it does not really represent my own; but it is quite sufficiently reasonable to refuse to be dismissed with the cheap cheerfulness of the current maxim. There has been, there can be, such a thing as social decline; and the only question is, at any given moment, whether Byzantium had declined or whether Britain is declining. In other words, we must judge any such case of alleged degeneracy on its own merits. It is no answer to say, what is, of course, perfectly true, that some people are naturally prone to such pessimism. We are not judging them, but the situation which they judged or misjudged. We may say that schoolboys have always disliked having to go to school. But there is such a thing as a bad school. We may say the farmers always grumble at the weather. But there is such a thing as a bad harvest. And we have to consider as a question of the facts of the case, and not of the feelings of the farmer, whether the moral world of modern England is likely to have a bad harvest.
Now the reasons for regarding the present problem of Europe, and especially of England, as most menacing and tragic, are entirely objective reasons; and have nothing to do with this alleged mood of melancholy reaction. The present system, whether we call it capitalism or anything else, especially as it exists in industrial countries, has already become a danger; and is rapidly becoming a death-trap. The evil is evident in the plainest private experience and in the coldest economic science. To take the practical test first, it is not merely alleged by the enemies of the system, but avowed by the defenders of it. In the Labour disputes of our time, it is not the employees but the employers who declare that business is bad. The successful business man is not pleading success; he is pleading bankruptcy. The case for Capitalists is the case against Capitalism. What is even more extraordinary is that its exponent has to fall back on the rhetoric of Socialism. He merely says that miners or railwaymen must go on working “in the interests of the public.” It will be noted that the capitalists now never use the argument of private property. They confine themselves entirely to this sort of sentimental version of general social responsibility. It is amusing to read the capitalist press on Socialists who sentimentally plead for people who are “failures.” It is now the chief argument of almost every capitalist in every strike that he is himself on the brink of failure.
I have one simple objection to this simple argument in the papers about Strikes and the Socialist peril. My objection is that their argument leads straight to Socialism. In itself it cannot possibly lead to anything else. If workmen are to go on working because they are the servants of the public, there cannot be any deduction except that they ought to be the servants of the public authority. If the Government ought to act in the interests of the public, and there is no more to be said, then obviously the Government ought to take over the whole business, and there is nothing else to be done. I do not think the matter is so simple as this; but they do. I do not think this argument for Socialism is conclusive. But according to the Anti-Socialists the argument for Socialism is quite conclusive. The public alone is to be considered, and the Government can do anything it likes so long as it considers the public. Presumably it can disregard the liberty of the employees and force them to work, possibly in chains. Presumably also it can disregard the property of the employers, and pay the proletariat for them, if necessary out of their trouser-pockets. All these consequences follow from the highly Bolshevist doctrine bawled at us every morning in the capitalist press. That is all they have to say; and if it is the only thing to be said, then the other is the only thing to be done.
In the last paragraph it is noted that if we were left to the logic of the leader-writers on the Socialist peril, they could only lead us straight to Socialism. And as some of us most heartily and vigorously refuse to be led to Socialism, we have long adopted the harder alternative called trying to think things out. And we shall certainly land in Socialism or in something worse called Socialism, or else in mere chaos and ruin, if we make no effort to see the situation as a whole apart from our immediate irritations. Now the capitalist system, good or bad, right or wrong, rests upon two ideas: that the rich will always be rich enough to hire the poor; and the poor will always be poor enough to want to be hired. But it also presumes that each side is bargaining with the other, and that neither is thinking primarily of the public. The owner of an omnibus does not run it for the good of all mankind, despite the universal fraternity blazoned in the Latin name of the vehicle. He runs it to make a profit for himself, and the poorer man consents to drive it in order to get wages for himself. Similarly, the omnibus-conductor is not filled with an abstract altruistic desire for the nice conduct of a crowded omnibus instead of a clouded cane. He does not want to conduct omnibuses because conduct is three-fourths of life. He is bargaining for the biggest wage he can get. Now the case for capitalism was that through this private bargain the public did really get served. And so for some time it did. But the only original case for capitalism collapses entirely, if we have to ask either party to go on for the good of the public. If capitalism cannot pay what will tempt men to work, capitalism is on capitalist principles simply bankrupt. If a tea-merchant cannot pay clerks, and cannot import tea without clerks, then his business is bust and there is an end of it. Nobody in the old capitalist conditions said the clerks were bound to work for less, so that a poor old lady might get a cup of tea.
So it is really the capitalist press that proves on capitalist principles that capitalism has come to an end. If it had not, it would not be necessary for them to make the social and sentimental appeals they do make. It would not be necessary for them to appeal for the intervention of the Government like Socialists. It would not have been necessary for them to plead the discomfort of passengers like sentimentalists or altruists. The truth is that everybody has now abandoned the argument on which the whole of the old capitalism was based: the argument that if men were left to bargain individually the public would benefit automatically. We have to find a new basis of some kind; and the ordinary Conservatives are falling back on the Communist basis without knowing it. Now I respectfully decline to fall back on the Communist basis. But I am sure it is perfectly impossible to continue to fall back on the old Capitalist basis. Those who try to do so tie themselves in quite impossible knots. The most practical and pressing affairs of the hour exhibit the contradiction day after day. For instance, when some great strike or lock-out takes place in a big business like that of the mines, we are always assured that no great saving could be achieved by cutting out private profits, because those private profits are now negligible and the trade in question is not now greatly enriching the few. Whatever be the value of this particular argument, it obviously entirely destroys the general argument. The general argument for capitalism or individualism is that men will not adventure unless there are considerable prizes in the lottery. It is what is familiar in all Socialistic debates as the argument of “the incentive of gain.” But if there is no gain, there is certainly no incentive. If royalty-owners and shareholders only get a little insecure or doubtful profit out of profiteering, it seems as if they might as well fall to the lowly estate of soldiers and servants of society. I have never understood, by the way, why Tory debaters are so very anxious to prove against Socialism that “State servants” must be incompetent and inert. Surely it might be left to others to point out the lethargy of Nelson or the dull routine of Gordon.
But this collapse of industrial individualism, which is not only a collapse but a contradiction (since it has to contradict all its own commonest maxims), is not only an accident of our condition, though it is most marked in our country. Anybody who can think in theories, those highly practical things, will see that sooner or later this paralysis in the system is inevitable. Capitalism is a contradiction; it is even a contradiction in terms. It takes a long time to box the compass, and a still longer time to see that it has done so; but the wheel has come full circle now. Capitalism is contradictory as soon as it is complete; because it is dealing with the mass of men in two opposite ways at once. When most men are wage-earners, it is more and more difficult for most men to be customers. For, the capitalist is always trying to cut down what his servant demands, and in doing so is cutting down what his customer can spend. As soon as his business is in any difficulties, as at present in the coal business, he tries to reduce what he has to spend on wages, and in doing so reduces what others have to spend on coal. He is wanting the same man to be rich and poor at the same time. This contradiction in capitalism does not appear in the earlier stages, because there are still populations not reduced to the common proletarian condition. But as soon as the wealthy as a whole are employing the wage-earners as a whole, this contradiction stares them in the face like an ironic doom and judgment. Employer and employee are simplified and solidified to the relation of Robinson Crusoe and Man Friday. Robinson Crusoe may say he has two problems: the supply of cheap labour and the prospect of trade with the natives. But as he is dealing in these two different ways with the same man, he will get into a muddle. Robinson Crusoe may possibly force Friday to work for nothing but his bare keep, the white man possessing all the weapons. As in the Geddes parallel, he may economize with an Axe. But he cannot cut down Friday’s salary to nothing and then expect Friday to give him gold and silver and orient pearls in return for rum and rifles. Now in proportion as capitalism covers the whole earth, links up large populations, and is ruled by centralized systems, the nearer and nearer approaches this resemblance to the lonely figures on the remote island. If the trade with the natives is really going down, so as to necessitate the wages of the natives also going down, we can only say that the case is rather more tragic if the excuse is true than if it is false. We can only say that Crusoe is now indeed alone, and that Friday is unquestionably unlucky.
I think it very important that people should understand that there is a principle at work behind the industrial troubles of England in our time; and that, whoever be right or wrong in any particular quarrel, it is no particular person or party who is responsible for our commercial experiment being faced with failure. It is a vicious circle into which wage-earning society will finally sink when it begins to lose profits and lower wages; and though some industrial countries are still rich enough to remain ignorant of the strain, it is only because their progress is incomplete; when they reach the goal they will find the riddle. In our own country, which concerns most of us most, we are already falling into that vicious circle of sinking wages and decreasing demand. And as I am going to suggest here, in however sketchy a manner, the line of escape from this slowly closing snare, and because I know some of the things that are commonly said about any such suggestion, I have a reason for reminding the reader of all these things at this stage.
“Safe! Of course it’s not safe! It’s a beggarly chance to cheat the gallows.” Such was the intemperate exclamation of Captain Wicks in the romance of Stevenson; and the same romancer has put a somewhat similar piece of candour into the mouth of Alan Breck Stewart. “But mind you, it’s no small thing! ye maun lie bare and hard … and ye shall sleep with your hand upon your weapons. Aye, man, ye shall taigle many a weary foot or we get clear. I tell ye this at the start, for it’s a life that I ken well. But if ye ask what other chance you have, I answer; Nane.”
And I myself am sometimes tempted to talk in this abrupt manner, after listening to long and thoughtful disquisitions throwing doubt on the detailed perfection of a Distributist State, as compared with the rich happiness and final repose that crowns the present Capitalist and Industrial State. People ask us how we should deal with the unskilled labour at the docks, and what we have to offer to replace the radiant popularity of Lord Devonport and the permanent industrial peace of the Port of London. Those who ask us what we shall do with the docks seldom seem to ask themselves what the docks will do with themselves, if our commerce steadily declines like that of so many commercial cities in the past. Other people ask us how we should deal with workmen holding shares in a business that might possibly go bankrupt. It never occurs to them to answer their own question, in a capitalist state in which business after business is going bankrupt. We have got to deal with the smallest and most remote possibilities of our more simple and static society, while they do not deal with the biggest and most blatant facts about their own complex and collapsing one. They are inquisitive about the details of our scheme, and wish to arrange beforehand a science of casuistry for all the exceptions. But they dare not look their own systems in the face, where ruin has become the rule. Other people wish to know whether a machine would be permitted to exist in this or that position in our Utopia; as an exhibit in a museum, or a toy in the nursery, or a “torture implement of the twentieth century” shown in the Chamber of Horrors. But those who ask us so anxiously how men are to work without machines do not tell us how machines are to work if men do not work them, or how either machines or men are to work if there is no work to do. They are so eager to discover the weak points in our proposal that they have not yet discovered any strong points in their own practice. Strange that our vain and sentimental vision should be so vivid to these realists that they can see its every detail; and that their own reality should be so vague to them that they cannot see it at all; that they cannot see the most obvious and overwhelming fact about it: that it is no longer there.
For it is one of the grim and even grisly jokes of the situation that the very complaint they always make of us is specially and peculiarly true of them. They are always telling us that we think we can bring back the past, or the barbarous simplicity and superstition of the past; apparently under the impression that we want to bring back the ninth century. But they do really think they can bring back the nineteenth century. They are always telling us that this or that tradition has gone for ever, that this or that craft or creed has gone for ever; but they dare not face the fact that their own vulgar and huckstering commerce has gone for ever. They call us reactionaries if we talk of a Revival of Faith or a Revival of Catholicism. But they go on calmly plastering their papers with the headline of a Revival of Trade. What a cry out of the distant past! What a voice from the tomb! They have no reason whatever for believing that there will be a revival of trade, except that their great-grandfathers would have found it impossible to believe in a decline of trade. They have no conceivable ground for supposing that we shall grow richer, except that our ancestors never prepared us for the prospect of growing poorer. Yet it is they who are always blaming us for depending on a sentimental tradition of the wisdom of our ancestors. It is they who are always rejecting social ideals merely because they were the social ideals of some former age. They are always telling us that the mill will never grind again the water that is past; without noticing that their own mills are already idle and grinding nothing at all—like ruined mills in some watery Early Victorian landscape suitable to their watery Early Victorian quotation. They are always telling us that we are fighting against the tide of time, as Mrs. Partington with a mop fought against the tide of the sea. And they cannot even see that time itself has made Mrs. Partington as antiquated a figure as Mother Shipton. They are always telling us that in resisting capitalism and commercialism we are like Canute rebuking the waves; and they do not even know that the England of Cobden is already as dead as the England of Canute. They are always seeking to overwhelm us in the water-floods, to sweep us away upon these weary and washy metaphors of tide and time; for all the world as if they could call back the rivers that have left our cities so far behind, or summon back the seven seas to their allegiance to the trident; or bridle again, with gold for the few and iron for the many, the roaring river of the Clyde.
We may well be tempted to the exclamation of Captain Wicks. We are not choosing between a possible peasantry and a successful commerce. We are choosing between a peasantry that might succeed and a commerce that has already failed. We are not seeking to lure men away from a thriving business to a sort of holiday in Arcadia or the peasant type of Utopia. We are trying to make suggestions about starting anew after a bankrupt business has really gone bankrupt. We can see no possible reason for supposing that English trade will regain its nineteenth-century predominance, except mere Victorian sentimentalism and that particular sort of lying which the newspapers call “optimism.” They taunt us for trying to bring back the conditions of the Middle Ages; as if we were trying to bring back the bows or the body-armour of the Middle Ages. Well, helmets have come back; and body-armour may come back; and bows and arrows will have to come back, a long time before there is any return of that fortunate moment on whose luck they live. It is quite as likely that the long bow will be found through some accident superior to the rifle as that the battleship will be able any longer to rule the waves without reference to the aeroplane. The commercial system implied the security of our commercial routes; and that implied the superiority of our national navy. Everybody who faces facts knows that aviation has altered the whole theory of that naval security. The whole huge horrible problem of a big population on a small island dependent on insecure imports is a problem quite as much for Capitalists and Collectivists as for Distributists. We are not choosing between model villages as part of a serene system of town-planning. We are making a sortie from a besieged city, sword in hand; a sortie from the ruin of Carthage. “Safe! Of course it’s not safe!” said Captain Wicks.
I think it is not unlikely that in any case a simpler social life will return; even if it return by the road of ruin. I think the soul will find simplicity again, if it be in the Dark Ages. But we are Christians and concerned with the body as well as the soul; we are Englishmen and we do not desire, if we can help it, that the English people should be merely the People of the Ruins. And we do most earnestly desire a serious consideration of whether the transition cannot be made in the light of reason and tradition; whether we cannot yet do deliberately and well what nemesis will do wastefully and without pity; whether we cannot build a bridge from these slippery downward slopes to freer and firmer land beyond, without consenting yet that our most noble nation must descend into that valley of humiliation in which nations disappear from history. For this purpose, with great conviction of our principles and with no shame of being open to argument about their application, we have called our companions to council.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
III THE CHANCE OF RECOVERY
Once upon a time, or conceivably even more than once, there was a man who went into a public-house and asked for a glass of beer. I will not mention his name, for various and obvious reasons; it may be libel nowadays to say this about a man; or it may lay him open to police prosecution under the more humane laws of our day. So far as this first recorded action is concerned, his name may have been anything: William Shakespeare or Geoffrey Chaucer or Charles Dickens or Henry Fielding, or any of those common names that crop up everywhere in the populace. The important thing about him is that he asked for a glass of beer. The still more important thing about him is that he drank it; and the most important thing of all is that he spat it out again (I regret to say) and threw the pewter mug at the publican. For the beer was abominably bad.
True, he had not yet submitted it to any chemical analysis; but, after he had drank a little of it, he felt an inward, a very inward, persuasion that there was something wrong about it. When he had been ill for a week, steadily getting worse all the time, he took some of the beer to the Public Analyst; and that learned man, after boiling it, freezing it, turning it green, blue, and yellow, and so on, told him that it did indeed contain a vast quantity of deadly poison. “To continue drinking it,” said the man of science thoughtfully, “will undoubtedly be a course attended with risks, but life is inseparable from risk. And before you decide to abandon it, you must make up your mind what Substitute you propose to put into your inside, in place of the beverage which at present (more or less) reposes there. If you will bring me a list of your selections in this difficult matter, I will willingly point out the various scientific objections that can be raised to all of them.”
The man went away, and became more and more ill; and indeed he noticed that nobody else seemed to be really well. As he passed the tavern, his eye chanced to fall upon various friends of his writhing in agony on the ground, and indeed not a few of them lying dead and stiff in heaps about the road. To his simple mind this seemed a matter of some concern to the community; so he hurried to a police court and laid before a magistrate a complaint against the inn. “It would indeed appear,” said the Justice of the Peace, “that the house you mention is one in which people are systematically murdered by means of poison. But before you demand so drastic a course as that of pulling it down or even shutting it up, you have to consider a problem of no little difficulty. Have you considered precisely what building you would Put In Its Place, whether a—.” At this point I regret to say that the man gave a loud scream and was forcibly removed from the court announcing that he was going mad. Indeed, this conviction of his mental malady increased with his bodily malady; to such an extent that he consulted a distinguished Doctor of Psychology and Psycho-Analysis, who said to him confidentially, “As a matter of diagnosis, there can be no doubt that you are suffering from Bink’s Aberration; but when we come to treatment I may say frankly that it is very difficult to find anything to take the place of that affliction. Have you considered what is the alternative to madness—?” Whereupon the man sprang up waving his arms and cried, “There is none. There is no alternative to madness. It is inevitable. It is universal. We must make the best of it.”
So making the best of it, he killed the doctor and then went back and killed the magistrate and the public analyst, and is now in an asylum, as happy as the day is long.
In the fable appearing above the case is propounded which is primarily necessary to see at the start of a sketch of social renewal. It concerned a gentleman who was asked what he would substitute for the poison that had been put into his inside, or what constructive scheme he had to put in place of the den of assassins that had poisoned him. A similar demand is made of those of us who regard plutocracy as a poison or the present plutocratic state as something like a den of thieves. In the parable of the poison it is possible that the reader may share some of the impatience of the hero. He will say that nobody would be such a fool as not to get rid of prussic acid or professional criminals, merely because there were differences of opinion about the course of action that would follow getting rid of them. But I would ask the reader to be a little more patient, not only with me but with himself; and ask himself why it is that we act with this promptitude in the case of poison and crime. It is not, even here, really because we are indifferent to the substitute. We should not regard one poison as an antidote to the other poison, if it made the malady worse. We should not set a thief to catch a thief, if it really increased the amount of thieving. The principle upon which we are acting, even if we are acting too quickly to think, or thinking too quickly to define, is nevertheless a principle that we could define. If we merely give a man an emetic after he has taken a poison, it is not because we think he can live on emetics any more than he can live on poisons. It is because we think that after he has first recovered from the poison, and then recovered from the emetic, there will come a time when he himself will think he would like a little ordinary food. That is the starting-point of the whole speculation, so far as we are concerned. If certain impediments are removed, it is not so much a question of what we would do as of what he would do. So if we save the lives of a number of people from the den of poisoners, we do not at that moment ask what they will do with their lives. We assume that they will do something a little more sensible than taking poison. In other words, the very simple first principle upon which all such reforms rest, is that there is some tendency to recovery in every living thing if we remove the pressure of an immediate peril or pain. Now at the beginning of all this rough outline of a social reform, which I propose to trace here, I wish to make clear this general principle of recovery, without which it will be unintelligible. We believe that if things were released they would recover; but we also believe (and this is very important in the practical question) that if things even begin to be released, they will begin to recover. If the man merely leaves off drinking the bad beer, his body will make some effort to recover its ordinary condition. If the man merely escapes from those who are slowly poisoning him, to some extent the very air he breathes will be an antidote to his poison.
As I hope to explain in the essays that follow, I think the question of the real social reform divides itself into two distinct stages and even ideas. One is arresting a race towards mad monopoly that is already going on, reversing that revolution and returning to something that is more or less normal, but by no means ideal; the other is trying to inspire that more normal society with something that is in a real sense ideal, though not necessarily merely Utopian. But the first thing to be understood is that any relief from the present pressure will probably have more moral effect than most of our critics imagine. Hitherto all the triumphs have been triumphs of plutocratic monopoly; all the defeats have been defeats of private property. I venture to guess that one real defeat of a monopoly would have an instant and incalculable effect, far beyond itself, like the first defeats in the field of a military empire like Prussia parading itself as invincible. As each group or family finds again the real experience of private property, it will become a centre of influence, a mission. What we are dealing with is not a question of a General Election to be counted by a calculating machine. It is a question of a popular movement, that never depends on mere numbers.
That is why we have so often taken, merely as a working model, the matter of a peasantry. The point about a peasantry is that it is not a machine, as practically every ideal social state is a machine; that is, a thing that will work only as it is set down to work in the pattern. You make laws for a Utopia; it is only by keeping those laws that it can be kept a Utopia. You do not make laws for a peasantry. You make a peasantry; and the peasants make the laws. I do not mean, as will be clear enough when I come to more detailed matters, that laws must not be used for the establishment of a peasantry or even for the protection of it. But I mean that the character of a peasantry does not depend on laws. The character of a peasantry depends on peasants. Men have remained side by side for centuries in their separate and fairly equal farms, without many of them losing their land, without any of them buying up the bulk of the land. Yet very often there was no law against their buying up the bulk of the land. Peasants could not buy because peasants would not sell. That is, this form of moderate equality, when once it exists, is not merely a legal formula; it is also a moral and psychological fact. People behave when they find themselves in that position as they do when they find themselves at home. That is, they stay there; or at least they behave normally there. There is nothing in abstract logic to prove that people cannot thus feel at home in a Socialist Utopia. But the Socialists who describe Utopias generally feel themselves in some dim way that people will not; and that is why they have to make their mere laws of economic control so elaborate and so clear. They use their army of officials to move men about like crowds of captives, from old quarters to new quarters, and doubtless to better quarters. But we believe that the slaves that we free will fight for us like soldiers.
In other words, all that I ask in this preliminary note is that the reader should understand that we are trying to make something that will run of itself. A machine will not run of itself. A man will run of himself; even if he runs into a good many things that he would have been wiser to avoid. When freed from certain disadvantages, he can to some extent take over the responsibility. All schemes of collective concentration have in them the character of controlling the man even when he is free; if you will, of controlling him to keep him free. They have the idea that the man will not be poisoned if he has a doctor standing behind his chair at dinner-time, to check the mouthfuls and measure the wine. We have the idea that the man may need a doctor when he is poisoned, but no longer needs him when he is unpoisoned. We do not say, as they possibly do say, that he will always be perfectly happy or perfectly good; because there are other elements in life besides the economic; and even the economic is affected by original sin. We do not say that because he does not need a doctor he does not need a priest or a wife or a friend or a God; or that his relations to these things can be ensured by any social scheme. But we do say that there is something which is much more real and much more reliable than any social scheme; and that is a society. There is such a thing as people finding a social life that suits them and enables them to get on reasonably well with each other. You do not have to wait till you have established that sort of society everywhere. It makes all the difference so soon as you have established it anywhere. So if I am told at the start: “You do not think Socialism or reformed Capitalism will save England; do you really think Distributism will save England?” I answer, “No; I think Englishmen will save England, if they begin to have half a chance.”
I am therefore in this sense hopeful; I believe that the breakdown has been a breakdown of machinery and not of men. And I fully agree, as I have just explained, that leaving work for a man is very different from leaving a plan for a machine. I ask the reader to realize this distinction, at this stage of the description, before I go on to describe more definitely some of the possible directions of reform. I am not at all ashamed of being ready to listen to reason; I am not at all afraid of leaving matters open to adjustment; I am not at all annoyed at the prospect of those who carry out these principles varying in many ways in their programmes. I am much too much in earnest to treat my own programme as a party programme; or to pretend that my private bill must become an Act of Parliament without any amendments. But I have a particular cause, in this particular case, for insisting in this chapter that there is a reasonable chance of escape; and for asking that the reasonable chance should be considered with reasonable cheerfulness. I do not care very much for that sort of American virtue which is now sometimes called optimism. It has too much of the flavour of Christian Science to be a comfortable thing for Christians. But I do feel, in the facts of this particular case, that there is a reason for warning people against a too hasty exhibition of pessimism and the pride of impotence. I do ask everybody to consider, in a free and open fashion, whether something of the sort here indicated cannot be carried out, even if it be carried out differently in detail; for it is a matter of the understanding of men. The position is much too serious for men to be anything but cheerful. And in this connection I would venture to utter a warning.
A man has been led by a foolish guide or a self-confident fellow-traveller to the brink of a precipice, which he might well have fallen over in the dark. It may well be said that there is nothing to be done but to sit down and wait for the light. Still, it might be well to pass the hours of darkness in some discussion about how it will be best for them to make their way backwards to more secure ground; and the recollection of any facts and the formulation of any coherent plan of travel will not be waste of time, especially if there is nothing else to do. But there is one piece of advice which we should be inclined to give to the guide who has misguided the simple stranger— especially if he is a really simple stranger, a man perhaps of rude education and elementary emotions. We should strongly advise him not to beguile the time by proving conclusively that it is impossible to go back, that there is no really secure ground behind, that there is no chance of finding the homeward path again, that the steps recently taken are irrevocable, and that progress must go forward and can never return. If he is a tactful man, in spite of his previous error, he will avoid this tone in conversation. If he is not a tactful man, it is not altogether impossible that before the end of the conversation, somebody will go over the precipice after all; and it will not be the simple stranger.
An army has marched across a wilderness, its column, in the military phrase, in the air; under a confident commander who is certain he will pick up new communications which will be far better than the old ones. When the soldiers are almost worn out with marching, and the rank and file of them have suffered horrible privations from hunger and exposure, they find they have only advanced unsupported into a hostile country; and that the signs of military occupation to be seen on every side are only those of an enemy closing round. The march is suddenly halted and the commander addresses his men. There are a great many things that he may say. Some may hold that he had much better say nothing at all. Many may hold that the less he says the better. Others may urge, very truly, that courage is even more needed for a retreat than for an advance. He may be advised to rouse his disappointed men by threatening the enemy with a more dramatic disappointment; by declaring that they will best him yet; that they will dash out of the net even as it is thrown, and that their escape will be far more victorious than his victory. But anyhow there is one kind of speech which the commander will not make to his men, unless he is much more of a fool than his original blunder proves him. He will not say: “We have now taken up a position which may appear to you very depressing; but I assure you it is nothing to the depression which you will certainly suffer as you make a series of inevitably futile attempts to improve it, or to fall back on what you may foolishly regard as a stronger position. I am very much amused at your absurd suggestions for getting back to our old communications; for I never thought much of your mangy old communications anyhow.” There have been mutinies in the desert before now; and it is possible that the general will not be killed in battle with the enemy.
A great nation and civilization has followed for a hundred years or more a form of progress which held itself independent of certain old communications, in the form of ancient traditions about the land, the hearth, or the altar. It has advanced under leaders who were confident, not to say cocksure. They were quite sure that their economic rules were rigid, that their political theory was right, that their commerce was beneficent, that their parliaments were popular, that their press was enlightened, that their science was humane. In this confidence they committed their people to certain new and enormous experiments; to making their own independent nation an eternal debtor to a few rich men; to piling up private property in heaps on the faith of financiers; to covering their land with iron and stone and stripping it of grass and grain; to driving food out of their own country in the hope of buying it back again from the ends of the earth; to loading up their little island with iron and gold till it was weighted like a sinking ship; to letting the rich grow richer and fewer and the poor poorer and more numerous; to letting the whole world be cloven in two with a war of mere masters and mere servants; to losing every type of moderate prosperity and candid patriotism, till there was no independence without luxury and no labour without ugliness; to leaving the millions of mankind dependent on indirect and distant discipline and indirect and distant sustenance, working themselves to death for they knew not whom and taking the means of life from they knew not where; and all hanging on a thread of alien trade which grew thinner and thinner. To the people who have been brought into this position many things may still be said. It will be right to remind them that mere wild revolt will make things worse and not better. It may be true to say that certain complexities must be tolerated for a time because they correspond to other complexities, and the two must be carefully simplified together. But if I may say one word to the princes and rulers of such a people, who have led them into such a pass, I would say to them as seriously as anything was ever said by man to men: “For God’s sake, for our sake, but, above all, for your own sake, do not be in this blind haste to tell them there is no way out of the trap into which your folly has led them; that there is no road except the road by which you have brought them to ruin; that there is no progress except the progress that has ended here. Do not be so eager to prove to your hapless victims that what is hapless is also hopeless. Do not be so anxious to convince them, now that you are at the end of your experiment, that you are also at the end of your resources. Do not be so very eloquent, so very elaborate, so very rational and radiantly convincing in proving that your own error is even more irrevocable and irremediable than it is. Do not try to minimize the industrial disease by showing it is an incurable disease. Do not brighten the dark problem of the coal-pit by proving it is a bottomless pit. Do not tell the people there is no way but this; for many even now will not endure this. Do not say to men that this alone is possible; for many already think it impossible to bear. And at some later time, at some eleventh hour, when the fates have grown darker and the ends have grown clearer, the mass of men may suddenly understand into what a blind alley your progress has led them. Then they may turn on you in the trap. And if they bore all else, they might not bear the final taunt that you can do nothing; that you will not even try to do anything. ‘What art thou, man, and why art thou despairing?’ wrote the poet. ‘God shall forgive thee all but thy despair.’ Man also may forgive you for blundering and may not forgive you for despairing.”
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
IV ON A SENSE OF PROPORTION
Those of us who study the papers and the parliamentary speeches with proper attention must have by this time a fairly precise idea of the nature of the evil of Socialism. It is a remote Utopian dream impossible of fulfilment and also an overwhelming practical danger that threatens us at every moment. It is only a thing that is as distant as the end of the world and as near as the end of the street. All that is clear enough; but the aspect of it that arrests me at this moment is more especially the Utopian aspect. A person who used to write in the Daily Mail paid some attention to this aspect; and represented this social ideal, or indeed almost any other social ideal, as a sort of paradise of poltroons. He suggested that “weaklings” wished to be protected from the strain and stress of our vigorous individualism, and so cried out for this paternal government or grand-motherly legislation. And it was while I was reading his remarks, with a deep and never-failing enjoyment, that the image of the Individualist rose before me; of the sort of man who probably writes such remarks and certainly reads them.
The reader refolds the Daily Mail and rises from his intensely individualistic breakfast-table, where he has just dispatched his bold and adventurous breakfast; the bacon cut in rashers from the wild boar which but lately turned to bay in his back garden; the eggs perilously snatched from swaying nest and flapping bird at the top of those toppling trees which gave the house its appropriate name of Pine Crest. He puts on his curious and creative hat, built on some bold plan entirely made up out of his own curious and creative head. He walks outside his unique and unparalleled house, also built with his own well-won wealth according to his own well-conceived architectural design, and seeming by its very outline against the sky to express his own passionate personality. He strides down the street, making his own way over hill and dale towards the place of his own chosen and favourite labour, the workshop of his imaginative craft. He lingers on the way, now to pluck a flower, now to compose a poem, for his time is his own; he is an individual and a free man and not as these Communists. He can work at his own craft when he will, and labour far into the night to make up for an idle morning. Such is the life of the clerk in a world of private enterprise and practical individualism; such the manner of his free passage from his home. He continues to stride lightly along, until he sees afar off the picturesque and striking tower of that workshop in which he will, as with the creative strokes of a god …
He sees it, I say, afar off. The expression is not wholly accidental. For that is exactly the defect in all that sort of journalistic philosophy of individualism and enterprise; that those things are at present even more remote and improbable than communal visions. It is not the dreadful Bolshevist republic that is afar off. It is not the Socialistic State that is Utopian. In that sense, it is not even Utopia that is Utopian. The Socialist State may in one sense be very truly described as terribly and menacingly near. The Socialist State is exceedingly like the Capitalist State, in which the clerk reads and the journalist writes. Utopia is exactly like the present state of affairs, only worse.
It would make no difference to the clerk if his job became a part of a Government department to-morrow. He would be equally civilized and equally uncivic if the distant and shadowy person at the head of the department were a Government official. Indeed, it does make very little difference to him now, whether he or his sons and daughters are employed at the Post Office on bold and revolutionary Socialistic principles or employed at the Stores on wild and adventurous Individualist principles. I never heard of anything resembling civil war between the daughter at the Stores and the daughter in the Post Office. I doubt whether the young lady at the Post Office is so imbued with Bolshevist principles that she would think it a part of the Higher Morality to expropriate something without payment off the counter of the Stores. I doubt whether the young lady at the Stores shudders when she passes a red pillar box, seeing in it an outpost of the Red Peril.
What is really a long way off is this individuality and liberty the Daily Mail praised. It is the tower that a man has built for himself that is seen in the distance. It is Private Enterprise that is Utopian, in the sense of something as distant as Utopia. It is Private Property that is for us an ideal and for our critics an impossibility. It is that which can really be discussed almost exactly as the writer in the Daily Mail discusses Collectivism. It is that which some people consider a goal and some people a mirage. It is that which its friends maintain to be the final satisfaction of modern hopes and hungers, and its enemies maintain to be a contradiction to common sense and common human possibilities. All the controversialists who have become conscious of the real issue are already saying of our ideal exactly what used to be said of the Socialists’ ideal. They are saying that private property is too ideal not to be impossible. They are saying that private enterprise is too good to be true. They are saying that the idea of ordinary men owning ordinary possessions is against the laws of political economy and requires an alteration in human nature. They are saying that all practical business men know that the thing would never work, exactly as the same obliging people are always prepared to know that State management would never work. For they hold the simple and touching faith that no management except their own could ever work. They call this the law of nature; and they call anybody who ventures to doubt it a weakling. But the point to see is that, although the normal solution of private property for all is even now not very widely realized, in so far as it is realized by the rulers of the modern market (and therefore of the modern world) it is to this normal notion of property that they apply the same criticism as they applied to the abnormal notion of Communism. They say it is Utopian; and they are right. They say it is idealistic; and they are right. They say it is quixotic; and they are right. It deserves every name that will indicate how completely they have driven justice out of the world; every name that will measure how remote from them and their sort is the standard of honourable living; every name that will emphasize and repeat the fact that property and liberty are sundered from them and theirs, by an abyss between heaven and hell.
That is the real issue to be fought out with our serious critics; and I have written here a series of articles dealing more directly with it. It is the question of whether this ideal can be anything but an ideal; not the question of whether it is to be confounded with the present contemptible reality. It is simply the question of whether this good thing is really too good to be true. For the present I will merely say that if the pessimists are convinced of their pessimism, if the sceptics really hold that our social ideal is now banished for ever by mechanical difficulties or materialistic fate, they have at least reached a remarkable and curious conclusion. It is hardly stranger to say that man will have henceforth to be separated from his arms and legs, owing to the improved pattern of wheels, than to say that he must for ever say farewell to two supports so natural as the sense of choosing for himself and of owning something of his own. These critics, whether they figure as critics of Socialism or Distributism, are very fond of talking about extravagant stretches of the imagination or impossible strains upon human nature. I confess I have to stretch and strain my own human imagination and human nature very far, to conceive anything so crooked and uncanny as the human race ending with a complete forgetfulness of the possessive pronoun.
Nevertheless, as we say, it is with these critics we are in controversy. Distribution may be a dream; three acres and a cow may be a joke; cows may be fabulous animals; liberty may be a name; private enterprise may be a wild goose chase on which the world can go no further. But as for the people who talk as if property and private enterprise were the principles now in operation—those people are so blind and deaf and dead to all the realities of their own daily existence, that they can be dismissed from the debate.
In this sense, therefore, we are indeed Utopian; in the sense that our task is possibly more distant and certainly more difficult. We are more revolutionary in the sense that a revolution means a reversal: a reversal of direction, even if it were accompanied with a restraint upon pace. The world we want is much more different from the existing world than the existing world is different from the world of Socialism. Indeed, as has been already noted, there is not much difference between the present world and Socialism; except that we have left out the less important and more ornamental notions of Socialism, such additional fancies as justice, citizenship, the abolition of hunger, and so on. We have already accepted anything that anybody of intelligence ever disliked in Socialism. We have everything that critics used to complain of in the desolate utility and unity of Looking Backward. In so far as the world of Wells or Webb was criticized as a centralized, impersonal, and monotonous civilization, that is an exact description of existing civilization. Nothing has been left out but some idle fancies about feeding the poor or giving rights to the populace. In every other way the unification and regimentation is already complete. Utopia has done its worst. Capitalism has done all that Socialism threatened to do. The clerk has exactly the sort of passive functions and permissive pleasures that he would have in the most monstrous model village. I do not sneer at him; he has many intelligent tastes and domestic virtues in spite of the civilization he enjoys. They are exactly the tastes and virtues he could have as a tenant and servant of the State. But from the moment he wakes up to the moment he goes to sleep again, his life is run in grooves made for him by other people, and often other people he will never even know. He lives in a house that he does not own, that he did not make, that he does not want. He moves everywhere in ruts; he always goes up to his work on rails. He has forgotten what his fathers, the hunters and the pilgrims and the wandering minstrels, meant by finding their way to a place. He thinks in terms of wages; that is, he has forgotten the real meaning of wealth. His highest ambition is concerned with getting this or that subordinate post in a business that is already a bureaucracy. There is a certain amount of competition for that post inside that business; but so there would be inside any bureaucracy. This is a point that the apologists of monopoly often miss. They sometimes plead that even in such a system there may still be a competition among servants; presumably a competition in servility. But so there might be after Nationalization, when they were all Government servants. The whole objection to State Socialism vanishes, if that is an answer to the objection. If every shop were as thoroughly nationalized as a police station, it would not prevent the pleasing virtues of jealousy, intrigue, and selfish ambition from blooming and blossoming among them, as they sometimes do even among policemen.
Anyhow, that world exists; and to challenge that world may be called Utopian; to change that world may be called insanely Utopian. In that sense the name may be applied to me and those who agree with me, and we shall not quarrel with it. But in another sense the name is highly misleading and particularly inappropriate. The word “Utopia” implies not only difficulty of attainment but also other qualities attached to it in such examples as the Utopia of Mr. Wells. And it is essential to explain at once why they do not attach to our Utopia—if it is a Utopia.
There is such a thing as what we should call ideal Distributism; though we should not, in this vale of tears, expect Distributism to be ideal. In the same sense there certainly is such a thing as ideal Communism. But there is no such thing as ideal Capitalism; and there is no such thing as a Capitalist ideal. As we have already noticed (though it has not been noticed often enough), whenever the capitalist does become an idealist, and specially when he does become a sentimentalist, he always talks like a Socialist. He always talks about “social service” and our common interests in the whole community. From this it follows that in so far as such a man is likely to have such a thing as a Utopia, it will be more or less in the style of a Socialist Utopia. The successful financier can put up with an imperfect world, whether or no he has the Christian humility to recognize himself as one of its imperfections. But if he is called upon to conceive a perfect world, it will be something in the way of the pattern state of the Fabians or the I.L.P. He will look for something systematized, something simplified, something all on the same plan. And he will not get it; at least he will not get it from me. It is exactly from that simplification and sameness that I pray to be saved, and should be proud if I could save anybody. It is exactly from that order and unity that I call on the name of Liberty to deliver us.
We do not offer perfection; what we offer is proportion. We wish to correct the proportions of the modern state; but proportion is between varied things; and a proportion is hardly ever a pattern. It is as if we were drawing the picture of a living man and they thought we were drawing a diagram of wheels and rods for the construction of a Robot. We do not propose that in a healthy society all land should be held in the same way; or that all property should be owned on the same conditions; or that all citizens should have the same relation to the city. It is our whole point that the central power needs lesser powers to balance and check it, and that these must be of many kinds: some individual, some communal, some official, and so on. Some of them will probably abuse their privilege; but we prefer the risk to that of the State or of the Trust, which abuses its omnipotence.
For instance, I am sometimes blamed for not believing in my own age, or blamed still more for believing in my own religion. I am called medieval; and some have even traced in me a bias in favour of the Catholic Church to which I belong. But suppose we were to take a parallel from these things. If anyone said that medieval kings or modern peasant countries were to blame for tolerating patches of avowed Bolshevism, we should be rather surprised if we found that the remark really referred to their tolerating monasteries. Yet it is quite true in one sense that monasteries are devoted to Communism and that monks are all Communists. Their economic and ethical life is an exception to a general civilization of feudalism or family life. Yet their privileged position was regarded as rather a prop of social order. They give to certain communal ideas their proper and proportionate place in the State; and something of the same thing was true of the Common Land. We should welcome the chance of allowing any guilds or groups of a communal colour their proper and proportionate place in the State; we should be perfectly willing to mark off some part of the land as Common Land. What we say is that merely nationalizing all the land is like merely making monks of all the people; it is giving those ideals more than their proper and proportionate place in the State. The ordinary meaning of Communism is not that some people are Communists, but that all people are Communists. But we should not say, in the same hard and literal sense, that the meaning of Distributism is that all people are Distributists. We certainly should not say that the meaning of a peasant state is that all people are peasants. We should mean that it had the general character of a peasant state; that the land was largely held in that fashion and the law generally directed in that spirit; that any other institutions stood up as recognizable exceptions, as landmarks on that high tableland of equality.
If this is inconsistent, nothing is consistent; if this is unpractical, all human life in unpractical. If a man wants what he calls a flower-garden he plants flowers where he can, and especially where they will determine the general character of the landscape gardening. But they do not completely cover the garden; they only positively colour it. He does not expect roses to grow in the chimney-pots, or daisies to climb up the railings; still less does he expect tulips to grow on the pine, or the monkey tree to blossom like a rhododendron. But he knows perfectly well what he means by a flower-garden; and so does everybody else. If he does not want a flower-garden but a kitchen-garden, he proceeds differently. But he does not expect a kitchen-garden to be exactly like a kitchen. He does not dig out all the potatoes, because it is not a flower-garden and the potato has a flower. He knows the main thing he is trying to achieve; but, not being a born fool, he does not think he can achieve it everywhere in exactly the same degree, or in a manner equally unmixed with things of another sort. The flower-gardener will not banish nasturtiums to the kitchen-garden because some strange people have been known to eat them. Nor will the other class a vegetable as a flower because it is called a cauliflower. So, from our social garden, we should not necessarily exclude every modern machine any more than we should exclude every medieval monastery. And indeed the apologue is appropriate enough; for this is the sort of elementary human reason that men never lost until they lost their gardens: just as that higher reason that is more than human was lost with a garden long ago.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
II SOME ASPECTS OF BIG BUSINESS
- The Bluff of the Big Shops
- A Misunderstanding about Method
- A Case in Point
- The Tyranny of Trusts
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
I THE BLUFF OF THE BIG SHOPS
Twice in my life has an editor told me in so many words that he dared not print what I had written, because it would offend the advertisers in his paper. The presence of such pressure exists everywhere in a more silent and subtle form. But I have a great respect for the honesty of this particular editor; for it was, evidently as near to complete honesty as the editor of an important weekly magazine can possibly go. He told the truth about the falsehood he had to tell.
On both those occasions he denied me liberty of expression because I said that the widely advertised stores and large shops were really worse than little shops. That, it may be interesting to note, is one of the things that a man is now forbidden to say; perhaps the only thing he is really forbidden to say. If it had been an attack on Government, it would have been tolerated. If it had been an attack on God, it would have been respectfully and tactfully applauded. If I had been abusing marriage or patriotism or public decency, I should have been heralded in headlines and allowed to sprawl across Sunday newspapers. But the big newspaper is not likely to attack the big shop; being itself a big shop in its way and more and more a monument of monopoly. But it will be well if I repeat here in a book what I found it impossible to repeat in an article. I think the big shop is a bad shop. I think it bad not only in a moral but a mercantile sense; that is, I think shopping there is not only a bad action but a bad bargain. I think the monster emporium is not only vulgar and insolent, but incompetent and uncomfortable; and I deny that its large organization is efficient. Large organization is loose organization. Nay, it would be almost as true to say that organization is always disorganization. The only thing perfectly organic is an organism; like that grotesque and obscure organism called a man. He alone can be quite certain of doing what he wants; beyond him, every extra man may be an extra mistake. As applied to things like shops, the whole thing is an utter fallacy. Some things like armies have to be organized; and therefore do their very best to be well organized. You must have a long rigid line stretched out to guard a frontier; and therefore you stretch it tight. But it is not true that you must have a long rigid line of people trimming hats or tying bouquets, in order that they may be trimmed or tied neatly. The work is much more likely to be neat if it is done by a particular craftsman for a particular customer with particular ribbons and flowers. The person told to trim the hat will never do it quite suitably to the person who wants it trimmed; and the hundredth person told to do it will do it badly; as he does. If we collected all the stories from all the housewives and householders about the big shops sending the wrong goods, smashing the right goods, forgetting to send any sort of goods, we should behold a welter of inefficiency. There are far more blunders in a big shop than ever happen in a small shop, where the individual customer can curse the individual shopkeeper. Confronted with modern efficiency the customer is silent; well aware of that organization’s talent for sacking the wrong man. In short, organization is a necessary evil—which in this case is not necessary.
I have begun these notes with a note on the big shops because they are things near to us and familiar to us all. I need not dwell on other and still more entertaining claims made for the colossal combination of departments. One of the funniest is the statement that it is convenient to get everything in the same shop. That is to stay, it is convenient to walk the length of the street, so long as you walk indoors, or more frequently underground, instead of walking the same distance in the open air from one little shop to another. The truth is that the monopolists’ shops are really very convenient—to the monopolist. They have all the advantage of concentrating business as they concentrate wealth, in fewer and fewer of the citizens. Their wealth sometimes permits them to pay tolerable wages; their wealth also permits them to buy up better businesses and advertise worse goods. But that their own goods are better nobody has ever even begun to show; and most of us know any number of concrete cases where they are definitely worse. Now I expressed this opinion of my own (so shocking to the magazine editor and his advertisers) not only because it is an example of my general thesis that small properties should be revived, but because it is essential to the realization of another and much more curious truth. It concerns the psychology of all these things: of mere size, of mere wealth, of mere advertisement and arrogance. And it gives us the first working model of the way in which things are done to-day and the way in which (please God) they may be undone to-morrow.
There is one obvious and enormous and entirely neglected general fact to be noted before we consider the laws chiefly needed to renew the State. And that is the fact that one considerable revolution could be made without any laws at all. It does not concern any existing law, but rather an existing superstition. And the curious thing is that its upholders boast that it is a superstition. The other day I saw and very thoroughly enjoyed a popular play called It Pays to Advertise; which is all about a young business man who tries to break up the soap monopoly of his father, a more old-fashioned business man, by the wildest application of American theories of the psychology of advertising. One thing that struck me as rather interesting about it was this. It was quite good comedy to give the old man and the young man our sympathy in turn. It was quite good farce to make the old man and the young man each alternately look a fool. But nobody seemed to feel what I felt to be the most outstanding and obvious points of folly. They scoffed at the old man because he was old; because he was old-fashioned; because he himself was healthy enough to scoff at the monkey tricks of their mad advertisements. But nobody really criticized him for having made a corner, for which he might once have stood in a pillory. Nobody seemed to have enough instinct for independence and human dignity to be irritated at the idea that one purse-proud old man could prevent us all from having an ordinary human commodity if he chose. And as with the old man, so it was with the young man. He had been taught by his American friend that advertisement can hypnotize the human brain; that people are dragged by a deadly fascination into the doors of a shop as into the mouth of a snake; that the subconscious is captured and the will paralysed by repetition; that we are all made to move like mechanical dolls when a Yankee advertiser says, “Do It Now.” But it never seemed to occur to anybody to resent this. Nobody seemed sufficiently alive to be annoyed. The young man was made game of because he was poor; because he was bankrupt; because he was driven to the shifts of bankruptcy; and so on. But he did not seem to know he was something much worse than a swindler, a sorcerer. He did not know he was by his own boast a mesmerist and a mystagogue; a destroyer of reason and will; an enemy of truth and liberty.
I think such people exaggerate the extent to which it pays to advertise; even if there is only the devil to pay. But in one sense this psychological case for advertising is of great practical importance to any programme of reform. The American advertisers have got hold of the wrong end of the stick; but it is a stick that can be used to beat something else besides their own absurd big drum. It is a stick that can be used also to beat their own absurd business philosophy. They are always telling us that the success of modern commerce depends on creating an atmosphere, on manufacturing a mentality, on assuming a point of view. In short, they insist that their commerce is not merely commercial, or even economic or political, but purely psychological. I hope they will go on saying it; for then some day everybody may suddenly see that it is true.
For the success of big shops and such things really is psychology; not to say psycho-analysis; or, in other words, nightmare. It is not real and, therefore, not reliable. This point concerns merely our immediate attitude, at the moment and on the spot, towards the whole plutocratic occupation of which such publicity is the gaudy banner. The very first thing to do, before we come to any of our proposals that are political and legal, is something that really is (to use their beloved word) entirely psychological. The very first thing to do is to tell these American poker-players that they do not know how to play poker. For they not only bluff, but they boast that they are bluffing. In so far as it really is a question of an instant psychological method, there must be, and there is, an immediate psychological answer. In other words, because they are admittedly bluffing, we can call their bluff.
I said recently that any practical programme for restoring normal property consists of two parts, which current cant would call destructive and constructive; but which might more truly be called defensive and offensive. The first is stopping the mere mad stampede towards monopoly, before the last traditions of property and liberty are lost. It is with that preliminary problem of resisting the world’s trend towards being more monopolist, that I am first of all dealing here. Now, when we ask what we can do, here and now, against the actual growth of monopoly, we are always given a very simple answer. We are told that we can do nothing. By a natural and inevitable operation the large things are swallowing the small, as large fish might swallow little fish. The trust can absorb what it likes, like a dragon devouring what it likes, because it is already the largest creature left alive in the land. Some people are so finally resolved to accept this result that they actually condescend to regret it. They are so convinced that it is fate that they will even admit that it is fatality. The fatalists almost become sentimentalists when looking at the little shop that is being bought up by the big company. They are ready to weep, so long as it is admitted that they weep because they weep in vain. They are willing to admit that the loss of a little toy-shop of their childhood, or a little tea-shop of their youth, is even in the true sense a tragedy. For a tragedy means always a man’s struggle with that which is stronger than man. And it is the feet of the gods themselves that are here trampling on our traditions; it is death and doom themselves that have broken our little toys like sticks; for against the stars of destiny none shall prevail. It is amazing what a little bluff will do in this world.
For they go on saying that the big fish eats the little fish, without asking whether little fish swim up to big fish and ask to be eaten. They accept the devouring dragon without wondering whether a fashionable crowd of princesses ran after the dragon to be devoured. They have never heard of a fashion; and do not know the difference between fashion and fate. The necessitarians have here carefully chosen the one example of something that is certainly not necessary, whatever else is necessary. They have chosen the one thing that does happen still to be free, as a proof of the unbreakable chains in which all things are bound. Very little is left free in the modern world; but private buying and selling are still supposed to be free; and indeed still are free; if anyone has a will free enough to use his freedom. Children may be driven by force to a particular school. Men may be driven by force away from a public-house. All sorts of people, for all sorts of new and nonsensical reasons, may be driven by force to a prison. But nobody is yet driven by force to a particular shop.
I shall deal later with some practical remedies and reactions against the rush towards rings and corners. But even before we consider these, it is well to have paused a moment on the moral fact which is so elementary and so entirely ignored. Of all things in the world, the rush to the big shops is the thing that could be most easily stopped—by the people who rush there. We do not know what may come later; but they cannot be driven there by bayonets just yet. American business enterprise, which has already used British soldiers for purposes of advertisement, may doubtless in time use British soldiers for purposes of coercion. But we cannot yet be dragooned by guns and sabres into Yankee shops or international stores. The alleged economic attraction, with which I will deal in due course, is quite a different thing: I am merely pointing out that if we came to the conclusion that big shops ought to be boycotted, we could boycott them as easily as we should (I hope) boycott shops selling instruments of torture or poisons for private use in the home. In other words, this first and fundamental question is not a question of necessity but of will. If we chose to make a vow, if we chose to make a league, for dealing only with little local shops and never with large centralized shops, the campaign could be every bit as practical as the Land Campaign in Ireland. It would probably be nearly as successful. It will be said, of course, that people will go to the best shop. I deny it; for Irish boycotters did not take the best offer. I deny that the big shop is the best shop; and I especially deny that people go there because it is the best shop. And if I be asked why, I answer at the end with the unanswerable fact with which I began at the beginning. I know it is not merely a matter of business, for the simple reason that the business men themselves tell me it is merely a matter of bluff. It is they who say that nothing succeeds like a mere appearance of success. It is they who say that publicity influences us without our will or knowledge. It is they who say that “It Pays to Advertise”; that is, to tell people in a bullying way that they must “Do It Now,” when they need not do it at all.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
II A MISUNDERSTANDING ABOUT METHOD
Before I go any further with this sketch, I find I must pause upon a parenthesis touching the nature of my task, without which the rest of it may be misunderstood. As a matter of fact, without pretending to any official or commercial experience, I am here doing a great deal more than has ever been asked of most of the mere men of letters (if I may call myself for the moment a man of letters) when they confidently conducted social movements or setup social ideals. I will promise that, by the end of these notes, the reader shall know a great deal more about how men might set about making a Distributive State than the readers of Carlyle ever knew about how they should set about finding a Hero King or a Real Superior. I think we can explain how to make a small shop or a small farm a common feature of our society better than Matthew Arnold explained how to make the State the organ of Our Best Self. I think the farm will be marked on some sort of rude map more clearly than the Earthly Paradise on the navigation chart of William Morris; and I think that in comparison with his News from Nowhere this might fairly be called News from Somewhere. Rousseau and Ruskin were often much more vague and visionary than I am; though Rousseau was even more rigid in abstractions, and Ruskin was sometimes very much excited about particular details. I need not say that I am not comparing myself to these great men; I am only pointing out that even from these, whose minds dominated so much wider a field, and whose position as publicists was much more respected and responsible, nothing was as a matter of fact asked beyond the general principles we are accused of giving. I am merely pointing out that the task has fallen to a very minor poet when these very major prophets were not required to carry out and complete the fulfilment of their own prophecies. It would seem that our fathers did not think it quite so futile to have a clear vision of the goal with or without a detailed map of the road; or to be able to describe a scandal without going on to describe a substitute. Anyhow, for whatever reason, it is quite certain that if I really were great enough to deserve the reproaches of the utilitarians, if I really were as merely idealistic or imaginative as they make me out, if I really did confine myself to describing a direction without exactly measuring a road, to pointing towards home or heaven and telling men to use their own good sense in getting there—if this were really all that I could do, it would be all that men immeasurably greater than I am were ever expected to do; from Plato and Isaiah to Emerson and Tolstoy.
But it is not all that I can do; even though those who did not do it did so much more. I can do something else as well; but I can only do it if it be understood what I am doing. At the same time I am well aware that, in explaining the improvement of so elaborate a society, a man may often find it very difficult to explain exactly what he is doing, until it is done. I have considered and rejected half a dozen ways of approaching the problem, by different roads that all lead to the same truth. I had thought of beginning with the simple example of the peasant; and then I knew that a hundred correspondents would leap upon me, accusing me of trying to turn all of them into peasants. I thought of beginning with describing a decent Distributive State in being, with all its balance of different things; just as the Socialists describe their Utopia in being, with its concentration in one thing. Then I knew a hundred correspondents would call me Utopian; and say it was obvious my scheme could not work, because I could only describe it when it was working. But what they would really mean by my being Utopian, would be this: that until that scheme was working, there was no work to be done. I have finally decided to approach the social solution in this fashion: to point out first that the monopolist momentum is not irresistible; that even here and now much could be done to modify it, much by anybody, almost everything by everybody. Then I would maintain that on the removal of that particular plutocratic pressure, the appetite and appreciation of natural property would revive, like any other natural thing. Then, I say, it will be worth while to propound to people thus returning to sanity, however sporadically, a sane society that could balance property and control machinery. With the description of that ultimate society, with its laws and limitations, I would conclude.
Now that may or may not be a good arrangement or order of ideas; but it is an intelligible one; and I submit with all humility that I have a right to arrange my explanations in that order, and no critic has a right to complain that I do not disarrange them in order to answer questions out of their order. I am willing to write him a whole Encyclopaedia of Distributism if he has the patience to read it; but he must have the patience to read it. It is unreasonable for him to complain that I have not dealt adequately with Zoology, State Provision For, under the letter B; or described the honourable social status of the Guild of the Xylographers while I am still dealing alphabetically with the Guild of Architects. I am willing to be as much of a bore as Euclid; but the critic must not complain that the forty-eighth proposition of the second book is not a part of the Pons Asinorum. The ancient Guild of Bridge-Builders will have to build many such bridges.
Now from comments that have come my way, I gather that the suggestions I have already made may not altogether explain their own place and purpose in this scheme. I am merely pointing out that monopoly is not omnipotent even now and here; and that anybody could think, on the spur of the moment, of many ways in which its final triumph can be delayed and perhaps defeated. Suppose a monopolist who is my mortal enemy endeavours to ruin me by preventing me from selling eggs to my neighbours, I can tell him I shall live on my own turnips in my own kitchen-garden. I do not mean to tie myself to turnips; or swear never to touch my own potatoes or beans. I mean the turnips as an example; something to throw at him. Suppose the wicked millionaire in question comes and grins over my garden wall and says, “I perceive by your starved and emaciated appearance that you are in immediate need of a few shillings; but you can’t possibly get them,” I may possibly be stung into retorting, “Yes, I can. I could sell my first edition of Martin Chuzzlewit.” I do not necessarily mean that I see myself already in a pauper’s grave unless I can sell Martin Chuzzlewit; I do not mean that I have nothing else to suggest except selling Martin Chuzzlewit; I do not mean to brag like any common politician that I have nailed my colours to the Martin Chuzzlewit policy. I mean to tell the offensive pessimist that I am not at the end of my resources; that I can sell a book or even, if the case grows desperate, write a book. I could do a great many things before I came to definitely anti-social action like robbing a bank or (worse still) working in a bank. I could do a great many things of a great many kinds, and I give an example at the start to suggest that there are many more of them, not that there are no more of them. There are a great many things of a great many kinds in my house, besides the copy of a Martin Chuzzlewit. Not many of them are of great value except to me; but some of them are of some value to anybody. For the whole point of a home is that it is a hotch-potch. And mine, at any rate, rises to that austere domestic ideal. The whole point of one’s own house is that it is not only a number of totally different things, which are nevertheless one thing, but it is one in which we still value even the things that we forget. If a man has burnt my house to a heap of ashes, I am none the less justly indignant with him for having burnt everything, because I cannot at first even remember everything he has burnt. And as it is with the household gods, so it is with the whole of that household religion, or what remains of it, to offer resistance to the destructive discipline of industrial capitalism. In a simpler society, I should rush out of the ruins, calling for help on the Commune or the King, and crying out, “Haro! a robber has burnt my house.” I might, of course, rush down the street crying in one passionate breath, “Haro! a robber has burnt my front door of seasoned oak with the usual fittings, fourteen window frames, nine curtains, five and a half carpets, 753 books, of which four were editions de luxe, one portrait of my great-grandmother,” and so on through all the items; but something would be lost of the fierce and simple feudal cry. And in the same way I could have begun this outline with an inventory of all the alterations I should like to see in the laws, with the object of establishing some economic justice in England. But I doubt whether the reader would have had any better idea of what I was ultimately driving at; and it would not have been the approach by which I propose at present to drive. I shall have occasion later to go into some slight detail about these things; but the cases I give are merely illustrations of my first general thesis: that we are not even at the moment doing everything that could be done to resist the rush of monopoly; and that when people talk as if nothing could now be done, that statement is false at the start; and that all sorts of answers to it will immediately occur to the mind.
Capitalism is breaking up; and in one sense we do not pretend to be sorry it is breaking up. Indeed, we might put our own point pretty correctly by saying that we would help it to break up; but we do not want it merely to break down. But the first fact to realize is precisely that; that it is a choice between its breaking up and its breaking down. It is a choice between its being voluntarily resolved into its real component parts, each taking back its own, and its merely collapsing on our heads in a crash or confusion of all its component parts, which some call communism and some call chaos. The former is the one thing all sensible people should try to procure. The latter is the one thing that all sensible people should try to prevent. That is why they are often classed together.
I have mainly confined myself to answering what I have always found to be the first question, “What are we to do now?” To that I answer, “What we must do now is to stop the other people from doing what they are doing now.” The initiative is with the enemy. It is he who is already doing things, and will have done them long before we can begin to do anything, since he has the money, the machinery, the rather mechanical majority, and other things which we have first to gain and then to use. He has nearly completed a monopolist conquest, but not quite; and he can still be hampered and halted. The world has woken up very late; but that is not our fault. That is the fault of all the fools who told us for twenty years that there could never be any Trusts; and are now telling us, equally wisely, that there can never be anything else.
There are other things I ask the reader to bear in mind. The first is that this outline is only an outline, though one that can hardly avoid some curves and loops. I do not profess to dispose of all the obstacles that might arise in this question, because so many of them would seem to many to be quite a different question. I will give one example of what I mean. What would the critical reader have thought, if at the very beginning of this sketch I had gone off into a long disputation about the Law of Libel? Yet, if I were strictly practical, I should find that one of the most practical obstacles. It is the present ridiculous position that monopoly is not resisted as a social force but can still be resented as a legal imputation. If you try to stop a man cornering milk, the first thing that happens will be a smashing libel action for calling it a corner. It is manifestly mere common sense that if the thing is not a sin it is not a slander. As things stand, there is no punishment for the man who does it; but there is a punishment for the man who discovers it. I do not deal here (though I am quite prepared to deal elsewhere) with all these detailed difficulties which a society as now constituted would raise against such a society as we want to constitute. If it were constituted on the principles I suggest, those details would be dealt with on those principles as they arose. For instance, it would put an end to the nonsense whereby men, who are more powerful than emperors, pretend to be private tradesmen suffering from private malice; it will assert that those who are in practice public men must be criticized as potential public evils. It would destroy the absurdity by which an “important case” is tried by a “special jury”; or, in other words, that any serious issue between rich and poor is tried by the rich. But the reader will see that I cannot here rule out all the ten thousand things that might trip us up; I must assume that a people ready to take the larger risks would also take the smaller ones.
Now this outline is an outline; in other words, it is a design, and anybody who thinks we can have practical things without theoretical designs can go and quarrel with the nearest engineer or architect for drawing thin lines on thin paper. But there is another and more special sense in which my suggestion is an outline; in the sense that it is deliberately drawn as a large limitation within which there are many varieties. I have long been acquainted, and not a little amused, with the sort of practical man who will certainly say that I generalize because there is no practical plan. The truth is that I generalize because there are so many practical plans. I myself know four or five schemes that have been drawn up, more or less drastically, for the diffusion of capital. The most cautious, from a capitalist standpoint, is the gradual extension of profit-sharing. A more stringently democratic form of the same thing is the management of every business (if it cannot be a small business) by a guild or group clubbing their contributions and dividing their results. Some Distributists dislike the idea of the workman having shares only where he has work; they think he would be more independent if his little capital were invested elsewhere; but they all agree that he ought to have the capital to invest. Others continue to call themselves Distributists because they would give every citizen a dividend out of much larger national systems of production. I deliberately draw out my general principles so as to cover as many as possible of these alternative business schemes. But I object to being told that I am covering so many because I know there are none. If I tell a man he is too luxurious and extravagant, and that he ought to economize in something, I am not bound to give him a list of his luxuries. The point is that he will be all the better for cutting down any of his luxuries. And my point is that modern society would be all the better for cutting up property by any of these processes. This does not mean that I have not my own favourite form; personally I prefer the second type of division given in the above list of examples. But my main business is to point out that any reversal of the rush to concentrate property will be an improvement on the present state of things. If I tell a man his house is burning down in Putney, he may thank me even if I do not give him a list of all the vehicles which go to Putney, with the numbers of all the taxicabs and the time-table of all the trams. It is enough that I know there are a great many vehicles for him to choose from, before he is reduced to the proverbial adventure of going to Putney on a pig. It is enough that any one of those vehicles is on the whole less uncomfortable than a house on fire or even a heap of ashes. I admit I might be called unpractical if impenetrable forests and destructive floods lay between here and Putney; it might then be as merely idealistic to praise Putney as to praise Paradise. But I do not admit that I am unpractical because I know there are half a dozen practical ways which are more practical than the present state of things. But it does not follow, in fact, that I do not know how to get to Putney. Here, for instance, are half a dozen things which would help the process of Distributism, apart from those on which I shall have occasion to touch as points of principle. Not all Distributists would agree with all of them; but all would agree that they are in the direction of Distributism. (1) The taxation of contracts so as to discourage the sale of small property to big proprietors and encourage the break-up of big property among small proprietors. (2) Something like the Napoleonic testamentary law and the destruction of primogeniture. (3) The establishment of free law for the poor, so that small property could always be defended against great. (4) The deliberate protection of certain experiments in small property, if necessary by tariffs and even local tariffs. (5) Subsidies to foster the starting of such experiments. (6) A league of voluntary dedication, and any number of other things of the same kind. But I have inserted this chapter here in order to explain that this is a sketch of the first principles of Distributism and not of the last details, about which even Distributists might dispute. In such a statement, examples are given as examples, and not as exact and exhaustive lists of all the cases covered by the rule. If this elementary principle of exposition be not understood I must be content to be called an unpractical person by that sort of practical man. And indeed in his sense there is something in his accusation. Whether or no I am a practical man, I am not what is called a practical politician, which means a professional politician. I can claim no part in the glory of having brought our country to its present promising and hopeful condition. Harder heads than mine have established the present prosperity of coal. Men of action, of a more rugged energy, have brought us to the comfortable condition of living on our capital. I have had no part in the great industrial revolution which has increased the beauties of nature and reconciled the classes of society; nor must the too enthusiastic reader think of thanking me for this more enlightened England, in which the employee is living on a dole from the State and the employer on an overdraft at the Bank.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
III A CASE IN POINT
It is as natural to our commercial critics to argue in a circle as to travel on the Inner Circle. It is not mere stupidity, but it is mere habit; and it is not easy either to break into or to escape from that iron ring. When we say things can be done, we commonly mean either that they could be done by the mass of men, or else by the ruler of the State. I gave an example of something that could be done quite easily by the mass; and here I will give an example of something that could be done quite easily by the ruler. But we must be prepared for our critics beginning to argue in a circle and saying that the present populace will never agree or the present ruler act in that way. But this complaint is a confusion. We are answering people who call our ideal impossible in itself. If you do not want it, of course, you will not try to get it; but do not say that because you do not want it, it follows that you could not get it if you did want it. A thing does not become intrinsically impossible merely by a mob not trying to obtain it; nor does a thing cease to be practical politics because no politician is practical enough to do it.
I will start with a small and familiar example. In order to ensure that our huge proletariat should have a holiday, we have a law obliging all employers to shut their shops for half a day once a week. Given the proletarian principle, it is a healthy and necessary thing for a proletarian state; just as the saturnalia is a healthy and necessary thing for a slave state. Given this provision for the proletariat, a practical person will naturally say: “It has other advantages, too; it will be a chance for anybody who chooses to do his own dirty work; for the man who can manage without servants.” That degraded being who actually knows how to do things himself, will have a look in at last. That isolated crank, who can really work for his own living, may possibly have a chance to live. A man does not need to be a Distributist to say this; it is the ordinary and obvious thing that anybody would say. The man who has servants must cease to work his servants. Of course, the man who has no servants to work cannot cease to work them. But the law is actually so constructed that it forces this man also to give a holiday to the servants he has not got. He proclaims a saturnalia that never happens to a crowd of phantom slaves that have never been there. Now there is not a rudiment of reason about this arrangement. In every possible sense, from the immediate material to the abstract and mathematical sense, it is quite mad. We live in days of dangerous division of interests between the employer and the employed. Therefore, even when the two are not divided, but actually united in one person, we must divide them again into two parties. We coerce a man into giving himself something he does not want, because somebody else who does not exist might want it. We warn him that he had better receive a deputation from himself, or he might go on strike against himself. Perhaps he might even become a Bolshevist, and throw a bomb at himself; in which case he would have no other course left to his stern sense of law and order but to read the Riot Act and shoot himself. They call us unpractical; but we have not yet produced such an academic fantasy as this. They sometimes suggest that our regret for the disappearance of the yeoman or the apprentice is a mere matter of sentiment. Sentimental! We have not quite sunk to such sentimentalism as to be sorry for apprentices who never existed at all. We have not quite reached that richness of romantic emotion that we are capable of weeping more copiously for an imaginary grocer’s assistant than for a real grocer. We are not quite so maudlin yet as to see double when we look into our favourite little shop; or to set the little shopkeeper fighting with his own shadow. Let us leave these hard-headed and practical men of business shedding tears over the sorrows of a non-existent office boy, and proceed upon our own wild and erratic path, that at least happens to pass across the land of the living.
Now if so small a change as that were made to-morrow, it would make a difference: a considerable and increasing difference. And if any rash apologist of Big Business tells me that a little thing like that could make very little difference, let him beware. For he is doing the one thing which such apologists commonly avoid above all things: he is contradicting his masters. Among the thousand things of interest, which are lost in the million things of no interest, in the newspaper reports of Parliament and public affairs, there really was one delightful little comedy dealing with this point. Some man of normal sense and popular instincts, who had strayed into Parliament by some mistake or other, actually pointed out this plain fact: that there was no need to protect the proletariat where there was no proletariat to protect; and that the lonely shopkeeper might, therefore, remain in his lonely shop. And the Minister in charge of the matter actually replied, with a ghastly innocence, that it was impossible; for it would be unfair to the big shops. Tears evidently flow freely in such circles, as they did from the rising politician, Lord Lundy; and in this case it was the mere thought of the possible sufferings of the millionaires that moved him. There rose before his imagination Mr. Selfridge in his agony, and the groans of Mr. Woolworth, of the Woolworth Tower, thrilled through the kind hearts to which the cry of the sorrowing rich will never come in vain. But whatever we may think of the sensibility needed to regard the big store-owners as objects of sympathy, at any rate it disposes at a stroke of all the fashionable fatalism that sees something inevitable in their success. It is absurd to tell us that our attack is bound to fail; and then that there would be something quite unscrupulous in its so immediately succeeding. Apparently Big Business must be accepted because it is invulnerable, and spared because it is vulnerable. This big absurd bubble can never conceivably be burst; and it is simply cruel that a little pin-prick of competition can burst it.
I do not know whether the big shops are quite so weak and wobbly as their champion said. But whatever the immediate effect on the big shops, I am sure there would be an immediate effect on the little shops. I am sure that if they could trade on the general holiday, it would not only mean that there would be more trade for them, but that there would be more of them trading. It might mean at last a large class of little shopkeepers; and that is exactly the sort of thing that makes all the political difference, as it does in the case of a large class of little farmers. It is not in the merely mechanical sense a matter of numbers. It is a matter of the presence and pressure of a particular social type. It is not a question merely of how many noses are counted; but in the more real sense whether the noses count. If there were anything that could be called a class of peasants, or a class of small shopkeepers, they would make their presence felt in legislation, even if it were what is called class legislation. And the very existence of that third class would be the end of what is called the class war; in so far as its theory divides all men into employers and employed. I do not mean, of course, that this little legal alteration is the only one I have to propose; I mention it first because it is the most obvious. But I mention it also because it illustrates very clearly what I mean by the two stages: the nature of the negative and positive reform. If little shops began to gain custom and big shops began to lose it, it would mean two things, both indeed preliminary but both practical. It would mean that the mere centripetal rush was slowed down, if not stopped, and might at last change to a centrifugal movement. And it would mean that there were a number of new citizens in the State to whom all the ordinary Socialist or servile arguments were inapplicable. Now when you have got your considerable sprinkling of small proprietors, of men with the psychology and philosophy of small property, then you can begin to talk to them about something more like a just general settlement upon their own lines; something more like a land fit for Christians to live in. You can make them understand, as you cannot make plutocrats or proletarians understand, why the machine must not exist save as the servant of the man, why the things we produce ourselves are precious like our own children, and why we can pay too dearly for the possession of luxury by the loss of liberty. If bodies of men only begin to be detached from the servile settlements, they will begin to form the body of our public opinion. Now there are a large number of other advantages that could be given to the small man, which can be considered in their place. In all of them I presuppose a deliberate policy of favouring the small man. But in the primary example here given we can hardly even say that there is any question of favour. You make a law that slave-owners shall free their slaves for a day: the man who has no slaves is outside the thing entirely; he does not come under it in law, because he does not come into it in logic. He has been deliberately dragged into it; not in order that all slaves shall be free for a day, but in order that all free men shall be slaves for a lifetime. But while some of the expedients are only common justice to small property, and others are deliberate protection of small property, the point at the moment is that it will be worth while at the beginning to create small property though it were only on a small scale. English citizens and yeomen would once more exist; and wherever they exist they count. There are many other ways, which can be briefly described, by which the break-up of property can be encouraged on the legal and legislative side. I shall deal with some of them later, and especially with the real responsibility which Government might reasonably assume in a financial and economic condition which is becoming quite ludicrous. From the standpoint of any sane person, in any other society, the present problem of capitalist concentration is not only a question of law but of criminal law, not to mention criminal lunacy.
Of that monstrous megalomania of the big shops, with their blatant advertisements and stupid standardization, something is said elsewhere. But it may be well to add, in the matter of the small shops, that when once they exist they generally have an organization of their own which is much more self-respecting and much less vulgar. This voluntary organization, as every one knows, is called a Guild; and it is perfectly capable of doing everything that really needs to be done in the way of holidays and popular festivals. Twenty barbers would be quite capable of arranging with each other not to compete with each other on a particular festival or in a particular fashion, It is amusing to note that the same people who say that a Guild is a dead medieval thing that would never work are generally grumbling against the power of a Guild as a living modern thing where it is actually working. In the case of the Guild of the Doctors, for instance, it is made a matter of reproach in the newspapers, that the confederation in question refuses to “make medical discoveries accessible to the general public.” When we consider the wild and unbalanced nonsense that is made accessible to the general public by the public press, perhaps we have some reason to doubt whether our souls and bodies are not at least as safe in the hands of a Guild as they are likely to be in the hands of a Trust. For the moment the main point is that small shops can be governed even if they are not bossed by the Government. Horrible as this may seem to the democratic idealists of the day, they can be governed by themselves.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
IV THE TYRANNY OF TRUSTS
We have most of us met in literature, and even in life, a certain sort of old gentleman; he is very often represented by an old clergyman. He is the sort of man who has a horror of Socialists without any very definite idea of what they are. He is the man of whom men say that he means well; by which they mean that he means nothing. But this view is a little unjust to this social type. He is really something more than well-meaning; we might even go so far as to say that he would probably be right-thinking, if he ever thought. His principles would probably be sound enough if they were really applied; it is his practical ignorance that prevents him from knowing the world to which they are applicable. He might really be right, only he has no notion of what is wrong. Those who have sat under this old gentleman know that he is in the habit of softening his stern repudiation of the mysterious Socialists by saying that, of course, it is a Christian duty to use our wealth well, to remember that property is a trust committed to us by Providence for the good of others as well as ourselves, and even (unless the old gentleman is old enough to be a Modernist) that it is just possible that we may some day be asked a question or two about the abuse of such a trust. Now all this is perfectly true, so far as it goes, but it happens to illustrate in a rather curious way the queer and even uncanny innocence of the old gentleman. The very phrase that he uses, when he says that property is a trust committed to us by Providence, is a phrase which takes on, when it is uttered to the world around him, the character of an awful and appalling pun. His pathetic little sentence returns in a hundred howling echoes, repeating it again and again like the laughter of a hundred fiends in hell: “Property is a Trust.”
Now I could not more conveniently sum up what I meant by this first section than by taking this type of the dear old conservative clergyman, and considering the curious way in which he has been first caught napping, and then as it were knocked on the head. The first thing we have had to explain to him is expressed in that horrible pun about the Trust. While he has been crying out against imaginary robbers, whom he calls Socialists, he has been caught and carried away bodily by real robbers, whom he still could not even imagine. For the gangs of gamblers who make the great combines are really gangs of robbers, in the sense that they have far less feeling than anybody else for that individual responsibility for individual gifts of God which the old gentleman very rightly calls a Christian duty. While he has been weaving words in the air about irrelevant ideals, he has been caught in a net woven out of the very opposite words and notions: impersonal, irresponsible, irreligious. The financial forces that surround him are further away than anything else from the domestic idea of ownership with which, to do him justice, he himself began. So that when he still bleats faintly, “Property is a trust,” we shall reply firmly, “A trust is not property.”
And now I come to the really extraordinary thing about the old gentleman. I mean that I come to the queerest fact about the conventional or conservative type in modern English society. And that is the fact that the same society, which began by saying there was no such danger to avoid, now says that the danger cannot possibly be avoided. Our whole capitalist community has taken one huge stride from the extreme of optimism to the extreme of pessimism. They began by saying that there could not be Trusts in this country. They have ended by saying that there cannot be anything else except Trusts in this age. And in the course of calling the same thing impossible on Monday and inevitable on Tuesday, they have saved the life of the great gambler or robber twice over; first by calling him a fabulous monster, and second by calling him an almighty fate. Twelve years ago, when I talked of Trusts, people said: “There are no Trusts in England.” Now, when I say it, the same people say: “But how do you propose that England should escape from the Trusts?” They talk as if the Trusts had always been a part of the British Constitution, not to mention the Solar System. In short, the pun and parable with which I began this article have exactly and ironically come true. The poor old clergyman is now really driven to talk as if a Trust with a big T were something that had been bestowed on him by Providence. He is driven to abandon all that he originally meant by his own curious sort of Christian individualism, and hastily reconcile himself to something that is more like a sort of plutocratic collectivism. He is beginning, in a rather bewildered way, to understand that he must now say that monopoly and not merely private property is a part of the nature of things. The net had been thrown over him while he slept, because he never thought of such a thing as a net; because he would have denied the very possibility of anybody weaving such a net. But now the poor old gentleman has to begin to talk as if he had been born in the net. Perhaps, as I say, he has had a knock on the head; perhaps, as his enemies say, he was always just a little weak in the head. But, anyhow, now that his head is in the noose, or the net, he will often start preaching to us about the impossibility of escaping from nets and nooses that are woven or spun upon the wheel of the fates. In a word, I wish to point out that the old gentleman was much too heedless about getting into the net and is much too hopeless about getting out of it.
In short, I would sum up my general suggestions so far by saying that the chief danger to be avoided now, and the first danger to be considered now, is the danger of supposing the capitalist conquest more complete than it is. If I may use the terms of the Penny Catechism about the two sins against hope, the peril now is no longer the peril of presumption but rather of despair. It is not mere impudence like that of those who told us, without winking an eyelid, that there were no Trusts in England. It is rather mere impotence like that of those who tell us that England must soon be swallowed up in an earthquake called America. Now this sort of surrender to modern monopoly is not only ignoble, it is also panic-stricken and premature. It is not true that we can do nothing. What I have written so far has been directed to showing the doubtful and the terrified that it is not true that we can do nothing. Even now there is something that can be done, and done at once; though the things so to be done may appear to be of different kinds and even of degrees of effectiveness. Even if we only save a shop in our own street or stop a conspiracy in our own trade, or get a Bill to punish such conspiracies pressed by our own member, we may come in the nick of time and make all the difference.
To vary the metaphor to a military one, what has happened is that the monopolists have attempted an encircling movement. But the encircling movement is not yet complete. Unless we do something it will be complete; but it is not true to say that we can do nothing to prevent it being completed. We are in favour of striking out, of making sorties or sallies, of trying to pierce certain points in the line (far enough apart and chosen for their weakness), of breaking through the gap in the uncompleted circle. Most people around us are for surrender to the surprise; precisely because it was to them so complete a surprise. Yesterday they denied that the enemy could encircle. The day before yesterday they denied that the enemy could exist. They are paralysed as by a prodigy. But just as we never agreed that the thing was impossible, so we do not now agree that it is irresistible. Action ought to have been taken long ago; but action can still be taken now. That is why it is worth while to dwell on the diverse expedients already given as examples. A chain is as strong as its weakest link; a battleline is as strong as its weakest man; an encircling movement is as strong as its weakest point, the point at which the circle may still be broken. Thus, to begin with, if anybody asks me in this matter, “What am I to do now?” I answer, “Do anything, however small, that will prevent the completion of the work of capitalist combination. Do anything that will even delay that completion. Save one shop out of a hundred shops. Save one croft out of a hundred crofts. Keep open one door out of a hundred doors; for so long as one door is open, we are not in prison. Throw up one barricade in their way, and you will soon see whether it is the way the world is going. Put one spoke in their wheel, and you will soon see whether it is the wheel of fate.” For it is of the essence of their enormous and unnatural effort that a small failure is as big as a big failure. The modern commercial combine has a great many points in common with a big balloon. It is swollen and yet it is swollen with levity; it climbs and yet it drifts; above all, it is full of gas, and generally of poison gas. But the resemblance most relevant here is that the smallest prick will shrivel the biggest balloon. If this tendency of our time received anything like a reasonably definite check, I believe the whole tendency would soon begin to weaken in its preposterous prestige. Until monopoly is monopolist it is nothing. Until the combine can combine everything, it is nothing. Ahab has not his kingdom so long as Naboth has his vineyard. Haman will not be happy in the palace while Mordecai is sitting in the gate. A hundred tales of human history are there to show that tendencies can be turned back, and that one stumbling-block can be the turning-point. The sands of time are simply dotted with single stakes that have thus marked the turn of the tide. The first step towards ultimately winning is to make sure that the enemy does not win, if it be only that he does not win everywhere. Then, when we have halted his rush, and perhaps fought it to a standstill, we may begin a general counter-attack. The nature of that counter-attack I shall next proceed to consider. In other words, I will try to explain to the old clergyman caught in the net (whose sufferings are ever before my eyes) what it will no doubt comfort him to know: that he was wrong from the first in thinking there could be no net; that he is wrong now in thinking there is no escape from the net; and that he will never know how wrong he was till he finds he has a net of his own, and is once more a fisher of men.
I began by enunciating the paradox that one way of supporting small shops would be to support them. Everybody could do it, but nobody can imagine it being done. In one sense nothing is so simple, and in another nothing is so hard. I went on to point out that without any sweeping change at all, the mere modification of existing laws would probably call thousands of little shops into life and activity. I may have occasion to return to the little shops at greater length; but for the moment I am only running rapidly through certain separate examples, to show that the citadel of plutocracy could even now be attacked from many different sides. It could be met by a concerted effort in the open field of competition. It could be checked by the creation or even correction of a large number of little laws. Thirdly, it could be attacked by the more sweeping operation of larger laws. But when we come to these, even at this stage, we also come into collision with larger questions.
The common sense of Christendom, for ages on end, has assumed that it was as possible to punish cornering as to punish coining. Yet to most readers to-day there seems a sort of vital contradiction, echoed in the verbal contradiction of saying, “Put not your trust in Trusts.” Yet to our fathers this would not seem even so much of a paradox as saying, “Put not your trust in princes,” but rather like saying, “Put not your trust in pirates.” But in applying this to modern conditions, we are checked first by a very modern sophistry.
When we say that a corner should be treated as a conspiracy, we are always told that the conspiracy is too elaborate to be unravelled. In other words, we are told that the conspirators are too conspiratorial to be caught. Now it is exactly at this point that my simple and childlike confidence in the business expert entirely breaks down. My attitude, a moment ago trustful and confiding, becomes disrespectful and frivolous. I am willing to agree that I do not know much about the details of business, but not that nobody could possibly ever come to know anything about them. I am willing to believe that there are people in the world who like to feel that they depend for the bread of life on one particular bounder, who probably began by making large profits on short weight. I am willing to believe that there are people so strangely constituted that they like to see a great nation held up by a small gang, more lawless than brigands but not so brave. In short, I am willing to admit that there may be people who trust in Trusts. I admit it with tears, like those of the benevolent captain in the Bab Ballads who said:
“It’s human nature p’raps; if so, Oh, isn’t human nature low?”
I myself doubt whether it is quite so low as that; but I admit the possibility of this utter lowness; I admit it with weeping and lamentation. But when they tell me it would be impossible to find out whether a man is making a Trust or not—that is quite another thing. My demeanour alters. My spirits revive. When I am told that if cornering were a crime nobody could be convicted of that crime— then I laugh; nay, I jeer.
A murder is usually committed, we may infer, when one gentleman takes a dislike to the appearance of another gentleman in Piccadilly Circus at eleven o’clock in the morning; and steps up to the object of his distaste and dexterously cuts his throat. He then walks across to the kind policeman who is regulating the traffic, and draws his attention to the presence of the corpse on the pavement, consulting him about how to dispose of the encumbrance. That is apparently how these people expect financial crimes to be done, in order to be discovered. Sometimes indeed they are done almost as brazenly, in communities where they can safely be discovered. But the theory of legal impotence looks very extraordinary when we consider the sort of things that the police do discover. Look at the sort of murders they discover. An utterly ordinary and obscure man in some hole-and-corner house or tenement among ten thousand like it, washes his hands in a sink in a back scullery; the operation taking two minutes. The police can discover that, but they could not possibly discover the meeting of men or the sending of messages that turn the whole commercial world upside down. They can track a man that nobody has ever heard of to a place where nobody knew he was going, to do something that he took every possible precaution that nobody should see. But they cannot keep a watch on a man that everybody has heard of, to see whether he communicates with another man that everybody has heard of, in order to do something that nearly everybody knows he is trying all his life to do. They can tell us all about the movements of a man whose own wife or partner or landlady does not profess to know his movements; but they cannot tell when a great combination covering half the earth is on the move. Are the police really so foolish as this; or are they at once so foolish and so wise? Or if the police were as helpless as Sherlock Holmes thought them, what about Sherlock Holmes? What about the ardent amateur detective about whom all of us have read and some of us (alas!) have written. Is there no inspired sleuth to succeed where all the police have failed; and prove conclusively from a greasy spot on the tablecloth that Mr. Rockefeller is interested in oil? Is there no keen-faced man to infer from the late Lord Leverhulme buying up a crowd of soap-businesses that he was interested in soap? I feel inclined to write a new series of detective stories myself, about the discovery of these obscure and cryptic things. They would describe Sherlock Holmes with his monstrous magnifying-glass poring over a paper and making out one of the headlines letter by letter. They would show us Watson standing in amazement at the discovery of the Bank of England. My stories would bear the traditional sort of titles, such as “The Secret of the Skysign” and “The Mystery of the Megaphone” and “The Adventure of the Unnoticed Hoarding.”
What these people really mean is that they cannot imagine cornering being treated like coining. They cannot imagine attempted forestalling, or, indeed, any activity of the rich, coming into the realm of the criminal law at all. It would give them a shock to think of such men subjected to such tests. I will give one obvious example. The science of finger-prints is perpetually paraded before us by the criminologists when they merely want to glorify their not very glorious science. Finger-prints would prove as easily whether a millionaire had used a pen as whether a housebreaker had used a jemmy. They might show as clearly that a financier had used a telephone as that a burglar had used a ladder. But if we began to talk about taking the finger-prints of financiers, everybody would think it was a joke. And so it is: a very grim joke. The laughter that leaps up spontaneously at the suggestion is itself a proof that nobody takes seriously, or thinks of taking seriously, the idea of rich men and poor being equal before the law.
That is the reason why we do not treat Trust magnates and monopolists as they would be treated under the old laws of popular justice. And that is the reason why I take their case at this stage, and in this section of my remarks, along with such apparently light and superficial things as transferring custom from one shop to another. It is because in both cases it is a question wholly and solely of moral will; and not in the least, in any sense, a question of economic law. In other words, it is a lie to say that we cannot make a law to imprison monopolists, or pillory monopolists, or hang monopolists if we choose, as our fathers did before us. And in the same sense it is a lie to say that we cannot help buying the best advertised goods or going to the biggest shop or falling in, in our general social habits, with the general social trend. We could help it in a hundred ways; from the very simple one of walking out of a shop to the more ceremonial one of hanging a man on a gallows. If we mean that we do not want to help it, that may be very true, and even in some cases very right. But arresting a forestaller is as easy as falling off a log or walking out of a shop. Putting the log-roller in prison is no more impossible than walking out of the shop is impossible; and it is highly desirable for the health of this discussion that we should realize the fact from the first. Practically about half of the recognized expedients by which a big business is now made have been marked down as a crime in some community of the past; and could be so marked in a community of the future. I can only refer to them here in the most cursory fashion. One of them is the process against which the statesmen of the most respectable party rave day and night so long as they can pretend that it is only done by foreigners. It is called Dumping. There is a policy of deliberately selling at a loss to destroy another man’s market. Another is: a process against which the same statesmen of the same party actually have attempted to legislate, so long as it was confined to moneylenders. Unfortunately, however, it is not by any means confined to moneylenders. It is the trick of tying a poorer man up in a tangle of all sorts of obligations that he cannot ultimately discharge, except by selling his shop or business. It is done in one form by giving to the desperate things on the instalment plan or on long credit. All these conspiracies I would have tried as we try a conspiracy to overthrow the State or to shoot the King. We do not expect the man to write the King a post-card, telling him he is to be shot, or to give warning in the newspapers of the Day of Revolution. Such plots have always been judged in the only way in which they can be judged: by the use of common sense as to the existence of a purpose and the apparent existence of a plan. But we shall never have a real civic sense until it is once more felt that the plot of three citizens against one citizen is a crime, as well as the plot of one citizen against three. In other words, private property ought to be protected against private crime, just as public order is protected against private judgment. But private property ought to be protected against much bigger things than burglars and pick-pockets. It needs protection against the plots of a whole plutocracy. It needs defence against the rich, who are now generally the rulers who ought to defend it. It may not be difficult to explain why they do not defend it. But anyhow, in all these cases, the difficulty is in imagining people wanting to do it; not in imagining people doing it. By all means let people say that they do not think the ideal of the Distributive State is worth the risk or even worth the trouble. But do not let them say that no human being in the past has ever taken any risk; or that no children of Adam are capable of taking any trouble. If they chose to take half as much risk to achieve justice as they have already taken to achieve degradation, if they toiled half as laboriously to make anything beautiful as they toiled to make everything ugly, if they had served their God as they have served their Pork King and their Petrol King, the success of our whole Distributive democracy would stare at the world like one of their flaming sky-signs and scrape the sky like one of their crazy towers.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
III SOME ASPECTS OF THE LAND
- The Simple Truth
- Vows and Volunteers
- The Real Life on the Land
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
I THE SIMPLE TRUTH
All of us, or at least all those of my generation, heard in our youth an anecdote about George Stephenson, the discoverer of the Locomotive Steam-Engine. It was said that some miserable rustic raised the objection that it would be very awkward if a cow strayed on the railway line, whereupon the inventor replied, “It would be very awkward for the cow.” It is supremely characteristic of his age and school that it never seemed to occur to anybody that it might be rather awkward for the rustic who owned the cow.
Long before we heard that anecdote, however, we had probably heard another and more exciting anecdote called “Jack and the Beanstalk.” That story begins with the strange and startling words, “There once was a poor woman who had a cow.” It would be a wild paradox in modern England to imagine that a poor woman could have a cow; but things seem to have been different in ruder and more superstitious ages. Anyhow, she evidently would not have had a cow long in the sympathetic atmosphere of Stephenson and his steam-engine. The train went forward, the cow was killed in due course; and the state of mind of the old woman was described as the Depression of Agriculture. But everybody was so happy in travelling in trains and making it awkward for cows that nobody noticed that other difficulties remained. When wars or revolutions cut us off from cows, the industrialists discovered that milk does not come originally from cans. On this fact some of us have founded the idea that the cow (and even the miserable rustic) have a use in society, and have been prepared to concede her as much as three acres. But it will be well at this stage to repeat that we do not propose that every acre should be covered with cows; and do not propose to eliminate townspeople as they would eliminate rustics. On many minor points we might have to compromise with conditions, especially at first. But even my ideal, if ever I found it at last, would be what some call a compromise. Only I think it more accurate to call it a balance. For I do not think that the sun compromises with the rain when together they make a garden; or that the rose that grows there is a compromise between green and red. But I mean that even my Utopia would contain different things of different types holding on different tenures: that as in a medieval state there were some peasants, some monasteries, some common land, some private land, some town guilds, and so on, so in my modern state there would be some things nationalized, some machines owned corporately, some guilds sharing common profits, and so on, as well as many absolute individual owners, where such individual owners are most possible. But with these latter it is well to begin, because they are meant to give, and nearly always do give, the standard and tone of the society.
Among the things we have heard a thousand times is the statement that the English are a slow people, a cautious people, a conservative people, and so on. When we have heard a thing as many times as that, we generally either accept it as a truism, or suddenly see that it is quite untrue. And in this case it is quite untrue. The real peculiarity of England is that it is the only country on earth that has not got a conservative class. There are a large number, possibly a majority, of people who call themselves conservative. But the more they are examined, the less conservative they will appear. The commercial class that is in a special sense capitalist is in its nature the very opposite of conservative. By its own profession, it proclaims that it is perpetually using new methods and seeking for new markets. To some of us there seems to be something exceedingly stale about all that novelty. But that is because of the type of mind that is inventing, not because it does not mean to invent. From the biggest financier floating a company to the smallest tout peddling a sewing-machine, the same ideal prevails. It must always be a new company, especially after what has generally happened to the old company. And the sewing-machine must always be a new sort of sewing-machine, even if it is the sort that does not sew. But while this is obvious of the mere capitalist, it is equally true of the pure oligarch. Whatever else an aristocracy is, an aristocracy is never conservative. By its very nature it goes by fashion rather than by tradition. Men living a life of leisure and luxury are always eager for new things; we might fairly say they would be fools if they weren’t. And the English aristocrats are by no means fools. They can proudly claim to have played a great part in every stage of the intellectual progress that has brought us to our present ruin.
The first fact about establishing an English peasantry is that it is establishing, for the first time for many centuries, a traditional class. The absence of such a class will be found to be a very terrible fact, if the tug really becomes between Bolshevism and the historic ideal of property. But the converse is equally true and much more comforting. This difference in the quality means that the change will begin to be effective merely by quantity. I mean that we have not been concerned so much with the strength or weakness of a peasantry, as with presence or absence of a peasantry. As the society has suffered from its mere absence, so the society will begin to change by its mere presence. It will be a somewhat different England in which the peasant has to be considered at all. It will begin to alter the look of things, even when politicians think about peasants as often as they do about doctors. They have been known even to think about soldiers.
The primary case for the peasant is of a stark and almost savage simplicity. A man in England might live on the land, if he did not have rent to pay to the landlord and wages to pay to the labourer. He would therefore be better off, even on a small scale, if he were his own landlord and his own labourer. But there are obviously certain further considerations, and to my mind certain common misconceptions, to which the following notes refer roughly in their order. In the first place, of course, it is one thing to say that this is desirable, and another that it is desired. And in the first place, as will be seen, I do not deny that if it is to be desired, it can hardly be as a mere indulgence is desired; there will undoubtedly be required a certain spirit of effort and sacrifice for the sake of an acute national necessity, if we are to ask any landlord to do without rent or any farmer to do without assistance. But at least there really is a crisis and a necessity; to such an extent that the squire would often be only remitting a debt which he has already written off as a bad debt, and the employer only sacrificing the service of men who are already on strike. Still, we shall need the virtues that belong to a crisis; and it will be well to make the fact clear. Next, while there is all the difference between the desirable and the desired, I would point out that even now this normal life is more desired than many suppose. It is perhaps subconsciously desired; but I think it worth while to throw out a few suggestions that may bring it to the surface. Lastly, there is a misconception about what is meant by “living on the land”—and I have added some suggestions about how much more desirable it is than many suppose.
I shall consider these separate aspects of agricultural distributism more or less in the order in which I have just noted them; but here in the preliminary note I am concerned only with the primary fact. If we could create a peasantry we could create a conservative populace; and he would be a bold man who should undertake to tell us how the present industrial deadlock in the great cities is to produce a conservative populace. I am well aware that many would call the conservatism by coarser names; and say that peasants are stupid and stick-in-the-mud and tied to dull and dreary existence. I know it is said that a man must find it monotonous to do the twenty things that are done on a farm, whereas, of course, he always finds it uproariously funny and festive to do one thing hour after hour and day after day in a factory. I know that the same people also make exactly the contrary comment; and say it is selfish and avaricious for the peasant to be so intensely interested in his own farm, instead of showing, like the proletarians of modern industrialism, a selfless and romantic loyalty to somebody else’s factory, and an ascetic self-sacrifice in making profits for somebody else. Giving each of these claims of modern capitalism their due weight, it is still permissible to say that in so far as the peasant proprietor is certainly tenacious of the peasant property, is concentrated on the interest or content with the dullness, as the case may be, he does, in fact, constitute a solid block of private property which can be counted on to resist Communism; which is not only more than can be said of the proletariat, but is very much more than any capitalists say of them. I do not believe that the proletariat is honeycombed with Bolshevism (if honey be an apt metaphor for that doctrine), but if there is any truth in the newspaper fears on that subject it would certainly seem that large properties cannot prevent the thing happening, whereas small properties can. But, as a matter of fact, all experience is against the assertion that peasants are dreary and degraded savages, crawling about on all fours and eating grass like the beasts of the field. All over the world, for instance, there are peasant dances; and the dances of peasants are like dances of kings and queens. The popular dance is much more stately and ceremonial and full of human dignity than is the aristocratic dance. In many a modern countryside the countryfolk may still be found on high festivals wearing caps like crowns and using gestures like a religious ritual, while the castle or chateau of the lords and ladies is already full of people waddling about like monkeys to the noises made by negroes. All over Europe peasants have produced the embroideries and the handicrafts which were discovered with delight by artists when they had long been neglected by aristocrats. These people are not conservative merely in a negative sense; though there is great value in that which is negative when it is also defensive. They are also conservative in a positive sense; they conserve customs that do not perish like fashions, and crafts less ephemeral than those artistic movements which so very soon cease to move. The Bolshevists, I believe, have invented something which they call Proletarian Art, upon what principle I cannot imagine; save that they seem to have a mysterious pride in calling themselves a proletariat when they claim to be no longer proletarian. I rather think it is merely the reluctance of the half-educated to relinquish the use of a long word. Anyhow, there never has been in this world any such thing as Proletarian Art. But there has most emphatically been such a thing as Peasant Art.
I suppose that what is really meant is Communist Art; and that phrase alone will reveal much. I suppose a truly communal art would consist in a hundred men hanging on to one huge paint-brush like a battering-ram, and steering it across some vast canvas with the curves and lurches and majestic hesitations that would express, in darkly outlined forms, the composite mind of the community. Peasants have produced art because they were communal but not communist. Custom and a corporate tradition gave unity to their art; but each man was a separate artist. It is that satisfaction of the creative instinct in the individual that makes the peasantry as a whole content and therefore conservative. A multitude of men are standing on their own feet, because they are standing on their own land. But in our country, alas, the landowners have been standing upon nothing, except what they have trampled underfoot.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
II VOWS AND VOLUNTEERS
We have sometimes been asked why we do not admire advertisers quite so much as they admire themselves. One answer is that it is of their very nature to admire themselves. And it is of the very nature of our task that people must be taught to criticize themselves; or rather (preferably) to kick themselves. They talk about Truth in Advertising; but there cannot be any such thing in the sharp sense in which we need truth in politics. It is impossible to put in the cheery terms of “publicity” either the truth about how bad things are, or the truth about how hard it will be to cure them. No advertiser is so truthful as to say, “Do your best with our rotten old typewriter; we can’t get anything better just now.” But we have really got to say, “Do your best with your rotten old machine of production; don’t let it fall to pieces too suddenly.” We seldom see a gay and conspicuous hoarding inscribed, “You are in for a rough time if you use our new kitchen-range.” But we have really got to say to our friends, “You are in for a rough time if you start new farms on your own; but it is the right thing.” We cannot pretend to be offering merely comforts and conveniences. Whatever our ultimate view of labour-saving machinery, we cannot offer our ideal as a labour-saving machine. There is no more question of comfort than there is for a man in a fire, a battle, or a shipwreck. There is no way out of the danger except the dangerous way.
The sort of call that must be made on the modern English is the sort of call that is made before a great war or a great revolution. If the trumpet give an uncertain sound—but it must be unmistakably the sound of a trumpet. The megaphone of mere mercantile self-satisfaction is merely loud and not in the least clear. In its nature it is saying smooth things, even if it is roaring them; it is like one whispering soft nothings, even if its whisper is a horrible yell. How can advertisement bid men prepare themselves for a battle? How can publicity talk in the language of public spirit? It cannot say, “Buy land at Blinkington-on-Sea and prepare yourself for the battle with stones and thistles.” It cannot give a certain sound, like the old tocsin that rang for fire and flood, and tell the people of Puddleton that they are in danger of famine. To do men justice, no man did announce the needs of Kitchener’s Army like the comforts of the kitchen-range. We did not say to the recruits, “Spend your holiday at Mons.” We did not say, “Try our trenches; they are a treat.” We made some sort of attempt to appeal to better things. We have to make that appeal again; and in the face of worse things. It is this that is made so difficult by the whole tone of advertisement. For the next thing we have to consider is the need of independent individual action on a large scale. We want to make the need known, as the need for recruits was made known. Education was too commercial in origin, and has allowed itself to be largely swamped by commercial advertisement. It came too much from the town; and now it is nearly driven from the town. Education really meant the teaching of town things to country people who did not want to learn them. I suggest that education should now mean the teaching of country things to town people who do want to learn them. I quite admit it would be much better to begin at least with those who really want it. But I also maintain that there are really a great many people in town and country who do really want it.
Whether we look forward to an Agrarian Law or no, whether our notion of distribution is rigid or rough and ready, whether we believe in compensation or confiscation, whether we look for this law or that law, we ought not to sit down and wait for any law at all. While the grass grows the steed has got to show that he wants grass: the steed has got to explain that he is really a graminivorous quadruped. The fulfilment of parliamentary promises grows rather slower than grass; and if nothing is done before the completion of what is called a constitutional process, we shall be about as near to Distributism as a Labour politician is to Socialism. It seems to me first necessary to revive the medieval or moral method, and call for volunteers.
The English could do what the Irish did. They could make laws by obeying them. If we are, like the original Sinn Feiners, to anticipate legal change by social agreement, we want two sorts of volunteers, in order to make the experiment on the spot. We want to find out how many peasants there are, actual or potential, who would take over the responsibility of small farms, for the sake of self-sufficiency, of real property, and of saving England in a desperate hour. We want to know how many landlords there are who would now give or sell cheaply their land to be cut up into a number of such farms. Honestly, I think the landlord would have the best of the bargain. Or rather I think that the peasant would have the hardest and most heroic part of the bargain. Sometimes it would practically pay the landlord to chuck the land altogether, since he is paying out to something that does not pay him back. But in any case, everybody has got to realize that the situation is, in no cant phrases, one for heroic remedies. It is impossible to disguise that the man who gets the land, even more than the man who gives up the land, will have to be something of a hero. We shall be told that heroes do not grow on every hedgerow, that we cannot find enough to defend all our hedges. We raised three million heroes with the blast of a bugle but a few years ago; and the trumpet we hear to-day is in a more terrible sense the trump of doom.
We want a popular appeal for volunteers to save the land; exactly as volunteers in 1914 were wanted to save the country. But we do not want the appeal weakened by that weak-minded, that wearisome, that dismal and deplorable thing that the newspapers call Optimism. We are not asking babies to look pleasant while their photographs are taken; we are asking grown men to meet a crisis as grave as a great war. We are not asking people to cut a coupon out of a newspaper, but to carve a farm out of a trackless waste; and if it is to be successful, it must be faced in something of the stubborn spirit of the old fulfilment of a vow. St. Francis showed his followers the way to a greater happiness; but he did not tell them that a wandering and homeless life would mean Everything as Nice as Mother Makes It; nor did he advertise it on hoardings as a Home From Home. But we live in a time when it is harder for a free man to make a home than it was for a medieval ascetic to do without one.
The quarrel about the Limehouse slums was a working model of the problem— if we can talk of a working model of something that does not work, and something on which only a madman would model anything. The slum-dwellers actually and definitely say that they prefer their slums to the blocks of flats provided as a refuge from the slums. And they prefer them, it is stated, because the old homes had backyards in which they could pursue “their hobbies of bird-fancying and poultry-rearing.” When offered other opportunities on some scheme of allotment, they had the hideous depravity to say that they liked fences round their private yards. So awful and overwhelming is the Red torrent of Communism as it boils through the brains of the working classes.
Now, of course, it might conceivably be necessary, in some wild congestion and convulsion, for people’s houses to be piled on top of each other for ever, in the form of a tower of flats. And so it might be necessary for men to climb on other men’s shoulders in a flood or to get out of a chasm cloven by an earthquake. And it is logically conceivable, and even mathematically correct, that we might thin the crowds in the London streets, if we could thus arrange men vertically instead of horizontally. If there were only some expedient by which a man might walk about with another man standing above him, and another above that, and so on, it would save a great deal of jostling. Men are arranged like that in acrobatic performances; and a course of such acrobatics might be made compulsory in all the schools. It is a picture that pleases me very much, as a picture. I look forward (in spirit of art for art’s sake) to seeing such a living tower moving majestically down the Strand. I like to think of the time of true social organization, when all the clerks of Messrs. Boodle & Bunkham shall no longer come up in their present random and straggling fashion, each from his little suburban villa. They shall not even, as in the immediate and intermediary stage of the Servile State, march in a well-drilled column from the dormitory in one part of London, to the emporium in the other. No, a nobler vision has arisen before me into the very heights of heaven. A toppling pagoda of clerks, one balanced on the top of another, moves down the street, perhaps making acrobatic patterns in the air as it moves, to illustrate the perfect discipline of its social machinery. All that would be very impressive; and it really would, among other things, economize space. But if one of the men near the top of that swaying tower were to say that he hoped some day to be able to revisit the earth, I should sympathize with his sense of exile. If he were to say that it is natural to man to walk on the earth, I should find myself in agreement with his school of philosophy. If he were to say that it was very difficult to look after chickens in that acrobatic attitude and altitude, I should think his difficulty a real one. At first it might be retorted that bird-fancying would be even more appropriate to such an airy perch, but in practice those birds would be very fancy birds. Finally, if he said that keeping chickens that laid eggs was a worthy and valuable social work, much more worthy and valuable than serving Messrs. Boodle & Bunkham with the most perfect discipline and organization, I should agree with that sentiment most of all.
Now the whole of our modern problem is very difficult, and though in one way the agricultural part of it is much the simplest, in another way it is by no means the least difficult. But this Limehouse affair is a vivid example of how we make the difficulty more difficult. We are told again and again that the slum-dwellers of the big towns cannot merely be turned loose on the land, that they do not want to go on the land, that they have no tastes or turn of thought that could make them by any process into a people interested in the land, that they cannot be conceived as having any pleasures except town pleasures, or even any discontents except the Bolshevism of the towns. And then when a whole crowd of them want to keep chickens, we force them to live in flats. When a whole crowd of them want to have fences, we laugh and order them off into communal barracks. When a whole population wishes to insist on palings and enclosures and the traditions of private property, the authorities act as if they were suppressing a Red riot. When these very hopeless slum-dwellers do actually set all their hopes on a rural occupation, which they can still practise even in the slums, we tear them away from that occupation and call it improving their condition. You pick a man up who has his head in a hen-coop, forcibly set him on giant stilts a hundred feet high where he cannot reach the ground, and then say you have saved him from misery. And you add that a man like that can only live on stilts and would never be interested in hens.
Now the very first question that is always asked of those advocating our sort of agricultural reconstruction is this question, which is fundamental because it is psychological. Whatever else we may or may not need for a peasantry, we do certainly need peasants. In the present mixture and muddle of more or less urbanized civilization, have we even the first elements or the first possibilities? Have we peasants, or even potential peasants? Like all questions of this sort, it cannot be answered by statistics. Statistics are artificial even when they are not fictitious, for they always assume the very fact which a moral estimate must always deny; they assume that every man is one man. They are based on a sort of atomic theory that the individual is really individual, in the sense of indivisible. But when we are dealing professedly with the proportion of different loves or hates or hopes or hungers, this is so far from being a fact that can be assumed, it is the very first that must be denied. It is denied by all that deeper consideration which wise men used to call spiritual, but which fools were frightened out of calling spiritual, till they ventured to say it in Greek and call it psychical or psychological. In one sense the highest spirituality insists, of course, that one man is one. But in the sense here involved, the spiritual view has always been that one man was at least two, and the psychological view has shown some taste for turning him into half a dozen. It is no good, therefore, to discuss the number of peasants who are nothing else but peasants. Very probably there are none at all. It is no good asking how many complete and compact yeomen or yokels are waiting all ready in smock-frocks or blouses, their spades and hay-forks clutched in their hand, in the neighbourhood of Brompton or Brixton; waiting for us to give the signal to rush back to the land. If anybody is such a fool as to expect that sort of thing, the fool is not to be found in our small political party. When we are dealing with a matter of this kind, we are dealing with different elements in the same class, or even in the same man. We are dealing with elements which should be encouraged or educated or (if we must bring the word in somewhere) evolved. We have to consider whether there are any materials out of which to make peasants to make a peasantry, if we really choose to try. Nowhere in these notes have I suggested that there is the faintest possibility of it being done, if we do not choose to try.
Now, using words in this sensible sense, I should maintain that there is a very large element still in England that would like to return to this simpler sort of England. Some of them understand it better than others, some of them understand themselves better than others; some would be prepared for it as a revolution; some only cling to it very blindly as a tradition; some have never thought of it as anything but a hobby; some have never heard of it and feel it only as a want. But the number of people who would like to get out of the tangle of mere ramifications and communications in the town, and get back nearer to the roots of things, where things are made directly out of nature, I believe to be very large. It is probably not a majority, but I suspect that even now it is a very large minority. A man does not necessarily want this more than everything else at every moment of his life. No sane person expects any movement to consist entirely of such monomaniacs. But a good many people want it a good deal. I have formed that impression from experience, which is of all things the most difficult to reproduce in controversy. I guess it from the way in which numberless suburbans talk about their gardens. I guess it from the sort of things that they really envy in the rich; one of the most notable of which is merely empty space. I notice it in all the element that desires the country, even if it defaces the country. I notice it in the profound popular interest everywhere, especially in England, in the breeding or training of any kind of animal. And if I wanted a supreme, a symbolic, a triumphant example of all that I mean, I could find it in the case I have quoted of these men living in the most miserable slums of Limehouse, and reluctant to leave them because it would mean leaving behind a rabbit in a rabbit-hutch or a chicken in a hen-coop.
Now if we were really doing what I suggest, or if we really knew what we were doing, we should seize on these slum dwellers as if they were infant prodigies or (even more lucrative) monsters to be exhibited in a fair. We should see that such people have a natural genius for such things. We should encourage them in such things. We should educate them in such things. We should see in them the seed and living principle of a real spontaneous revival of the countryside. I repeat that it would be a matter of proportion and therefore of tact. But we should be on their side, being confident that they are on our side and on the side of the countryside. We should reconstruct our popular education so as to help these hobbies. We should think it worth while to teach people the things they are so eager to teach themselves. We should teach them; we might even, in a burst of Christian humility, occasionally allow them to teach us. What we do is to bundle them out of their houses, where they do these things with difficulty, and drag them shrieking to new and unfamiliar places where they cannot do them at all. This example alone would show how much we are really doing for the rural reconstruction of England.
Though much could be done by volunteers, and by a voluntary bargain between the man who really could do the work and the man who frequently cannot get the rent, there is nothing in our social philosophy that forbids the use of the State power where it can be used. And either by the State subsidy or some large voluntary fund, it seems to me that it would still be possible at least to give the other man something as good as the rent that he does not get. In other words, long before our Communists come to the controversial ethics of confiscation, it seems to me within the resources of civilization to enable Brown to buy from Smith what is now of very little value to Smith and might be of very great value to Brown. I know the current complaint against subsidy, and the general argument that applies equally to subscription; but I do think that a subsidy to restore agriculture would find more repayment in the future than a subsidy to patch up the position of coal; just as I think that in its turn more defensible than half a hundred salaries that we pay to a mob of nobodies for plaguing the poor with sham science and petty tyranny. But there are, as I have already hinted, other ways by which even the State could help in the matter. So long as we have State education, it seems a pity that it can never at any moment be determined by the needs of the State. If the immediate need of the State is to pay some attention to the existence of the earth, there really seems no reason why the eyes of the schoolmasters and schoolboys, staring at the stars, should not be turned in the direction of that planet. At present we have education, not indeed for angels, but rather for aviators. They do not even understand a man’s wish to remain tied to the ground. There is in their ideal an insanity that may be truly called unearthly.
Now I suggest such a peasantry of volunteers primarily as a nucleus, but I think it will be a nucleus of attraction. I think it will stand up not only as a rock but as a magnet. In other words, as soon as it is admitted that it can be done, it will become important when a number of other things can no longer be done. When trade is increasingly bad, this will be counted better even by those who count it a second best. When we speak of people leaving the countryside and flocking to the towns, we are not judging the case fairly. Something may be allowed for a social type that would always prefer cinemas and picture post cards even to property and liberty. But there is nothing conclusive in the fact that people prefer to go without property and liberty, with a cinema, to going without property and liberty without a cinema. Some people may like the town so much that they would rather be sweated in the town than free in the country. But nothing is proved by the mere fact that they would rather be sweated in the town than sweated in the country. I believe, therefore, that if we created even a considerable patch of peasantry, the patch would grow. People would fall back on it as they retired from the declining trades. At present the patch is not growing, because there is no patch to grow; people do not even believe in its existence, and can hardly believe in its extension.
So far, I merely propose to suggest that many peasants would now be ready to work alone on the land, though it would be a sacrifice; that many squires would be ready to let them have the land, though it would be a sacrifice; that the State (and for that matter any other patriotic corporation) could be called upon to help either or both in these actions, that it might not be an intolerable or impossible sacrifice. In all this I would remind the reader that I am only dealing with immediately practicable action and not with an ultimate or complete condition; but it seems to me that something of this sort might be set about almost at once. I shall next proceed to consider a misunderstanding about how a group of peasants could live on the land.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
III THE REAL LIFE ON THE LAND
We offer one among many proposals for undoing the evil of capitalism, on the ground that ours is the only one that really is a proposal for undoing it. The others are all proposals for overdoing it. The natural thing to do with a wrong operation is to reverse it. The natural action, when property has fallen into fewer hands, is to restore it to more numerous hands. If twenty men are fishing in a river in such a crowd that their fishing-lines all get entangled into one, the normal operation is to disentangle them, and sort them out so that each fisherman has his own fishing-line. No doubt a collectivist philosopher standing on the bank might point out that the interwoven lines were now practically a net; and might be trailed along by a common effort so as to drag the river-bed. But apart from his scheme being doubtful in practice, it insults the intellectual instincts even in principle. It is not putting things right to take a doubtful advantage of their being wrong; and it does not even sound like a sane design to exaggerate an accident. Socialism is but the completion of the capitalist concentration; yet that concentration was itself effected blindly like a blunder. Now this naturalness, in the idea of undoing what was ill done would appeal, I think, to many natural people who feel the long-winded sociological schemes to be quite unnatural. For that reason I suggest in this section that many ordinary men, landlords and labourers, Tories and Radicals, would probably help us in this task, if it were separated from party politics and from the pride and pedantry of the intellectuals.
But there is another aspect in which the task is both more easy and more difficult. It is more easy because it need not be crushed by complexities of cosmopolitan trade. It is harder because it is a hard life to live apart from them. A Distributist for whose work (on a little paper defaced, alas, with my own initials) I have a very lively gratitude, once noted a truth often neglected. He said that living on the land was quite a different thing from living by carting things off it. He proved, far more lucidly than I could, how practical is the difference in economics. But I should like to add here a word about a corresponding distinction in ethics. For the former, it is obvious that most arguments about the inevitable failure of a man growing turnips in Sussex are arguments about his failing to sell them, not about his failing to eat them. Now as I have already explained, I do not propose to reduce all citizens to one type, and certainly not to one turnip-eater. In a greater or less degree, as circumstances dictated, there would doubtless be people selling turnips to other people; perhaps even the most ardent turnip-eater would probably sell some turnips to some people. But my meaning will not be clear if it be supposed that no more social simplification is needed than is implied in selling turnips out of a field instead of top-hats out of a shop. It seems to me that a great many people would be only too glad to live on the land, when they find the only alternative is to starve in the street. And it would surely modify the modern enormity of unemployment, if any large number of people were really living on the land, not merely in the sense of sleeping on the land but of feeding on the land. There will be many who maintain that this would mean a very dull life compared with the excitements of dying in a workhouse in Liverpool; just as there are many who insist that the average woman is made to drudge in the home, without asking whether the average man exults in having to drudge in the office. But passing over the fact that we may soon be faced with a problem at least as prosaic as a famine, I do not admit that such a life is necessarily or entirely prosaic. Rustic populations, largely self-supporting, seem to have amused themselves with a great many mythologies and dances and decorative arts; and I am not convinced that the turnip-eater always has a head like a turnip or that the top-hat always covers the brain of a philosopher. But if we look at the problem from the point of view of the community as a whole, we shall note other and not uninteresting things. A system based entirely on the division of labour is in one sense literally half-witted. That is, each performer of half of an operation does really use only half of his wits. It is not a question in the ordinary sense of intellect, and certainly not in the sense of intellectualism. But it is a question of integrity, in the strict sense of the word. The peasant does live, not merely a simple life, but a complete life. It may be very simple in its completeness, but the community is not complete without that completeness. The community is at present very defective because there is not in the core of it any such simple consciousness; any one man who represents the two parties to a contract. Unless there is, there is nowhere a full understanding of those terms: self-support, self-control, self-government. He is the only unanimous mob and the only universal man. He is the one half of the world which does know how the other half lives.
Many must have quoted the stately tag from Virgil which says, “Happy were he who could know the causes of things,” without remembering in what context it comes. Many have probably quoted it because the others have quoted it. Many, if left in ignorance to guess whence it comes, would probably guess wrong. Everybody knows that Virgil, like Homer, ventured to describe boldly enough the most secret councils of the gods. Everybody knows that Virgil, like Dante took his hero into Tartarus and the labyrinth of the last and lowest foundations of the universe. Every one knows that he dealt with the fall of Troy and the rise of Rome, with the laws of an empire fitted to rule all the children of men, with the ideals that should stand like stars before men committed to that awful stewardship. Yet it is in none of these connections, in none of these passages, that he makes the curious remark about human happiness consisting in a knowledge of causes. He says it, I fancy, in a pleasantly didactic poem about the rules for keeping bees. Anyhow, it is part of a series of elegant essays on country pursuits, in one sense, indeed, trivial, but in another sense almost technical. It is in the midst of these quiet and yet busy things that the great poet suddenly breaks out into the great passage, about the happy man whom neither kings nor mobs can cow; who, having beheld the root and reason of all things, can even hear under his feet, unshaken, the roar of the river of hell.
And in saying this, the poet certainly proves once more the two great truths: that a poet is a prophet, and that a prophet is a practical man. Just as his longing for a deliverer of the nations was an unconscious prophecy of Christ, so his criticism of town and country is an unconscious prophecy of the decay that has come on the world through falling away from Christianity. Much may be said about the monstrosity of modern cities; it is easy to see and perhaps a little too easy to say. I have every sympathy with some wild-haired prophet who should lift up his voice in the streets to proclaim the Burden of Brompton in the manner of the Burden of Babylon. I will support (to the extent of sixpence, as Carlyle said) any old man with a beard who will wave his arms and call down fire from heaven upon Bayswater. I quite agree that lions will howl in the high places of Paddington; and I am entirely in favour of jackals and vultures rearing their young in the ruins of the Albert Hall. But in these cases, perhaps, the prophet is less explicit than the poet. He does not tell us exactly what is wrong with the town; but merely leaves it to our own delicate intuitions, to infer from the sudden appearance of wild unicorns trampling down our gardens, or a shower of flaming serpents shooting over our heads through the sky like a flight of arrows, or some such significant detail, that there probably is something wrong. But if we wish in another mood to know intellectually what it is that is wrong with the city, and why it seems to be driving on to dooms quite as unnatural and much more ugly, we shall certainly find it in that profound and piercing irrelevancy of the Latin line.
What is wrong with the man in the modern town is that he does not know the causes of things; and that is why, as the poet says, he can be too much dominated by despots and demagogues. He does not know where things come from; he is the type of the cultivated Cockney who said he liked milk out of a clean shop and not a dirty cow. The more elaborate is the town organization, the more elaborate even is the town education, the less is he the happy man of Virgil who knows the causes of things. The town civilization simply means the number of shops through which the milk does pass from the cow to the man; in other words, it means the number of opportunities of wasting the milk, of watering the milk, of poisoning the milk, and of swindling the man. If ever he protests against being poisoned or swindled, he will certainly be told that it is no good crying over spilt milk; or, in other words, that it is reactionary sentimentalism to attempt to undo what is done or to restore what is perished. But he does not protest very much, because he cannot; and he cannot because he does not know enough about the causes of things— about the primary forms of property and production, or the points where man is nearest to his natural origins.
So far the fundamental fact is clear enough; and by this time this side of the truth is even fairly familiar. A few people are still ignorant enough to talk about the ignorant peasant. But obviously in the essential sense it would be far truer to talk about the ignorant townsman. Even where the townsman is equally well employed, he is not in this sense equally well informed. Indeed, we should see this simple fact clearly enough, if it concerned almost anything except the essentials of our life. If a geologist were tapping with a geological hammer on the bricks of a half-built house, and telling the bricklayers what the clay was and where it came from, we might think him a nuisance; but we should probably think him a learned nuisance. We might prefer the workman’s hammer to the geologist’s hammer; but we should admit that there were some things in the geologist’s head that did not happen to be in the workman’s head. Yet the yokel, or young man from the country, really would know something about the origin of our breakfasts, as does the professor about the origin of our bricks. Should we see a grotesque medieval monster called a pig hung topsy-turvy from a butcher’s hook, like a huge bat from a branch, it will be the young man from the country who will soothe our fears and still our refined shrieks with some account of the harmless habits of this fabulous animal, and by tracing the strange and secret connection between it and the rashers on the breakfast table. If a thunderbolt or meteoric stone fell in front of us in the street, we might have more sympathy with the policeman who wanted to remove it from the thoroughfare than with the professor who wished to stand in the middle of the thoroughfare, lecturing on the constituent elements of the comet or nebula of which it was a flying fragment. But though the policeman might be justified in exclaiming (in the original Greek) “What are the Pleiades to me?” even he would admit that more information about the soil and strata of the Pleiades can be obtained from a professor than from a policeman. So if some strange and swollen monstrosity called a vegetable marrow surprises us like a thunderbolt, let us not imagine that it is so strange to the man who grows marrows as it is to us, merely because his field and work seem to be as far away as the Pleiades. Let us recognize that he is, after all, a specialist on these mysterious marrows and prehistoric pigs; and treat him like a learned man come from a foreign university. England is now such a long way off from London that its emissaries might at least be received with the respect due to distinguished visitors from China or the Cannibal Islands. But, anyhow, we need no longer talk of them as merely ignorant, in talking of the very thing of which we are ignorant ourselves. One man may think the peasant’s knowledge irrelevant, as another may think the professor’s irrelevant; but in both cases it is knowledge; for it is knowledge of the causes of things.
Most of us realize in some sense that this is true; but many of us have not yet realized that the converse is also true. And it is that other truth, when we have understood it, that leads to the next necessary point about the full status of the peasant. And the point is this: that the peasant also will have but a partial experience if he grows things in the country solely in order to sell them to the town. Of course, it is only a joke to represent either the ignorance of town or country as being so grotesque as I have suggested for the sake of example. The townsman does not really think that milk is rained from the clouds or that rashers grow on trees, even when he is a little vague about vegetable marrows. He knows something about it; but not enough to make his advice of much value. The rustic does not really think that milk is used as whitewash or marrows as bolsters, even if he never actually sees them used. But if he is a mere producer and not a consumer of them, his position does become as partial as that of any Cockney clerk; nearly as narrow and even more servile. Given the wonderful romance of the vegetable marrow, it is a bad thing that the peasant should only know the beginning of the story, as it is a bad thing that the clerk should only know the end of it.
I insert here this general suggestion for a particular reason. Before we come to the practical expediency of the peasant who consumes what he produces (and the reason for thinking it, as Mr. Heseltine has urged, much more practicable than the method by which he only sells what he produces), I think it well to point out that this course, while it is more expedient, is not a mere surrender to expediency. It seems to me a very good thing, in theory as well as practice, that there should be a body of citizens primarily concerned in producing and consuming and not in exchanging. It seems to me a part of our ideal, and not merely a part of our compromise, that there should be in the community a sort of core not only of simplicity but of completeness. Exchange and variation can then be given their reasonable place; as they were in the old world of fairs and markets. But there would be somewhere in the centre of civilization a type that was truly independent; in the sense of producing and consuming within its own social circle. I do not say that such a complete human life stands for a complete humanity. I do not say that the State needs only the man who needs nothing from the State. But I do say that this man who supplies his own needs is very much needed. I say it largely because of his absence from modern civilization, that modern civilization has lost unity. It is nobody’s business to note the whole of a process, to see where things come from and where they go to. Nobody follows the whole winding course of the river of milk as it flows from the cow to the baby. Nobody who is in at the death of the pig is responsible for realizing that the proof of the pig is in the eating. Men throw marrows at other men like cannon balls; but they do not return to them like boomerangs. We need a social circle in which things constantly return to those that threw them; and men who know the end and the beginning and the rounding of our little life.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
IV SOME ASPECTS OF MACHINERY
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
I THE WHEEL OF FATE
The evil we are seeking to destroy clings about in corners especially in the form of catch-phrases by which even the intelligent can easily be caught. One phrase, which we may hear from anybody at any moment, is the phrase that such and such a modern institution has “come to stay.” It is these half-metaphors that tend to make us all half-witted. What is precisely meant by the statement that the steam-engine or the wireless apparatus has come to stay? What is meant, for that matter, even by saying that the Eiffel Tower has come to stay? To begin with, we obviously do not mean what we mean when we use the words naturally; as in the expression, “Uncle Humphrey has come to stay.” That last sentence may be uttered in tones of joy, or of resignation, or even of despair; but not of despair in the sense that Uncle Humphrey is really a monument that can never be moved. Uncle Humphrey did come; and Uncle Humphrey will presumably at some time go; it is even possible (however painful it may be to imagine such domestic relations) that in the last resort he should be made to go. The fact that the figure breaks down, even apart from the reality it is supposed to represent, illustrates how loosely these catch-words are used. But when we say, “The Eiffel Tower has come to stay,” we are still more inaccurate. For, to begin with, the Eiffel Tower has not come at all. There was never a moment when the Eiffel Tower was seen striding towards Paris on its long iron legs across the plains of France, as the giant in the glorious nightmare of Rabelais came to tower over Paris and carry away the bells of Notre-Dame. The figure of Uncle Humphrey seen coming up the road may possibly strike as much terror as any walking tower or towering giant; and the question that may leap into every mind may be the question of whether he has come to stay. But whether or no he has come to stay he has certainly come. He has willed; he has propelled or precipitated his body in a certain direction; he has agitated his own legs; it is even possible (for we all know what Uncle Humphrey is like) that he has insisted on carrying his own portmanteau, to show the lazy young dogs what he can still do at seventy-three.
Now suppose that what had really happened was something like this; something like a weird story of Hawthorne or Poe. Suppose we ourselves had actually manufactured Uncle Humphrey; had put him together, piece by piece, like a mechanical doll. Suppose we had so ardently felt at the moment the need of an uncle in our home life that we had constructed him out of domestic materials, like a Guy for the fifth of November. Taking, it may be, a turnip from the kitchen-garden to represent his bald and venerable head; permitting the water-butt, as it were, to suggest the lines of his figure; stuffing a pair of trousers and attaching a pair of boots, we could produce a complete and convincing uncle of whom any family might be proud. Under those conditions, it might be graceful enough to say, in the merely social sense and as a sort of polite fiction, “Uncle Humphrey has come to stay.” But surely it would be very extraordinary if we afterwards found the dummy relative was nothing but a nuisance, or that his materials were needed for other purposes—surely it would be very extraordinary if we were then forbidden to take him to pieces again; if every effort in that direction were met with the resolute answer, “No, no; Uncle Humphrey has come to stay.” Surely we should be tempted to retort that Uncle Humphrey never came at all. Suppose all the turnips were wanted for the self-support of the peasant home. Suppose the water-butts were wanted; let us hope for the purpose of holding beer. Suppose the male members of the family refused any longer to lend their trousers to an entirely imaginary relative. Surely we should then see through the polite fiction that led us to talk as if the uncle had “come,” had come with an intention, had remained with a purpose, and all the rest. The thing we made did not come, and certainly did not come to do anything, either to stay or to depart.
Now no doubt most people even in the logical city of Paris would say that the Eiffel Tower has come to stay. And no doubt most people in the same city rather more than a hundred years before would have said that the Bastille had come to stay. But it did not stay; it left the neighbourhood quite abruptly. In plain words, the Bastille was something that man had made and, therefore, man could unmake. The Eiffel Tower is something that man has made and man could unmake; though perhaps we may think it practically probable that some time will elapse before man will have the good taste or good sense or even the common sanity to unmake it. But this one little phrase about the thing “coming” is alone enough to indicate something profoundly wrong about the very working of men’s minds on the subject. Obviously a man ought to be saying, “I have made an electric battery. Shall I smash it, or shall I make another?” Instead of that, he seems to be bewitched by a sort of magic and stand staring at the thing as if it were a seven-headed dragon; and he can only say, “The electric battery has come. Has it come to stay?”
Before we begin any talk of the practical problem of machinery, it is necessary to leave off thinking like machines. It is necessary to begin at the beginning and consider the end. Now we do not necessarily wish to destroy every sort of machinery. But we do desire to destroy a certain sort of mentality. And that is precisely the sort of mentality that begins by telling us that nobody can destroy machinery. Those who begin by saying that we cannot abolish the machine, that we must use the machine, are themselves refusing to use the mind.
The aim of human polity is human happiness. For those holding certain beliefs it is conditioned by the hope of a larger happiness, which it must not imperil. But happiness, the making glad of the heart of man, is the secular test and the only realistic test. So far from this test, by the talisman of the heart, being merely sentimental, it is the only test that is in the least practical. There is no law of logic or nature or anything else forcing us to prefer anything else. There is no obligation on us to be richer, or busier, or more efficient, or more productive, or more progressive, or in any way worldlier or wealthier, if it does not make us happier. Mankind has as much right to scrap its machinery and live on the land, if it really likes it better, as any man has to sell his old bicycle and go for a walk, if he likes that better. It is obvious that the walk will be slower; but he has no duty to be fast. And if it can be shown that machinery has come into the world as a curse, there is no reason whatever for our respecting it because it is a marvellous and practical and productive curse. There is no reason why we should not leave all its powers unused, if we have really come to the conclusion that the powers do us harm. The mere fact that we shall be missing a number of interesting things would apply equally to any number of impossible things. Machinery may be a magnificent sight, but not so magnificent as a Great Fire of London; yet we resist that vision and avert our eyes from all that potential splendour. Machinery may not yet be at its best; and perhaps lions and tigers will never be at their best, will never make their most graceful leaps or show all their natural splendours, until we erect an amphitheatre and give them a few live people to eat. Yet that sight also is one which we forbid ourselves, with whatever austere self-denial. We give up so many glorious possibilities, in our stern and strenuous and self-sacrificing preference for having a tolerable time. Happiness, in a sense, is a hard taskmaster. It tells us not to get entangled with many things that are much more superficially attractive than machinery. But, anyhow, it is necessary to clear our minds at the start of any mere vague association or assumption to the effect that we must go by the quickest train or cannot help using the most productive instrument. Granted Mr. Penty’s thesis of the evil of machinery, as something like the evil of black magic, and there is nothing in the least unpractical about Mr. Penty’s proposal that it should simply stop. A process of invention would cease that might have gone further. But its relative imperfection would be nothing compared with the rudimentary state in which we have left such scientific instruments as the rack and the thumbscrew. Those rude implements of torture are clumsy compared with the finished products that modern knowledge of physiology and mechanics might have given us. Many a talented torturer is left in obscurity by the moral prejudices of modern society. Nay, his budding promise is now nipped even in childhood, when he attempts to develop his natural genius on the flies or the tail of the dog. Our own strong sentimental bias against torture represses his noble rage and freezes the genial current of his soul. But we reconcile ourselves to this; though it be undoubtedly the loss of a whole science for which many ingenious persons might have sought out many inventions. If we really conclude that machinery is hostile to happiness, then it is no more inevitable that all ploughing should be done by machinery than it is inevitable that a shop should do a roaring trade on Ludgate Hill by selling the instruments of Chinese tortures.
Let it be clearly understood that I note this only to make the primary problem clear; I am not now saying, nor perhaps should I ever say, that machinery has been proved to be practically poisonous in this degree. I am only stating, in answer to a hundred confused assumptions, the only ultimate aim and test. If we can make men happier, it does not matter if we make them poorer, it does not matter if we make them less productive, it does not matter if we make them less progressive, in the sense of merely changing their life without increasing their liking for it. We of this school of thought may or may not get what we want; but it is at least necessary that we should know what we are trying to get. And those who are called practical men never know what they are trying to get. If machinery does prevent happiness, then it is as futile to tell a man trying to make men happy that he is neglecting the talents of Arkwright, as to tell a man trying to make men humane that he is neglecting the tastes of Nero.
Now it is exactly those who have the clarity to imagine the instant annihilation of machines who will probably have too much common sense to annihilate them instantly. To go mad and smash machinery is a more or less healthy and human malady, as it was in the Luddites. But it was really owing to the ignorance of the Luddites, in a very different sense from that spoken of scornfully by the stupendous ignorance of the Industrial Economists. It was blind revolt as against some ancient and awful dragon, by men too ignorant to know how artificial and even temporary was that particular instrument, or where was the seat of the real tyrants who wielded it. The real answer to the mechanical problem for the present is of a different sort; and I will proceed to suggest it, having once made clear the only methods of judgment by which it can be judged. And having begun at the right end, which is the ultimate spiritual standard by which a man or a machine is to be valued, I will now begin at the other end; I might say at the wrong end; but it will be more respectful to our practical friends to call it the business end.
If I am asked what I should immediately do with a machine, I have no doubt about the sort of practical programme that could be a preliminary to a possible spiritual revolution of a much wider sort. In so far as the machine cannot be shared, I would have the ownership of it shared; that is, the direction of it shared and the profits of it shared. But when I say “shared” I mean it in the modern mercantile sense of the word “shares.” That is, I mean something divided and not merely something pooled. Our business friends bustle forward to tell us that all this is impossible; completely unconscious, apparently, that all this part of the business exists already. You cannot distribute a steam-engine, in the sense of giving one wheel to each shareholder to take home with him, clasped in his arms. But you not only can, but you already do distribute the ownership and profit of the steam-engine; and you distribute it in the form of private property. Only you do not distribute it enough, or to the right people, or to the people who really require it or could really do work for it. Now there are many schemes having this normal and general character; almost any one of which I should prefer to the concentration presented by capitalism or promised by communism. My own preference, on the whole, would be that any such necessary machine should be owned by a small local guild, on principles of profit-sharing, or rather profit-dividing: but of real profit-sharing and real profit-dividing, not to be confounded with capitalist patronage.
Touching the last point, it may be well to say in passing that what I say about the problem of profit-sharing is in that respect parallel to what I say also about the problem of emigration. The real difficulty of starting it in the right way is that it has so often been started in the wrong way; and especially in the wrong spirit. There is a certain amount of prejudice against profit-sharing, just as there is a certain amount of prejudice against emigration, in the industrial democracy of to-day. It is due in both cases to the type and especially the tone of the proposals. I entirely sympathize with the Trade Unionist who dislikes a certain sort of condescending capitalist concession; and the spirit which gives every man a place in the sun which turns out to be a place in Port Sunlight. Similarly, I quite sympathize with Mr. Kirkwood when he resented being lectured about emigration by Sir Alfred Mond, to the extent of saying, “The Scots will leave Scotland when the German Jews leave England.” But I think it would be possible to have a more genuinely egalitarian emigration, with a positive policy of self-government for the poor, to which Mr. Kirkwood might be kind; and I think that profit-sharing that began at the popular end, establishing first the property of a guild and not merely the caprice of an employer, would not contradict any true principle of Trades Unions. For the moment, however, I am only saying that something could be done with what lies nearest to us; quite apart from our general ideal about the position of machinery in an ideal social state. I understand what is meant by saying that the ideal in both cases depends upon the wrong ideals. But I do not understand what our critics mean by saying that it is impossible to divide the shares and profits in a machine among definite individuals. Any healthy man in any historical period would have thought it a project far more practicable than a Milk Trust.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
II THE ROMANCE OF MACHINERY
I have repeatedly asked the reader to remember that my general view of our potential future divides itself into two parts. First, there is the policy of reversing, or even merely of resisting, the modern tendency to monopoly or the concentration of capital. Let it be noted that this is a policy because it is a direction, if pursued in any degree. In one sense, indeed, he who is not with us is against us; because if that tendency is not resisted, it will prevail. But in another sense anyone who resists it at all is with us; even if he would not go so far in the reversal as we should. In trying to reverse the concentration at all, he is helping us to do what nobody has done yet. He will be setting himself against the trend of his age, or at least of recent ages. And a man can work in our direction, instead of the existing and contrary direction, even with the existing and perhaps contrary machinery. Even while we remain industrial, we can work towards industrial distribution and away from industrial monopoly. Even while we live in town houses, we can own town houses. Even while we are a nation of shopkeepers, we can try to own our shops. Even while we are the workshop of the world, we can try to own our tools. Even if our town is covered with advertisements, it can be covered with different advertisements. If the mark of our whole society is the trade-mark, it need not be the same trade-mark. In short, there is a perfectly tenable and practicable policy of resisting mercantile monopoly even in a mercantile state. And we say that a great many people ought to support us in that, who might not agree with our ultimate ideal of a state that should not be mercantile— or rather a state that should not be entirely mercantile. We cannot call on England as a nation of peasants, as France or Serbia is a nation of peasants. But we can call on England that has been a nation of shopkeepers to resist being turned into one big Yankee store.
That is why in beginning here the discussion of machinery I pointed out, first, that in the ultimate sense we are free to destroy machinery; and second, that in the immediate sense it is possible to divide the ownership of machinery. And I should say myself that even in a healthy state there would be some ownership of machinery to divide. But when we come to consider that larger test, we must say something about the definition of machinery, and even the ideal of machinery. Now I have a great deal of sympathy with what I may call the sentimental argument for machinery. Of all the critics who have rebuked us, the man I like best is the engineer who says: “But I do like machinery—just as you like mythology. Why should I have my toys taken away any more than you?” And of the various positions that I have to meet, I will begin with his. Now on a previous page I said I agreed with Mr. Penty that it would be a human right to abandon machinery altogether. I will add here that I do not agree with Mr. Penty in thinking machinery like magic— a mere malignant power or origin of evils. It seems to me quite as materialistic to be damned by a machine as saved by a machine. It seems to me quite as idolatrous to blaspheme it as to worship it. But even supposing that somebody, without worshipping it, is yet enjoying it imaginatively and in some sense mystically, the case as we state it still stands.
Nobody would be more really unsuitable to the machine age than a man who really admired machines. The modern system presupposes people who will take mechanism mechanically; not people who will take it mystically. An amusing story might be written about a poet who was really appreciative of the fairy-tales of science, and who found himself more of an obstacle in the scientific civilization than if he had delayed it by telling the fairy-tales of infancy. Suppose whenever he went to the telephone (bowing three times as he approached the shrine of the disembodied oracle and murmuring some appropriate form of words such as vox et praeterea nihil), he were to act as if he really valued the significance of the instrument. Suppose he were to fall into a trembling ecstasy on hearing from a distant exchange the voice of an unknown young woman in a remote town, were to linger upon the very real wonder of that momentary meeting in mid-air with a human spirit whom he would never see on earth, were to speculate on her life and personality, so real and yet so remote from his own, were to pause to ask a few personal questions about her, just sufficient to accentuate her human strangeness, were to ask whether she also had not some sense of this weird psychical tete-a-tete, created and dissolved in an instant, whether she also thought of those unthinkable leagues of valley and forest that lay between the moving mouth and the listening ear—suppose, in short, he were to say all this to the lady at the Exchange who was just about to put him on to 666 Upper Tooting. He would be really and truly expressing the sentiment, “Wonderful thing, the telephone!”; and, unlike the thousands who say it, he would actually mean it. He would be really and truly justifying the great scientific discoveries and doing honour to the great scientific inventors. He would indeed be the worthy son of a scientific age. And yet I fear that in a scientific age he would possibly be misunderstood, and even suffer from lack of sympathy. I fear that he would, in fact, be in practice an opponent of all that he desired to uphold. He would be a worse enemy of machinery than any Luddite smashing machines. He would obstruct the activities of the telephone exchange, by praising the beauties of the telephone, more than if he had sat down, like a more normal and traditional poet, to tell all those bustling business people about the beauties of a wayside flower.
It would of course be the same with any adventure of the same luckless admiration. If a philosopher, when taken for the first time for a ride in a motor-car, were to fall into such an enthusiasm for the marvel that he insisted on understanding the whole of the mechanism on the spot, it is probable that he would have got to his destination rather quicker if he had walked. If he were, in his simple zeal, to insist on the machine being taken to pieces in the road, that he might rejoice in the inmost secrets of its structure, he might even lose his popularity with the garage taxi-driver or chauffeur. Now we have all known children, for instance, who did really in this fashion want to see wheels go round. But though their attitude may bring them nearest to the kingdom of heaven, it does not necessarily bring them nearer to the end of the journey. They are admiring motors; but they are not motoring—that is, they are not necessarily moving. They are not serving that purpose which motoring was meant to serve. Now as a matter of fact this contradiction has ended in a congestion; and a sort of stagnant state of the spirit in which there is rather less real appreciation of the marvels of man’s invention than if the poet confined himself to making a penny whistle (on which to pipe in the woods of Arcady) or the child confined himself to making a toy bow or a catapult. The child really is happy with a beautiful happiness every time he lets fly an arrow. It is by no means certain that the business man is happy with a beautiful happiness every time he sends off a telegram. The very name of a telegram is a poem, even more magical than the arrow; for it means a dart, and a dart that writes. Think what the child would feel if he could shoot a pencil-arrow that drew a picture at the other end of the valley or the long street. Yet the business man but seldom dances and claps his hands for joy, at the thought of this, whenever he sends a telegram.
Now this has a considerable relevancy to the real criticism of the modern mechanical civilization. Its supporters are always telling us of its marvellous inventions and proving that they are marvellous improvements. But it is highly doubtful whether they really feel them as improvements. For instance, I have heard it said a hundred times that glass is an excellent illustration of the way in which something becomes a convenience for everybody. “Look at glass in windows,” they say; “that has been turned into a mere necessity; yet that also was once a luxury.” And I always feel disposed to answer, “Yes, and it would be better for people like you if it were still a luxury; if that would induce you to look at it, and not only to look through it. Do you ever consider how magical a thing is that invisible film standing between you and the birds and the wind? Do you ever think of it as water hung in the air or a flattened diamond too clear to be even valued? Do you ever feel a window as a sudden opening in a wall? And if you do not, what is the good of glass to you?” This may be a little exaggerated, in the heat of the moment, but it is really true that in these things invention outstrips imagination. Humanity has not got the good out of its own inventions; and by making more and more inventions, it is only leaving its own power of happiness further and further behind.
I remarked in an earlier part of this particular meditation that machinery was not necessarily evil, and that there were some who valued it in the right spirit, but that most of those who had to do with it never had a chance of valuing it at all. A poet might enjoy a clock as a child enjoys a musical-box. But the actual clerk who looks at the actual clock, to see that he is just in time to catch the train for the city, is no more enjoying machinery than he is enjoying music. There may be something to be said for mechanical toys; but modern society is a mechanism and not a toy. The child indeed is a good test in these matters; and illustrates both the fact that there is an interest in machinery and the fact that machinery itself generally prevents us from being interested. It is almost a proverb that every little boy wants to be an engine-driver. But machinery has not multiplied the number of engine-drivers, so as to allow all little boys to drive engines. It has not given each little boy a real engine, as his family might give him a toy engine. The effect of railways on a population cannot be to produce a population of engine-drivers. It can only produce a population of passengers; and of passengers a little too like packages. In other words, its only effect on the visionary or potential engine-driver is to put him inside the train, where he cannot see the engine, instead of outside the train where he can. And though he grows up to the greatest and most glorious success in life, and swindles the widow and orphan till he can travel in a first-class carriage specially reserved, with a permanent pass to the International Congress of Cosmopolitan World Peace for Wire-Pullers, he will never perhaps enjoy a railway train again, he will never even see a railway train again, as he saw it when he stood as a ragged urchin and waved wildly from a grassy bank at the passage of the Scotch Express.
We may transfer the parable from engine-drivers to engineers. It may be that the driver of the Scotch Express hurls himself forward in a fury of speed because his heart is in the Highlands, his heart is not here; that he spurns the Border behind him with a gesture and hails the Grampians before him with a cheer. And whether or no it is true that the engine-driver’s heart is in the Highlands, it is sometimes true that the little boy’s heart is in the engine. But it is by no means true that passengers as a whole, travelling behind engines as a whole, enjoy the speed in a positive sense, though they may approve of it in a negative sense. I mean that they wish to travel swiftly, not because swift travelling is enjoyable, but because it is not enjoyable. They want it rushed through; not because being behind the railway-engine is a rapture, but because being in the railway-carriage is a bore. In the same way, if we consider the joy of engineers, we must remember that there is only one joyful engineer to a thousand bored victims of engineering. The discussion that raged between Mr. Penty and others at one time threatened to resolve itself into a feud between engineers and architects. But when the engineer asks us to forget all the monotony and materialism of a mechanical age because his own science has some of the inspiration of an art, the architect may well be ready with a reply. For this is very much as if architects were never engaged in anything but the building of prisons and lunatic asylums. It is as if they told us proudly with what passionate and poetical enthusiasm they had themselves reared towers high enough for the hanging of Haman or dug dungeons impenetrable enough for the starving of Ugolino.
Now I have already explained that I do not propose anything in what some call the practical way, but should rather be called the immediate way, beyond the better distribution of the ownership of such machines as are really found to be necessary. But when we come to the larger question of machinery in a fundamentally different sort of society, governed by our philosophy and religion, there is a great deal more to be said. The best and shortest way of saying it is that instead of the machine being a giant to which the man is a pygmy, we must at least reverse the proportions until man is a giant to whom the machine is a toy. Granted that idea, and we have no reason to deny that it might be a legitimate and enlivening toy. In that sense it would not matter if every child were an engine-driver or (better still) every engine-driver a child. But those who were always taunting us with unpracticality will at least admit that this is not practical.
I have thus tried to put myself fairly in the position of the enthusiast, as we should always do in judging of enthusiasms. And I think it will be agreed that even after the experiment a real difference between the engineering enthusiasm and older enthusiasms remains as a fact of common sense. Admitting that the man who designs a steam-engine is as original as the man who designs a statue, there is an immediate and immense difference in the effects of what they design. The original statue is a joy to the sculptor; but it is also in some degree (when it is not too original) a joy to the people who see the statue. Or at any rate it is meant to be a joy to other people seeing it, or there would be no point in letting it be seen. But though the engine may be a great joy to the engineer and of great use to the other people, it is not, and it is not meant to be, in the same sense a great joy to the other people. Nor is this because of a deficiency in education, as some of the artists might allege in the case of art. It is involved in the very nature of machinery; which, when once it is established, consists of repetitions and not of variations and surprises. A man can see something in the limbs of a statue which he never saw before; they may seem to toss or sweep as they never did before; but he would not only be astonished but alarmed if the wheels of the steam-engine began to behave as they never did before. We may take it, therefore, as an essential and not an accidental character of machinery that it is an inspiration for the inventor but merely a monotony for the consumer.
This being so, it seems to me that in an ideal state engineering would be the exception, just as the delight in engines is the exception. As it is, engineering and engines are the rule; and are even a grinding and oppressive rule. The lifelessness which the machine imposes on the masses is an infinitely bigger and more obvious fact than the individual interest of the man who makes machines. Having reached this point in the argument, we may well compare it with what may be called the practical aspect of the problem of machinery. Now it seems to me obvious that machinery, as it exists to-day, has gone almost as much beyond its practical sphere as it has beyond its imaginative sphere. The whole of industrial society is founded on the notion that the quickest and cheapest thing is to carry coals to Newcastle; even if it be only with the object of afterwards carrying them from Newcastle. It is founded on the idea that rapid and regular transit and transport, perpetual interchange of goods, and incessant communication between remote places, is of all things the most economical and direct. But it is not true that the quickest and cheapest thing, for a man who has just pulled an apple from an apple tree, is to send it in a consignment of apples on a train that goes like a thunderbolt to a market at the other end of England. The quickest and cheapest thing for a man who has pulled a fruit from a tree is to put it in his mouth. He is the supreme economist who wastes no money on railway journeys. He is the absolute type of efficiency who is far too efficient to go in for organization. And though he is, of course, an extreme and ideal case of simplification, the case for simplification does stand as solid as an apple tree. In so far as men can produce their own goods on the spot, they are saving the community a vast expenditure which is often quite out of proportion to the return. In so far as we can establish a considerable proportion of simple and self-supporting people, we are relieving the pressure of what is often a wasteful as well as a harassing process. And taking this as a general outline of the reform, it does appear true that a simpler life in large areas of the community might leave machinery more or less as an exceptional thing; as it may well be to the exceptional man who really puts his soul into it.
There are difficulties in this view; but for the moment I may well take as an illustration the parallel of the particular sort of modern engineering which moderns are very fond of denouncing. They often forget that most of their praise of scientific instruments applies most vividly to scientific weapons. If we are to have so much pity for the unhappy genius who has just invented a new galvanometer, what about the poor genius who has just invented a new gun? If there is a real imaginative inspiration in the making of a steam-engine, is there not imaginative interest in the making of a submarine? Yet many modern admirers of science would be very anxious to abolish these machines altogether; even in the very act of telling us that we cannot abolish machines at all. As I believe in the right of national self-defence, I would not abolish them altogether. But I think they may give us a hint of how exceptional things may be treated exceptionally. For the moment I will leave the progressive to laugh at my absurd notion of a limitation of machines, and go off to a meeting to demand the limitation of armaments.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
III THE HOLIDAY OF THE SLAVE
I have sometimes suggested that industrialism of the American type, with its machinery and mechanical hustle, will some day be preserved on a truly American model; I mean in the manner of the Red Indian Reservation. As we leave a patch of forest for savages to hunt and fish in, so a higher civilization might leave a patch of factories for those who are still at such a stage of intellectual infancy as really to want to see the wheels go round. And as the Red Indians could still, I suppose, tell their quaint old legends of a red god who smoked a pipe or a red hero who stole the sun and moon, so the simple folk in the industrial enclosure could go on talking of their own Outline of History and discussing the evolution of ethics, while all around them a more mature civilization was dealing with real history and serious philosophy. I hesitate to repeat this fancy here; for, after all, machinery is their religion, or at any rate superstition, and they do not like it to be treated with levity. But I do think there is something to be said for the notion of which this fancy might stand as a sort of symbol; for the idea that a wiser society would eventually treat machines as it treats weapons, as something special and dangerous and perhaps more directly under a central control. But however this may be, I do think the wildest fancy of a manufacturer kept at bay like a painted barbarian is much more sane than a serious scientific alternative now often put before us. I mean what its friends call the Leisure State, in which everything is to be done by machinery. It is only right to say a word about this suggestion in comparison with our own.
In practice we already know what is meant by a holiday in a world of machinery and mass production. It means that a man, when he has done turning a handle, has a choice of certain pleasures offered to him. He can, if he likes, read a newspaper and discover with interest how the Crown Prince of Fontarabia landed from the magnificent yacht Atlantis amid a cheering crowd; how certain great American millionaires are making great financial consolidations; how the Modern Girl is a delightful creature, in spite of (or because of) having shingled hair or short skirts; and how the true religion, for which we all look to the Churches, consists of sympathy and social progress and marrying, divorcing, or burying everybody without reference to the precise meaning of the ceremony. On the other hand, if he prefers some other amusement, he may go to the Cinema, where he will see a very vivid and animated scene of the crowds cheering the Crown Prince of Fontarabia after the arrival of the yacht Atlantis; where he will see an American film featuring the features of American millionaires, with all those resolute contortions of visage which accompany their making of great financial consolidations; where there will not be lacking a charming and vivacious heroine, recognizable as a Modern Girl by her short hair and short skirts; and possibly a kind and good clergyman (if any) who explains in dumb show, with the aid of a few printed sentences, that true religion is social sympathy and progress and marrying and burying people at random. But supposing the man’s tastes to be detached from the drama and from the kindred arts, he may prefer the reading of fiction; and he will have no difficulty in finding a popular novel about the doubts and difficulties of a good and kind clergyman slowly discovering that true religion consists of progress and social sympathy, with the assistance of a Modern Girl whose shingled hair and short skirts proclaim her indifference to all fine distinctions about who should be buried and who divorced; nor, probably, will the story fail to contain an American millionaire making vast financial consolidations, and certainly a yacht and possibly a Crown Prince. But there are yet other tastes that are catered for under the conditions of modern publicity and pleasure-seeking. There is the great institution of wireless or broadcasting; and the holiday-maker, turning away from fiction, journalism, and film drama, may prefer to “listen-in” to a programme that will contain the very latest news of great financial consolidations made by American millionaires; which will most probably contain little lectures on how the Modern Girl can crop her hair or abbreviate her skirts; in which he can hear the very accents of some great popular preacher proclaiming to the world that revelation of true religion which consists of sympathy and social progress rather than of dogma and creed; and in which he will certainly hear the very thunder of cheering which welcomes His Royal Highness the Crown Prince of Fontarabia when he lands from the magnificent yacht Atlantis. There is thus indeed a very elaborate and well-ordered choice placed before him, in the matter of the means of entertainment.
But even the rich variety of method and approach unfolded before us in this alternative seems to some to cover a certain secret and subtle element of monotony. Even here the pleasure-seeker may have that weird psychological sensation of having known the same thing before. There seems to be something recurrent about the type of topic; suggestive of something rigid about the type of mind. Now I think it very doubtful whether it is really a superior mind. If the pleasure-seeker himself were really a pleasure-maker for himself, if he were forced to amuse himself instead of being amused, if he were, in short, obliged to sit down in an old tavern and talk— I am really very doubtful about whether he would confine his conversation entirely to the Crown Prince of Fontarabia, the shingling of hair, the greatness of certain rich Yankees, and so on; and then begin the same round of subjects all over again. His interests might be more local, but they would be more lively; his experience of men more personal but more mixed; his likes and dislikes more capricious but not quite so easily satisfied. To take a parallel, modern children are made to play public-school games, and will doubtless soon be made to listen to the praise of the millionaires on the wireless and in the newspaper. But children left to themselves almost invariably invent games of their own, dramas of their own, often whole imaginary kingdoms and commonwealths of their own. In other words, they produce; until the competition of monopoly kills their production. The boy playing at robbers is not liberated but stunted by learning about American crooks, all of one pattern less picturesque than his own. He is psychologically undercut, undersold, dumped upon, frozen out, flooded, swamped, and ruined; but not emancipated.
Inventions have destroyed invention. The big modern machines are like big guns dominating and terrorizing a whole stretch of country, within the range of which nothing can raise its head. There is far more inventiveness to the square yard of mankind than can ever appear under that monopolist terror. The minds of men are not so much alike as the motor-cars of men, or the morning papers of men, or the mechanical manufacture of the coats and hats of men. In other words, we are not getting the best out of men. We are certainly not getting the most individual or the most interesting qualities out of men. And it is doubtful whether we ever shall, until we shut off this deafening din of megaphones that drowns their voices, this deathly glare of limelight which kills the colours of their complexions, this plangent yell of platitudes which stuns and stops their minds. All this sort of thing is killing thoughts as they grow, as a great white death-ray might kill plants as they grow. When, therefore, people tell me that making a great part of England rustic and self-supporting would mean making it rude and senseless, I do not agree with them; and I do not think they understand the alternative or the problem. Nobody wants all men to be rustics even in normal times; it is very tenable that some of the most intelligent would turn to the towns even in normal times. But I say the towns themselves are the foes of intelligence, in these times; I say the rustics themselves would have more variety and vivacity than is really encouraged by these towns. I say it is only by shutting off this unnatural noise and light that men’s minds can begin again to move and to grow. Just as we spread paving-stones over different soils without reference to the different crops that might grow there, so we spread programmes of platitudinous plutocracy over souls that God made various, and simpler societies have made free.
If by machinery saving labour, and therefore producing leisure, be meant the machinery that now achieves what is called mass production, I cannot see any vital value in the leisure; because there is in that leisure nothing of liberty. The man may only work for an hour with his machine-made tools, but he can only run away and play for twenty-three hours with machine-made toys. Everything he handles has to come from a huge machine that he cannot handle. Everything must come from something to which, in the current capitalist phrase, he can only lend “a hand.” Now as this would apply to intellectual and artistic toys as well as to merely material toys, it seems to me that the machine would dominate him for a much longer time than his hand had to turn the handle. It is practically admitted that much fewer men are needed to work the machine. The answer of the mechanical collectivists is that though the machine might give work to the few, it could give food to the many. But it could only give food to the many by an operation that had to be presided over by the few. Or even if we suppose that some work, subdivided into small sections, were given to the many, that system of rotation would have to be ruled by a responsible few; and some fixed authority would be needed to distribute the work as much as to distribute the food. In other words, the officials would very decidedly be permanent officials. In a sense all the rest of us might be intermittent or occasional officials. But the general character of the system would remain; and whatever else it is like, nothing can make it like a population pottering about in its own several fields or practising small creative crafts in its own little workshops. The man who has helped to produce a machine-made article may indeed leave off working, in the sense of leaving off turning one particular wheel. He may have an opportunity to do as he likes, in so far as he likes using what the system likes producing. He may have a power of choice—in the sense that he may choose between one thing it produces and another thing it produces. He may choose to pass his leisure hours in sitting in a machine-made chair or lying on a machine-made bed or resting in a machine-made hammock or swinging on a machine-made trapeze. But he will not be in the same position as a man who carves his own hobby-horse out of his own wood or his own hobby out of his own will. For that introduces another principle or purpose; which there is no warrant for supposing will coexist with the principle or purpose of using all the wood so as to save labour or simplifying all the wills so as to save leisure. If our ideal is to produce things as rapidly and easily as possible, we must have a definite number of things that we desire to produce. If we desire to produce them as freely and variously as possible, we must not at the same time try to produce them as quickly as possible. I think it most probable that the result of saving labour by machinery would be then what it is now, only more so: the limitation of the type of thing produced; standardization.
Now it may be that some of the supporters of the Leisure State have in mind some system of distributed machinery, which shall really make each man the master of his machine; and in that case I agree that the problem becomes different and that a great part of the problem is resolved. There would still remain the question of whether a man with a free soul would want to use a machine upon about three-quarters of the things for which machines are now used. In other words, there would remain the whole problem of the craftsman in the sense of the creator. But I should agree that if the small man found his small mechanical plant helpful to the preservation of his small property, its claim would be very considerable. But it is necessary to make it clear, that if the holidays provided for the mechanic are provided as mechanically as at present, and with the merely mechanical alternative offered at present, I think that even the slavery of his labour would be light compared to the grinding slavery of his leisure.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
IV THE FREE MAN AND THE FORD CAR
I am not a fanatic; and I think that machines may be of considerable use in destroying machinery. I should generously accord them a considerable value in the work of exterminating all that they represent. But to put the truth in those terms is to talk in terms of the remote conclusion of our slow and reasonable revolution. In the immediate situation the same truth may be stated in a more moderate way. Towards all typical things of our time we should have a rational charity. Machinery is not wrong; it is only absurd. Perhaps we should say it is merely childish, and can even be taken in the right spirit by a child. If, therefore, we find that some machine enables us to escape from an inferno of machinery, we cannot be committing a sin though we may be cutting a silly figure, like a dragoon rejoining his regiment on an old bicycle. What is essential is to realize that there is something ridiculous about the present position, something wilder than any Utopia. For instance, I shall have occasion here to note the proposal of centralized electricity, and we could justify the use of it so long as we see the joke of it. But, in fact, we do not even see the joke of the waterworks and the water company. It is almost too broadly comic that an essential of life like water should be pumped to us from nobody knows where, by nobody knows whom, sometimes nearly a hundred miles away. It is every bit as funny as if air were pumped to us from miles away, and we all walked about like divers at the bottom of the sea. The only reasonable person is the peasant who owns his own well. But we have a long way to go before we begin to think about being reasonable.
There are at present some examples of centralization of which the effects may work for decentralization. An obvious case is that recently discussed in connection with a common plant of electricity. I think it is broadly true that if electricity could be cheapened, the chances of a very large number of small independent shops, especially workshops, would be greatly improved. At the same time, there is no doubt at all that such dependence for essential power on a central plant is a real dependence, and is therefore a defect in any complete scheme of independence. On this point I imagine that many Distributists might differ considerably; but, speaking for myself, I am inclined to follow the more moderate and provisional policy that I have suggested more than once in this place. I think the first necessity is to make sure of any small properties obtaining any success in any decisive or determining degree. Above all, I think it is vital to create the experience of small property, the psychology of small property, the sort of man who is a small proprietor. When once men of that sort exist, they will decide, in a manner very different from any modern mob, how far the central power-house is to dominate their own private house, or whether it need dominate at all. They will perhaps discover the way of breaking up and individualizing that power. They will sacrifice, if there is any need to sacrifice, even the help of science to the hunger for possession. So that I am disposed at the moment to accept any help that science and machinery can give in creating small property, without in the least bowing down to such superstitions where they only destroy it. But we must keep in mind the peasant ideal as the motive and the goal; and most of those who offer us mechanical help seem to be blankly ignorant of what we regard it as helping. A well-known name will illustrate both the thing being done and the man being ignorant of what he is doing.
The other day I found myself in a Ford car, like that in which I remember riding over Palestine, and in which, (I suppose) Mr. Ford would enjoy riding over Palestinians. Anyhow, it reminded me of Mr. Ford, and that reminded me of Mr. Penty and his views upon equality and mechanical civilization. The Ford car (if I may venture on one of those new ideas urged upon us in newspapers) is a typical product of the age. The best thing about it is the thing for which it is despised; that it is small. The worst thing about it is the thing for which it is praised; that it is standardized. Its smallness is, of course, the subject of endless American jokes, about a man catching a Ford like a fly or possibly a flea. But nobody seems to notice how this popularization of motoring (however wrong in motive or in method) really is a complete contradiction to the fatalistic talk about inevitable combination and concentration. The railway is fading before our eyes—birds nesting, as it were, in the railway signals, and wolves howling, so to speak, in the waiting-room. And the railway really was a communal and concentrated mode of travel like that in a Utopia of the Socialists. The free and solitary traveller is returning before our very eyes; not always (it is true) equipped with scrip or scallop, but having recovered to some extent the freedom of the King’s highway in the manner of Merry England. Nor is this the only ancient thing such travel has revived. While Mugby Junction neglected its refreshment-rooms, Hugby-in-the-Hole has revived its inns. To that limited extent the Ford motor is already a reversion to the free man. If he has not three acres and a cow, he has the very inadequate substitute of three hundred miles and a car. I do not mean that this development satisfies my theories. But I do say that it destroys other people’s theories; all the theories about the collective thing as a thing of the future and the individual thing as a thing of the past. Even in their own special and stinking way of science and machinery, the facts are very largely going against their theories.
Yet I have never seen Mr. Ford and his little car really and intelligently praised for this. I have often, of course, seen him praised for all the conveniences of what is called standardization. The argument seems to be more or less to this effect. When your car breaks down with a loud crash in the middle of Salisbury Plain, though it is not very likely that any fragments of other ruined motor cars will be lying about amid the ruins of Stonehenge, yet if they are, it is a great advantage to think that they will probably be of the same pattern, and you can take them to mend your own car. The same principle applies to persons motoring in Tibet, and exulting in the reflection that if another motorist from the United States did happen to come along, it would be possible to exchange wheels or footbrakes in token of amity. I may not have got the details of the argument quite correct; but the general point of it is that if anything goes wrong with parts of a machine, they can be replaced with identical machinery. And anyhow the argument could be carried much further; and used to explain a great many other things. I am not sure that it is not the clue to many mysteries of the age. I begin to understand, for instance, why magazine stories are all exactly alike; it is ordered so that when you have left one magazine in a railway carriage in the middle of a story called “Pansy Eyes,” you may go on with exactly the same story in another magazine under the title of “Dandelion Locks.” It explains why all leading articles on The Future of the Churches are exactly the same; so that we may begin reading the article in the Daily Chronicle and finish it in the Daily Express. It explains why all the public utterances urging us to prefer new things to old never by any chance say anything new; they mean that we should go to a new paper-stall and read it in a new newspaper. This is why all American caricatures repeat themselves like a mathematical pattern; it means that when we have torn off a part of the picture to wrap up sandwiches, we can tear off a bit of another picture and it will always fit in. And this is also why American millionaires all look exactly alike; so that when the bright, resolute expression of one of them has led us to do serious damage to his face with a heavy blow of the fist, it is always possible to mend it with noses and jaw-bones taken from other millionaires, who are exactly similarly constituted.
Such are the advantages of standardization; but, as may be suspected, I think the advantages are exaggerated; and I agree with Mr. Penty in doubting whether all this repetition really corresponds to human nature. But a very interesting question was raised by Mr. Ford’s remarks on the difference between men and men; and his suggestion that most men preferred mechanical action or were only fitted for it. About all those arguments affecting human equality, I myself always have one feeling, which finds expression in a little test of my own. I shall begin to take seriously those classifications of superiority and inferiority, when I find a man classifying himself as inferior. It will be noted that Mr. Ford does not say that he is only fitted to mind machines; he confesses frankly that he is too fine and free and fastidious a being for such tasks. I shall believe the doctrine when I hear somebody say: “I have only got the wits to turn a wheel.” That would be real, that would be realistic, that would be scientific. That would be independent testimony that could not easily be disputed. It is exactly the same, of course, with all the other superiorities and denials of human equality that are so specially characteristic of a scientific age. It is so with the men who talk about superior and inferior races; I never heard a man say: “Anthropology shows that I belong to an inferior race.” If he did, he might be talking like an anthropologist; as it is, he is talking like a man, and not unfrequently like a fool. I have long hoped that I might some day hear a man explaining on scientific principles his own unfitness for any important post or privilege, say: “The world should belong to the free and fighting races, and not to persons of that servile disposition that you will notice in myself; the intelligent will know how to form opinions, but the weakness of intellect from which I so obviously suffer renders my opinions manifestly absurd on the face of them: there are indeed stately and godlike races—but look at me! Observe my shapeless and fourth-rate features! Gaze, if you can bear it, on my commonplace and repulsive face!” If I heard a man making a scientific demonstration in that style, I might admit that he was really scientific. But as it invariably happens, by a curious coincidence, that the superior race is his own race, the superior type is his own type, and the superior preference for work the sort of work he happens to prefer—I have come to the conclusion that there is a simpler explanation.
Now Mr. Ford is a good man, so far as it is consistent with being a good millionaire. But he himself will very well illustrate where the fallacy of his argument lies. It is probably quite true that, in the making of motors, there are a hundred men who can work a motor and only one man who can design a motor. But of the hundred men who could work a motor, it is very probable that one could design a garden, another design a charade, another design a practical joke or a derisive picture of Mr. Ford. I do not mean, of course, in anything I say here, to deny differences of intelligence, or to suggest that equality (a thing wholly religious) depends on any such impossible denial. But I do mean that men are nearer to a level than anybody will discover by setting them all to make one particular kind of run-about clock. Now Mr. Ford himself is a man of defiant limitations. He is so indifferent to history, for example, that he calmly admitted in the witness-box that he had never heard of Benedict Arnold. An American who has never heard of Benedict Arnold is like a Christian who has never heard of Judas Iscariot. He is rare. I believe that Mr. Ford indicated in a general way that he thought Benedict Arnold was the same as Arnold Bennett. Not only is this not the case, but it is an error to suppose that there is no importance in such an error. If he were to find himself, in the heat of some controversy, accusing Mr. Arnold Bennett of having betrayed the American President and ravaged the South with an Anti-American army, Mr. Bennett might bring an action. If Mr. Ford were to suppose that the lady who recently wrote revelations in the Daily Express was old enough to be the widow of Benedict Arnold, the lady might bring an action. Now it is not impossible that among the workmen whom Mr. Ford perceives (probably quite truly) to be only suited to the mechanical part of the construction of mechanical things, there might be a man who was fond of reading all the history he could lay his hands on; and who had advanced step by step, by painful efforts of self-education, until the difference between Benedict Arnold and Arnold Bennett was quite clear in his mind. If his employer did not care about the difference, of course, he would not consult him about the difference, and the man would remain to all appearance a mere cog in the machine; there would be no reason for finding out that he was a rather cogitating cog. Anybody who knows anything of modern business knows that there are any number of such men who remain in subordinate and obscure positions because their private tastes and talents have no relation to the very stupid business in which they are engaged. If Mr. Ford extends his business over the Solar System, and gives cars to the Martians and the Man in the Moon, he will not be an inch nearer to the mind of the man who is working his machine for him, and thinking about something more sensible. Now all human things are imperfect; but the condition in which such hobbies and secondary talents do to some extent come out is the condition of small independence. The peasant almost always runs two or three sideshows and lives on a variety of crafts and expedients. The village shopkeeper will shave travellers and stuff weasels and grow cabbages and do half a dozen such things, keeping a sort of balance in his life like the balance of sanity in the soul. The method is not perfect; but it is more intelligent than turning him into a machine in order to find out whether he has a soul above machinery.
Upon this point of immediate compromise with machinery, therefore, I am inclined to conclude that it is quite right to use the existing machines in so far as they do create a psychology that can despise machines; but not if they create a psychology that respects them. The Ford car is an excellent illustration of the question; even better than the other illustration I have given of an electrical supply for small workshops. If possessing a Ford car means rejoicing in a Ford car, it is melancholy enough; it does not bring us much farther than Tooting or rejoicing in a Tooting tramcar. But if possessing a Ford car means rejoicing in a field of corn or clover, in a fresh landscape and a free atmosphere, it may be the beginning of many things—and even the end of many things. It may be, for instance, the end of the car and the beginning of the cottage. Thus we might almost say that the final triumph of Mr. Ford is not when the man gets into the car, but when he enthusiastically falls out of the car. It is when he finds somewhere, in remote and rural corners that he could not normally have reached, that perfect poise and combination of hedge and tree and meadow in the presence of which any modern machine seems suddenly to look an absurdity; yes, even an antiquated absurdity. Probably that happy man, having found the place of his true home, will proceed joyfully to break up the car with a large hammer, putting its iron fragments for the first time to some real use, as kitchen utensils or garden tools. That is using a scientific instrument in the proper way; for it is using it as an instrument. The man has used modern machinery to escape from modern society; and the reason and rectitude of such a course commends itself instantly to the mind. It is not so with the weaker brethren who are not content to trust Mr. Ford’s car, but also trust Mr. Ford’s creed. If accepting the car means accepting the philosophy I have just criticized, the notion that some men are born to make cars, or rather small bits of cars, then it will be far more worthy of a philosopher to say frankly that men never needed to have cars at all. It is only because the man had been sent into exile in a railway-train that he has to be brought back home in a motor-car. It is only because all machinery has been used to put things wrong that some machinery may now rightly be used to put things right. But I conclude upon the whole that it may so be used; and my reason is that which I considered on a previous page under the heading of “The Chance of Recovery.” I pointed out that our ideal is so sane and simple, so much in accord with the ancient and general instincts of men, that when once it is given a chance anywhere it will improve that chance by its own inner vitality because there is some reaction towards health whenever disease is removed. The man who has used his car to find his farm will be more interested in the farm than in the car; certainly more interested than in the shop where he once bought the car. Nor will Mr. Ford always woo him back to that shop, even by telling him tenderly that he is not fitted to be a lord of land, a rider of horses, or a ruler of cattle; since his deficient intellect and degraded anthropological type fit him only for mean and mechanical operations. If anyone will try saying this (tenderly, of course) to any considerable number of large farmers, who have lived for some time on their own farms with their own families, he will discover the defects of the approach.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
V A NOTE ON EMIGRATION
- The Need of a New Spirit
- The Religion of Small Property
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
I THE NEED OF A NEW SPIRIT
Before closing these notes, with some words on the colonial aspect of democratic distribution, it will be well to make some acknowledgment of the recent suggestion of so distinguished a man as Mr. John Galsworthy. Mr. Galsworthy is a man for whom I have the very warmest regard; for a human being who really tries to be fair is something very like a monster and miracle in the long history of this merry race of ours. Sometimes, indeed, I get a little exasperated at being so persistently excused. I can imagine few things more annoying, to a free-born and properly constituted Christian, than the thought that if he did choose to wait for Mr. Galsworthy behind a wall, knock him down with a brick, jump on him with heavy boots, and so on, Mr. Galsworthy would still faintly gasp that it was only the fault of the System; that the System made bricks and the System heaved bricks and the System went about wearing heavy boots, and so on. As a human being, I should feel a longing for a little human justice, after all that inhuman mercy.
But these feelings do not interfere with the other feelings I have, of something like enthusiasm, for something that can only be called beautiful in the fair-mindedness of a study like “The White Monkey.” It is when this attitude of detachment is applied not to the judgment of individuals but of men in bulk, that the detachment begins to savour of something unnatural. And in Mr. Galsworthy’s last political pronouncement the detachment amounts to despair. At any rate, it amounts to despair about this earth, this England, about which I am certainly not going to despair yet. But I think it might be well if I took this opportunity of stating what I, for one, at least feel about the different claims here involved.
It may be debated whether it is a good or a bad thing for England that England has an Empire. It may be debated, at least as a matter of true definition, whether England has an Empire at all. But upon one point all Englishmen ought to stand firm, as a matter of history, of philosophy, and of logic. And that is that it has been, and is, a question of our owning an Empire and not of an Empire owning us.
There is sense in being separated from Americans on the principles of George Washington, and sense in being attached to Americans on the principles of George the Third. But there is no sense in being out-voted and swamped by Americans in the name of the Anglo-Saxon race. The Colonies were by origin English. They owe us that much; if it be only the trivial circumstance, so little valued by modern thought, that without their maker they could never have existed at all. If they choose to remain English, we thank them very sincerely for the compliment. If they choose not to remain English, but to turn into something else, we think they are within their rights. But anyhow England shall remain English. They shall not first turn themselves into something else, and then turn us into themselves. It may have been wrong to be an Empire, but it does not rob us of our right to be a nation.
But there is another sense in which those of our school would use the motto of “England First.” It is in the sense that our first step should be to discover how far the best ethical and economic system can be fitted into England, before we treat it as an export and cart it away to the ends of the earth. The scientific or commercial character, who is sure he has found an explosive that will blow up the solar system or a bullet that will kill the man in the moon, always makes a great parade of saying that he offers it first to his own country, and only afterwards to a foreign country. Personally, I cannot conceive how a man can bring himself in any case to offer such a thing to a foreign country. But then I am not a great scientific and commercial genius. Anyhow, such as our little notion of normal ownership is, we certainly do not propose to offer it to any foreign country, or even to any colony, before we offer it to our own country. And we do think it highly urgent and practical to find out first how much of it can really be carried out in our own country. Nobody supposes that the whole English population could live on the English land. But everybody ought to realize that immeasurably more people could live on it than do live on it; and that if such a policy did establish such a peasantry, there would be a recognizable narrowing of the margin of men left over for the town and the colonies. But we would suggest that these ought really to be left over, and dealt with as seems most desirable, after the main experiment has been made where it matters most. And what most of us would complain of in the emigrationists of the ordinary sort is that they seem to think first of the colony and then of what must be left behind in the country; instead of thinking first of the country and then of what must overflow into the colony.
People talk about an optimist being in a hurry; but it seems to me that a pessimist like Mr. Galsworthy is very much in a hurry. He has not tried the obvious reform on England, and, finding it fail, gone into exile to try it elsewhere. He is trying the obvious reform everywhere except where it is most obvious. And in this I think he has a subconscious affinity to people much less reasonable and respectable than himself. The pessimists have a curious way of urging us to counsels of despair as the only solution of a problem they have not troubled to solve. They declare solemnly that some unnatural thing would become necessary if certain conditions existed; and then somehow assume from that that they exist. They never think of attempting to prove that they exist, before they prove what follows from their existence. This is exactly the sort of plunging and premature pessimism, for instance, that people exhibit about Birth Control. Their desire is towards destruction; their hope is for despair; they eagerly anticipate the darkest and most doubtful predictions. They run with eager feet before and beyond the lingering and inconveniently slow statistics; like as the hart pants for the water-brooks they thirst to drink of Styx and Lethe before their hour; even the facts they show fall far short of the faith that they see shining beyond them; for faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen.
If I do not compare the critic in question with the doctors of this dismal perversion, still less do I compare him with those whose motives are merely self-protective and plutocratic. But it must also be said that many rush to the expedient of emigration, just as many rush to the expedient of Birth Control, for the perfectly simple reason that it is the easiest way in which the capitalists can escape from their own blunder of capitalism. They lured men into the town with the promise of greater pleasures; they ruined them there and left them with only one pleasure; they found the increase it produced at first convenient for labour and then inconvenient for supply; and now they are ready to round off their experiment in a highly appropriate manner, by telling them that they must have no families, or that their families must go to the modern equivalent of Botany Bay. It is not in that spirit that we envisage an element of colonization; and so long as it is treated in that spirit we refuse to consider it. I put first the statement that real colonial settlement must be not only stable but sacred. I say the new home must be not only a home but a shrine. And that is why I say it must be first established in England, in the home of our fathers and the shrine of our saints, to be a light and an ensign to our children.
I have explained that I cannot content myself with leaving my own nationality out of my own normal ideal; or leaving England as the mere tool-house or coal-cellar of other countries like Canada or Australia— or, for that matter, Argentina. I should like England also to have a much more rural type of redistribution; nor do I think it impossible. But when this is allowed for, nobody in his five wits would dream of denying that there is a real scope and even necessity for emigration and colonial settlement. Only, when we come to that, I have to draw a line rather sharply and explain something else, which is by no means inconsistent with my love of England, but I fear is not so likely to make me loved by Englishmen. I do not believe, as the newspapers and national histories always tell me to believe, that we have “the secret” of this sort of successful colonization and need nothing else to achieve this sort of democratic social construction. I ask for nothing better than that a man should be English in England. But I think he will have to be something more than English (or at any rate something more than “British”) if he is to create a solid social equality outside England. For something is needed for that solid social creation which our colonial tradition has not given. My reasons for holding this highly unpopular opinion I will attempt to suggest; but the fact that they are rather difficult to suggest is itself an evidence of their unfamiliarity and of that narrowness which is neither national nor international, but only imperial.
I should very much like to be present at a conversation between Mr. Saklatvala and Dean Inge. I have a great deal of respect for the real sincerity of the Dean of St. Paul’s, but his subconscious prejudices are of a strange sort. I cannot help having a feeling that he might have a certain sympathy with a Socialist so long as he was not a Christian Socialist. I do not indeed pretend to any respect for the ordinary sort of broad-mindedness which is ready to embrace a Buddhist but draws the line at a Bolshevist. I think its significance is very simple. It means welcoming alien religions when they make us feel comfortable, and persecuting them when they make us feel uncomfortable. But the particular reason I have at the moment for entertaining this association of ideas is one that concerns a larger matter. It concerns, indeed, what is commonly called the British Empire, which we were once taught to reverence largely because it was large. And one of my complaints against that common and rather vulgar sort of imperialism is that it did not really secure even the advantages of largeness. As I have said, I am a nationalist; Eng-land is good enough for me. I would defend England against the whole European continent. With even greater joy would I defend England against the whole British Empire. With a romantic rapture would I defend England against Mr. Ramsay MacDonald when he had become King of Scotland; lighting again the watch fires of Newark and Carlisle and sounding the old tocsins of the Border. With equal energy would I defend England against Mr. Tim Healy as King of Ireland, if ever the gross and growing prosperity of that helpless and decaying Celtic stock became positively offensive. With the greatest ecstasy of all would I defend England against Mr. Lloyd George as King of Wales. It will be seen, therefore, that there is nothing broad-minded about my patriotism; most modern nationality is not narrow enough for me.
But putting aside my own local affections, and looking at the matter in what is called a larger way, I note once more that our Imperialism does not get any of the good that could be got out of being large. And I was reminded of Dean Inge, because he suggested some time ago that the Irish and the French Canadians were increasing in numbers, not because they held the Catholic view of the family, but because they were a backward and apparently almost barbaric stock which naturally (I suppose he meant) increased with the blind luxuriance of a jungle. I have already remarked on the amusing trick of having it both ways which is illustrated in this remark. So long as savages are dying out, we say they are dying out because they are savages. When they are inconveniently increasing, we say they are increasing because they are savages. And from this it is but a simple logical step to say that the countrymen of Sir Wilfred Laurier or Senator Yeats are savages because they are increasing. But what strikes me most about the situation is this: that this spirit will always miss what is really to be learnt by covering any large and varied area. If French Canada is really a part of the British Empire, it would seem that the Empire might at least have served as a sort of interpreter between the British and the French. The Imperial statesman, if he had really been a statesman, ought to have been able to say, “It is always difficult to understand another nation or another religion; but I am more fortunately placed than most people. I know a little more than can be known by self-contained and isolated states like Sweden or Spain. I have more sympathy with the Catholic faith or the French blood because I have French Catholics in my own Empire.” Now it seems to me that the Imperial statesman never has said this; never has even been able to say it; never has even tried or pretended to be able to say it. He has been far narrower than a nationalist like myself, engaged in desperately defending Offa’s Dyke against a horde of Welsh politicians. I doubt if there was ever a politician who knew a word more of the French language, let alone a word more of the Latin Mass, because he had to govern a whole population that drew its traditions from Rome and Gaul. I will suggest in a moment how this enormous international narrowness affects the question of a peasantry and the extension of the natural ownership of land. But for the moment it is important to make the point clear about the nature of that narrowness. And that is why some light might be thrown on it in that tender, that intimate, that heart-to-heart talk between Mr. Saklatvala and the Dean of St. Paul’s. Mr. Saklatvala is a sort of parody or extreme and extravagant exhibition of the point; that we really know nothing at all about the moral and philosophical elements that make up the Empire. It is quite obvious, of course, that he does not represent Battersea. But have we any way of knowing to what extent he represents India? It seems to me not impossible that the more impersonal and indefinite doctrines of Asia do form a soil for Bolshevism. Most of the eastern philosophy differs from the western theology in refusing to draw the line anywhere; and it would be a highly probable perversion of that instinct to refuse to draw the line between meum and tuum. I do not think the Indian gentleman is any judge of whether we in the West want to have a hedge round our fields or a wall round our gardens. And as I happen to hold that the very highest human thought and art consists almost entirely in drawing the line somewhere, though not in drawing it anywhere, I am completely confident that in this the western tendency is right and the eastern tendency is wrong. But, in any case, it seems to me that a rather sharp lesson to us is indicated in these two parallel cases of the Indian who grows into a Bolshevist in our dominions without our being able to influence his growth, and the French Canadian who remains a peasant in our dominions without our getting any sort of advantage out of his stability.
I do not profess to know very much about the French Canadians; but I know enough to know that most of the people who talk at large about the Empire know even less than I do. And the point about them is that they generally do not even try to know any more. The very vague picture that they always call up, of colonists doing wonders in all the corners of the world, never does, in fact, include the sort of thing that French Canadians can do, or might possibly show other people how to do. There is about all this fashionable fancy of colonization a very dangerous sort of hypocrisy. People tried to use the Over-seas Dominion as Eldorado while still using it as Botany Bay. They sent away people that they wanted to get rid of, and then added insult to injury by representing that the ends of the earth would be delighted to have them. And they called up a sort of fancy portrait of a person whose virtues and even vices were entirely suitable for founding an Empire, though apparently quite unsuitable for founding a family. The very language they used was misleading. They talked of such people as settlers; but the very last thing they ever expected them to do was to settle. They expected of them a sort of indistinct individualistic breaking of new ground, for which the world is less and less really concerned to-day. They sent an inconvenient nephew to hunt wild bisons in the streets of Toronto; just as they had sent any number of irrepressible Irish exiles to war with wild Redskins in the streets of New York. They incessantly repeated that what the world wants is pioneers, and had never even heard that what the world wants is peasants. There was a certain amount of sincere and natural sentiment about the wandering exile inheriting our traditions. There was really no pretence that he was engaged in founding his own traditions. All the ideas that go with a secure social standing were absent from the very discussion; no one thought of the continuity, the customs, the religion, or the folklore of the future colonist. Above all, nobody ever conceived him as having any strong sense of private property. There was in the vague idea of his gaining something for the Empire always, if anything, the idea of his gaining what belonged to somebody else. I am not now discussing how wrong it was or whether it could in some cases be right; I am pointing out that nobody ever entertained the notion of the other sort of right; the special right of every man to his own. I doubt whether a word could be quoted emphasizing it even from the healthiest adventure story or the jolliest Jingo song. I quite appreciate all there is in such songs or stories that is really healthy or jolly. I am only pointing out that we have badly neglected something; and are now suffering from the neglect. And the worst aspect of the neglect was that we learnt nothing whatever from the peoples that were actually inside the Empire which we wished to glorify: nothing whatever from the Irish; nothing whatever from the French Canadian; nothing whatever even from the poor Hindoos. We have now reached a crisis in which we particularly require these neglected talents; and we do not even know how to set about learning them. And the explanation of this blunder, as of most blunders, is in the weakness which is called pride: in other words, it is in the tone taken by people like the Dean of St. Paul’s.
Now there will be needed a large element of emigration in the solution of re-creating a peasantry in the modern world. I shall have more to say about the elements of the idea in the next section. But I believe that any scheme of the sort will have to be based on a totally different and indeed diametrically opposite spirit and principle to that which is commonly applied to emigration in England to-day. I think we need a new sort of inspiration, a new sort of appeal, a new sort of ordinary language even, before that solution will even help to solve anything. What we need is the ideal of Property, not merely of Progress— especially progress over other people’s property. Utopia needs more frontiers, not less. And it is because we were weak in the ethics of property on the edges of Empire that our own society will not defend property as men defend a right. The Bolshevist is the sequel and punishment of the Buccaneer.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
II THE RELIGION OF SMALL PROPERTY
We hear a great deal nowadays about the disadvantages of decorum, especially from those who are always telling us that women in the last generation were helpless and impotent, and then proceed to prove it by describing the tremendous and towering tyranny of Mrs. Grundy. Rather in the same way, they insist that Victorian women were especially soft and submissive. And it is rather unfortunate for them that, even in order to say so, they have to introduce the name of Queen Victoria. But it is more especially in connection with the indecorous in art and literature that the question arises, and it is now the fashion to argue as if there were no psychological basis for reticence at all. That is where the argument should end; but fortunately these thinkers do not know how to get to the end of an argument. I have heard it argued that there is no more harm in describing the violation of one Commandment than of another; but this is obviously a fallacy. There is at least a case in psychology for saying that certain images move the imagination to the weakening of the character. There is no case for saying that the mere contemplation of a kit of burglar’s tools would inflame us all with a desire to break into houses. There is no possibility of pretending that the mere sight of means to murder our maiden aunt with a poker does really make the ill deed done. But what strikes me as most curious about the controversy is this: that while our fiction and journalism is largely breaking down the prohibitions for which there really was a logical case, in the consideration of human nature, they still very largely feel the pressure of prohibitions for which there was never any case at all. And the most curious thing about the criticism we hear directed against the Victorian Age is that it is never directed against the most arbitrary conventions of that age. One of these, which I remember very vividly in my youth, was the convention that there is something embarrassing or unfair about a man mentioning his religion. There was something of the same feeling about his mentioning his money. Now these things cannot possibly be defended by the same psychological argument as the other. Nobody is moved to madness by the mere sight of a church spire, or finds uncontrollable emotions possess him at the thought of an archdeacon’s hat. Yet there is still enough of that really irrational Victorian convention lingering in our life and literature to make it necessary to offer a defence, if not an apology, whenever an argument depends upon this fundamental fact in life.
Now when I remark that we want a type of colonization rather represented by the French Canadians, there are probably still a number of sly critics who would point the finger of detection at me and cry, as if they had caught me in something very naughty, “You believe in the French Canadians because they are Catholics”; which is in one sense not only true, but very nearly the whole truth. But in another sense it is not true at all; if it means that I exercise no independent judgment in perceiving that this is really what we do want. Now when this difficulty and misunderstanding arises, there is only one practical way of meeting it in the present state of public information, or lack of information. It is to call what is generally described as an impartial witness; though it is quite probable that he is far less impartial than I am. What is really important about him is that, if he were partial, he would be partial on the other side.
The dear old Daily News, of the days of my youth, on which I wrote happily for many years and had so many good and admirable friends, cannot be accused as yet as being an organ of the Jesuits. It was, and is, as every one knows, the organ of the Nonconformists. Dr. Clifford brandished his teapot there when he was selling it in order to demonstrate, by one symbolical act, that he had long been a teetotaller and was now a Passive Resister. We may be pardoned for smiling at this aspect of the matter; but there are many other aspects which are real and worthy of all possible respect. The tradition of the old Puritan ideal does really descend to this paper; and multitudes of honest and hard-thinking Radicals read it in my youth and read it still.
I therefore think that the following remarks which appeared recently in the Daily News, in an article by Mr. Hugh Martin, writing from Toronto, are rather remarkable. He begins by saying that the Anglo-Saxon has got too proud to bend his back; but the curious thing is that he goes on to suggest, almost in so many words, that the backs of the French Canadians are actually strengthened, not only by being bent over rustic spades, but even by being bent before superstitious altars. I am very anxious not to do my impartial witness an unfair damage in the matter; so I may be excused if I quote his own words at some little length. After saying that the Anglo-Saxons are drawn away to the United States, or at any rate to the industrial cities, he remarks that the French are of course very numerous in Quebec and elsewhere, but that it is not here that the notable development is taking place, and that Montreal, being a large city, is showing signs of the slackening to be seen in other large cities.
“Now look at the other picture. The race that is going ahead is the French race… . In Quebec, where there are nearly 2,000,000 Canadians of French origin in a population of 2,350,000, that might have been expected. But as a matter of fact it is not in Quebec that the French are making good most conspicuously … nor in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick is the comparative success of the French stock most marked. They are doing splendidly on the land and raising prodigious families. A family of twelve is quite common, and I could name several cases where there have been twenty, who all lived. The day may come when they will equal or outnumber the Scotch, but that is some way ahead. If you want to see what French stock can still achieve, you should go to the northern part of this province of Ontario. It is doing pioneer work. It is bending its back as men did in the old days. It is multiplying and staying on the soil. It is content to be happy without being rich.
“Though I am not a religious man myself, I must confess I think religion has a good deal to do with it. These French Canadians are more Catholic than the Pope. You might call a good many of them desperately ignorant and desperately superstitious. They seem to me to be a century behind the times and a century nearer happiness.”
These seem to me, I repeat, to be rather remarkable words; remarkable if they appeared anywhere, arresting and astonishing when they appear in the traditional paper of the Manchester Radicals and the nineteenth-century Nonconformists. The words are splendidly straightforward and unaffected in their literary form; they have a clear ring of sincerity and experience, and they are all the more convincing because they are written by somebody who does not share my own desperate ignorance and desperate superstition. But he proceeds to suggest a reason, and incidentally to make his own independence in the matter quite clear.
“Apart from the fact that their women bear an incredible number of children, you have this other consequence of their submission to the priest, that a social organism is created, which is of incalculable value in the backwoods. The church, the school, the cure, hold each little group together as a unit. Do not think for a moment that I believe a general spread of Catholicism would turn us back into a pioneer people. One might just as reasonably recommend a return to early Scottish Protestantism. I merely record the fact that the simplicity of these people is proving their salvation and is one of the most hopeful things in Canada to-day.”
Of course, there are a good many things of an incidental kind that a person with my views might comment on in that passage. I might go off at a gallop on the highly interesting comparison with early Scottish Protestantism. Very early Scottish Protestantism, like very early English Protestantism, consisted chiefly of loot. But if we take it as referring to the perfectly pure and sincere enthusiasm of many Covenanters or early Calvinists, we come upon the contrast that is the point of the whole matter. Early Puritanism was pure Puritanism; but the purer it is the more early it seems. We cannot imagine it as a good thing and also a modern thing. It might have been one of the most honest things in Scotland then. But nobody would be found calling it one of the most hopeful things in Canada to-day. If John Knox appeared to-morrow in the pulpit of St. Giles, he would be a stickit minister. He would be regarded as a raving savage because of his ignorance of German metaphysics. That comparison does not meet the extraordinary case of the thing that is older than Knox and yet also newer than Knox. Or again, I might point out that the common connotation of “submission to the priest” is misleading, even if it is true. It is like talking of the Charge of the Light Brigade as the submission to Lord Raglan. It is still more like talking about the storming of Jerusalem as the submission to the Count of Bouillon. In one sense it is quite true; in another it is very untrue. But I have not the smallest desire here to disturb the impartiality of my witness. I have not the smallest intention of using any of the tortures of the Inquisition to make him admit anything that he did not wish to admit. The admission as it stands seems to me very remarkable; not so much because it is a tribute to Frenchmen as colonists as because it is a tribute to colonists as pious and devout people. But what concerns me most of all in the general discussion of my own theme is the insistence on stability. They are staying on the soil; they are a social organism; they are held together as a unit. That is the new note which I think is needed in all talk of colonization, before it can again be any part of the hope of the world.
A recent description of the Happy Factory, as it exists in America or will exist in Utopia, rose from height to height of ideality until it ended with a sort of hush, as of the ultimate opening of the heavens, and these words about the workman, “He turns out for his homeward journey like a member of the Stock Exchange.” Any attempt to imagine humanity in its final perfection always has about it something faintly unreal, as being too good for this world; but the visionary light that breaks from the cloud, in that last phrase, accentuates clearly the contrast which is to be drawn between such a condition and that of the labour of common men. Adam left Eden as a gardener; but he will set out for his homeward journey like a member of the Stock Exchange. St. Joseph was a carpenter; but he will be raised again as a stockbroker. Giotto was a shepherd; for he was not yet worthy to be a stockbroker. Shakespeare was an actor; but he dreamed day and night of being a stockbroker. Burns was a ploughman; but if he sang at the plough, how much more appropriately he would have sung in the Stock Exchange. It is assumed in this kind of argument that all humanity has consciously or unconsciously hoped for this consummation; and that if men were not brokers, it was because they were not able to broke. But this remarkable passage in Sir Ernest Benn’s exposition has another application besides the obvious one. A stockbroker in one sense really is a very poetical figure. In one sense he is as poetical as Shakespeare, and his ideal poet, since he does give to airy nothing a local habitation and a name. He does deal to a great extent in what economists (in their poetical way) describe as imaginaries. When he exchanges two thousand Patagonian Pumpkins for one thousand shares in Alaskan Whale Blubber, he does not demand the sensual satisfaction of eating the pumpkin or need to behold the whale with the gross eye of flesh. It is quite possible that there are no pumpkins; and if there is somewhere such a thing as a whale, it is very unlikely to obtrude itself upon the conversation in the Stock Exchange. Now what is the matter with the financial world is that it is a great deal too full of imagination, in the sense of fiction. And when we react against it, we naturally in the first place react into realism. When the stockbroker homeward plods his weary way and leaves the world to darkness and Sir Ernest Benn, we are disposed to insist that it is indeed he who has the darkness and we who have the daylight. He has not only the darkness but the dreams, and all the unreal leviathans and unearthly pumpkins pass before him like a mere scroll of symbols in the dreams of the Old Testament. But when the small proprietor grows pumpkins, they really are pumpkins, and sometimes quite a large pumpkin for quite a small proprietor. If he should ever have occasion to grow whales (which seems improbable) they would either be real whales or they would be of no use to him. We naturally grow a little impatient, under these conditions, when people who call themselves practical scoff at the small proprietor as if he were a minor poet. Nevertheless, there is another side to the case, and there is a sense in which the small proprietor had better be a minor poet, or at least a mystic. Nay, there is even a sort of queer paradoxical sense in which the stockbroker is a man of business.
It is to that other side of small property, as exemplified in the French Canadians, and an article on them in the Daily News, that I devoted my last remarks. The really practical point in that highly interesting statement is, that in this case, being progressive is actually identified with being what is called static. In this case, by a strange paradox, a pioneer is really d settler. In this case, by a still stranger paradox, a settler is a person who really settles. It will be noted that the success of the experiment is actually founded on a certain power of striking root; which we might almost call rapid tradition, as others talk of rapid transit. And indeed the ground under the pioneer’s feet can only be made solid by being made sacred. It is only religion that can thus rapidly give a sort of accumulated power of culture and legend to something that is crude or incomplete. It sounds like a joke to say that baptizing a baby makes the baby venerable; it suggests the old joke of the baby with spectacles who died an enfeebled old dotard at five. Yet it is profoundly true that something is added that is not only something to be venerated, but something partly to be venerated for its antiquity—that is, for the unfathomable depth of its humanity. In a sense a new world can be baptized as a new baby is baptized, and become a part of an ancient order not merely on the map but in the mind. Instead of crude people merely extending their crudity, and calling that colonization, it would be possible for people to cultivate the soil as they cultivate the soul. But for this it is necessary to have a respect for the soil as well as for the soul; and even a reverence for it, as having some associations with holy things. But for that purpose we need some sense of carrying holy things with us and taking them home with us; not merely the feeling that holiness may exist as a hope. In the most exalted phrase, we need a real presence. In the most popular phrase, we need something that is always on the spot.
That is, we want something that is always on the spot, and not only beyond the horizon. The pioneer instinct is beginning to fail, as a well-known traveller recently complained, but I doubt whether he could tell us the reason. It is even possible that he will not understand it, in one radiant burst of joyful comprehension, if I tell him that I am all in favour of a wild-goose chase, so long as he really believes that the wild goose is the bird of paradise; but that it is necessary to hunt it with the hounds of heaven. If it be barely possible that this does not seem quite clear to him, I will explain that the traveller must possess something as well as pursue something, or he will not even know what to pursue. It is not enough always to follow the gleam: it is necessary sometimes to rest in the glow; to feel something sacred in the glow of the camp fire as well as the gleam of the polar star. And that same mysterious and to some divided voice, which alone tells that we have here no abiding city, is the only voice which within the limits of this world can build up cities that abide.
As I said at the beginning of this section, it is futile to pretend that such a faith is not a fundamental of the true change. But its practical relation to the reconstruction of property is that, unless we understand this spirit, we cannot now relieve congestion with colonization. People will prefer the mere nomadism of the town to the mere nomadism of the wilderness. They will not tolerate emigration if it merely means being moved on by the politicians as they have been moved on by the policemen. They will prefer bread and circuses to locusts and wild honey, so long as the forerunner does not know for what God he prepares the way.
But even if we put aside for the moment the strictly spiritual ideals involved in the change, we must admit that there are secular ideals involved which must be positive and not merely comparative, like the ideal of progress. We are sometimes taunted with setting against all other Utopias what is in truth the most impossible Utopia; with describing a Merry Peasant who cannot exist except on the stage, with depending on a China Shepherdess who never was seen except on the mantelpiece. If we are indeed presenting impossible portraits of an ideal humanity, we are not alone in that. Not only the Socialists but also the Capitalists parade before us their imaginary and ideal figures, and the Capitalists if possible more than the Socialists. For once that we read of the last Earthly Paradise of Mr. Wells, where men and women move gracefully in simple garments and keep their tempers in a way in which we in this world sometimes find difficult (even when we are the authors of Utopian novels), for once that we see the ideal figure of that vision, we see ten times a day the ideal figure of the commercial advertisers. We are told to “Be Like This Man,” or to imitate an aggressive person pointing his finger at us in a very rude manner for one who regards himself as a pattern to the young. Yet it is entirely an ideal portrait; it is very unlikely (we are glad to say) that any of us will develop a chin or a finger of that obtrusive type. But we do not blame either the Capitalists or the Socialists for setting up a type or talismanic figure to fix the imagination. We do not wonder at their presenting the perfect person for our admiration; we only wonder at the person they admire. And it is quite true that, in our movement as much as any other, there must be a certain amount of this romantic picture-making. Men have never done anything in the world without it; but ours is much more of a reality as well as a romance than the dreams of the other romantics. There cannot be a nation of millionaires, and there has never yet been a nation of Utopian comrades; but there have been any number of nations of tolerably contented peasants. In this connection, however, the point is that if we do not directly demand the religion of small property, we must at least demand the poetry of small property. It is a thing about which it is definitely and even urgently practical to be poetical. And it is those who blame us for being poetical who do not really see the practical problem.
For the practical problem is the goal. The pioneer notion has weakened like the progressive notion, and for the same reason. People could go on talking about progress so long as they were not merely thinking about progress. Progressives really had in their minds some notion of a purpose in progress; and even the most practical pioneer had some vague and shadowy idea of what he wanted. The Progressives trusted the tendency of their time, because they did believe, or at least had believed, in a body of democratic doctrines which they supposed to be in process of establishment. And the pioneers and empire-builders were filled with hope and courage because, to do them justice, most of them did at least in some dim way believe that the flag they carried stood for law and liberty, and a higher civilization. They were therefore in search of something and not merely in search of searching. They subconsciously conceived an end of travel and not endless travelling; they were not only breaking through a jungle but building a city. They knew more or less the style of architecture in which it would be built, and they honestly believed it was the best style of architecture in the world. The spirit of adventure has failed because it has been left to adventurers. Adventure for adventure’s sake became like art for art’s sake. Those who had lost all sense of aim lost all sense of art and even of accident. The time has come in every department, but especially in our department, to make once again vivid and solid the aim of political progress or colonial adventure. Even if we picture the goal of the pilgrimage as a sort of peasant paradise, it will be far more practical than setting out on a pilgrimage which has no goal. But it is yet more practical to insist that we do not want to insist only on what are called the qualities of a pioneer; that we do not want to describe merely the virtues that achieve adventures. We want men to think, not merely of a place which they would be interested to find, but of a place where they would be contented to stay. Those who wish merely to arouse again the social hopes of the nineteenth century must offer not an endless hope, but the hope of an end. Those who wish to continue the building of the old colonial idea must leave off telling us that the Church of Empire is founded entirely on the rolling stone. For it is a sin against the reason to tell men that to travel hopefully is better than to arrive; and when once they believe it, they travel hopefully no longer.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
VI A SUMMARY
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
A SUMMARY
I once debated with a learned man who had a curious fancy for arranging the correspondence in mathematical patterns; first a thousand words each and then a hundred words each—and then altering them all to another pattern. I accepted as I would always accept a challenge, especially an apparent appeal for fairness, but I was tempted to tell him how utterly unworkable this mechanical method is for a living thing like argument. Obviously a man might need a thousand words to reply to ten words. Suppose I began the philosophic dialogue by saying, “You strangle babies.” He would naturally reply, “Nonsense—I never strangled any babies.” And even in that obvious ejaculation he has already used twice as many words as I have. It is impossible to have real debate without digression. Every definition will look like a digression. Suppose somebody puts to me some journalistic statement, say, “Spanish Jesuits denounced in Parliament.” I cannot deal with it without explaining to the journalist where I differ from him about the atmosphere and implication of each term in turn. I cannot answer quickly if I am just discovering slowly that the man suffers from a series of extraordinary delusions: as (1) that Parliament is a popular representative assembly; (2) that Spain is an effete and decadent country; or (3) that a Spanish Jesuit is a sort of soft-footed court chaplain; whereas it was a Spanish Jesuit who anticipated the whole democratic theory of our day, and actually hurled it as a defiance against the divine right of kings. Each of these explanations would have to be a digression, and each would be necessary. Now in this book I am well aware that there are many digressions that may not at first sight seem to be necessary. For I have had to construct it out of what was originally a sort of controversial causerie; and it has proved impossible to cut down the causerie and only leave the controversy. Moreover, no man can controvert with many foes without going into many subjects, as every one knows who has been heckled. And on this occasion I was, I am happy to say, being heckled by many foes who were also friends. I was discharging the double function of writing essays and of talking over the tea-table, or preferably over the tavern table. To turn this sort of mixture of a gossip and a gospel into anything like a grammar of Distributism has been quite impossible. But I fancy that, even considered as a string of essays, it appears more inconsequent than it really is; and many may read the essays without quite seeing the string. I have decided, therefore, to add this last essay merely in order to sum up the intention of the whole; even if the summary be only a recapitulation. I have had a reason for many of my digressions, which may not appear until the whole is seen in some sort of perspective; and where the digression has no such justification, but was due to a desire to answer a friend or (what is even worse) a disposition towards idle and unseemly mirth, I can only apologize sincerely to the scientific reader and promise to do my best to make this final summary as dull as possible.
If we proceed as at present in a proper orderly fashion, the very idea of property will vanish. It is not revolutionary violence that will destroy it. It is rather the desperate and reckless habit of not having a revolution. The world will be occupied, or rather is already occupied, by two powers which are now one power. I speak, of course, of that part of the world that is covered by our system, and that part of the history of the world which will last very much longer than our time. Sooner or later, no doubt, men would rediscover so natural a pleasure as property. But it might be discovered after ages, like those ages filled with pagan slavery. It might be discovered after a long decline of our whole civilization. Barbarians might rediscover it and imagine it was a new thing.
Anyhow, the prospect is a progress towards the complete combination of two combinations. They are both powers that believe only in combination; and have never understood or even heard that there is any dignity in division. They have never had the imagination to understand the idea of Genesis and the great myths: that Creation itself was division. The beginning of the world was the division of heaven and earth; the beginning of humanity was the division of man and woman. But these flat and platitudinous minds can never see the difference between the creative cleavage of Adam and Eve and the destructive cleavage of Cain and Abel. Anyhow, these powers or minds are now both in the same mood; and it is a mood of disliking all division, and therefore all distribution. They believe in unity, in unanimity, in harmony. One of these powers is State Socialism and the other is Big Business. They are already one spirit; they will soon be one body. For, disbelieving in division, they cannot remain divided; believing only in combination, they will themselves combine. At present one of them calls it Solidarity and the other calls it Consolidation. It would seem that we have only to wait while both monsters are taught to say Consolidarity. But, whatever it is called, there will be no doubt about the character of the world which they will have made between them. It is becoming more and more fixed and familiar. It will be a world of organization, or syndication, of standardization. People will be able to get hats, houses, holidays, and patent medicines of a recognized and universal pattern; they will be fed, clothed, educated, and examined by a wide and elaborate system; but if you were to ask them at any given moment whether the agency which housed or hatted them was still merely mercantile or had become municipal, they probably would not know, and they possibly would not care.
Many believe that humanity will be happy in this new peace; that classes can be reconciled and souls set at rest. I do not think things will be quite so bad as that. But I admit that there are many things which may make possible such a catastrophe of contentment. Men in large numbers have submitted to slavery; men submit naturally to government, and perhaps even especially to despotic government. But I take it as obvious to any intelligent person that this government will be something more than despotic. It is the very essence of the Trust that it has the power, not only to extinguish military rivalry or mob rebellion as has the State, but also the power to crush any new custom or costume or craft or private enterprise that it does not choose to like. Militarism can only prevent people from fighting; but monopoly can prevent them from buying or selling anything except the article (generally the inferior article) having the trade mark of the monopoly. If anything can be inferred from history and human nature, it is absolutely certain that the despotism will grow more and more despotic, and that the article will grow more and more inferior. There is no conceivable argument from psychology, by which it can be pretended that people preserving such a power, generation after generation, would not abuse it more and more, or neglect everything else more and more. We know what far less rigid rule has become, even when founded by spirited and intelligent rulers. We can darkly guess the effect of larger powers in the hands of lesser men. And if the name of Caesar came at last to stand for all that we call Byzantine, exactly what degree of dullness are we to anticipate when the name of Harrod shall sound even duller than it does? If China passed into a proverb at last for stiffness and monotony after being nourished for centuries by Confucius, what will be the condition of the brains that have been nourished for centuries by Callisthenes?
I leave out there the particular case of my own country, where we are threatened not with a long decline, but rather with an unpleasantly rapid collapse. But taking monopolist capitalism in a country where it is still in the vulgar sense successful, as in the United States, we only see more clearly, and on a more colossal scale, the long and descending perspectives that point down to Byzantium or Pekin. It is perfectly obvious that the whole business is a machine for manufacturing tenth-rate things, and keeping people ignorant of first-rate things. Most civilized systems have declined from a height; but this starts on a low level and in a flat place; and what it would be like when it had really crushed all its critics and rivals and made its monopoly watertight for two hundred years, the most morbid imagination will find it hard to imagine. But whatever the last stage of the story, no sane man any longer doubts that we are seeing the first stages of it. There is no longer any difference in tone and type between collectivist and ordinary commercial order; commerce has its officialism and communism has its organization. Private things are already public in the worst sense of the word; that is, they are impersonal and dehumanized. Public things are already private in the worst sense of the word; that is, they are mysterious and secretive and largely corrupt. The new sort of Business Government will combine everything that is bad in all the plans for a better world. There will be no eccentricity; no humour; no noble disdain of the world. There will be nothing but a loathsome thing called Social Service; which means slavery without loyalty. This Service will be one of the ideals. I forgot to mention that there will be ideals. All the wealthiest men in the movement have made it quite clear that they are in possession of a number of these little comforts. People always have ideals when they can no longer have ideas.
The philanthropists in question will probably be surprised to learn that some of us regard this prospect very much as we should regard the theory that we are to be evolved back into apes. We therefore consider whether it is even yet conceivable to restore that long-forgotten thing called Self-Government: that is, the power of the citizen in some degree to direct his own life and construct his own environment; to eat what he likes, to wear what he chooses, and to have (what the Trust must of necessity deny him) a range of choice. In these notes upon the notion, I have been concerned to ask whether it is possible to escape from this enormous evil of simplification or centralization, and what I have said is best summed up under two heads or in two parallel statements. They may seem to some to contradict each other, but they really confirm each other.
First, I say that this is a thing that could be done by people. It is not a thing that can be done to people. That is where it differs from nearly all Socialist schemes as it does from plutocratic philanthropy. I do not say that I, regarding this prospect with hatred and contempt, can save them from it. I say that they can save me from it, and themselves from it, if they also regard it with hatred and contempt. But it must be done in the spirit of a religion, of a revolution, and (I will add) of a renunciation. They must want to do it as they want to drive invaders out of a country or to stop the spread of a plague. And in this respect our critics have a curious way of arguing in a circle. They ask why we trouble to denounce what we cannot destroy; and offer an ideal we cannot attain. They say we are merely throwing away dirty water before we can get clean; or rather that we are merely analysing the animalculae in the dirty water, while we do not even venture to throw it away. Why do we make men discontented with conditions with which they must be content? Why revile an intolerable slavery that must be tolerated? But when we in turn ask why our ideal is impossible or why the evil is indestructible, they answer in effect, “Because you cannot persuade people to want it destroyed.” Possibly; but, on their own showing, they cannot blame us because we try. They cannot say that people do not hate plutocracy enough to kill it; and then blame us for asking them to look at it enough to hate it. If they will not attack it until they hate it, then we are doing the most practical thing we can do, in showing it to be hateful. A moral movement must begin somewhere; but I do most positively postulate that there must be a moral movement. This is not a financial flutter or a police regulation or a private bill or a detail of book-keeping. It is a mighty effort of the will of man, like the throwing off of any other great evil, or it is nothing. I say that if men will fight for this they may win; I have nowhere suggested that there is any way of winning without fighting.
Under this heading I have considered in their place, for instance, the possibility of an organized boycott of big shops. Undoubtedly it would be some sacrifice to boycott big shops; it would be some trouble to seek out small shops. But it would be about a hundredth part of the sacrifice and trouble that has often been shown by masses of men making some patriotic or religious protest—when they really wanted to protest. Under the same general rule, I have remarked that a real life on the land, men not only dwelling on the land but living off it, would be an adventure involving both stubbornness and abnegation. But it would not be half so ascetic as the sort of adventure which it is a commonplace to attribute to colonists and empire-builders; it is nothing to what has been normally shown by millions of soldiers and monks. Only it is true that monks have a faith, that soldiers have a flag, and that even empire-builders were presumably under the impression that they could assist the Empire. But it does not seem to me quite inconceivable, in the varieties of religious experience, that men might take as much notice of earth as monks do of heaven; that people might really believe in the spades that create as well as in the swords that destroy; and that the English who have colonized everywhere else might begin to colonize England.
Having thus admitted, or rather insisted, that this thing cannot be done unless people do really think it worth doing, I then proceeded to suggest that, even in these different departments, there are more people who think it worth doing than is noticed by the people who do not think it worth noticing. Thus, even in the crowds that throng the big shops, you do in fact hear a vast amount of grumbling at the big shops— not so much because they are big as because they are bad. But these real criticisms are disconnected, while the unreal puffs and praises are connected, like any other conspiracy. When the millionaire owning the stores is criticized, it is by his customers. When he is handsomely complimented, it is by himself. But when he is cursed, it is in the inner chamber; when he is praised (by himself) it is proclaimed from the house-tops. That is what is meant by publicity—a voice loud enough to drown any remarks made by the public.
In the case of the land, as in the case of the shops, I went on to point out that there is, if not a moral agitation, at least the materials of a moral agitation. Just as a discontent with the shops lingers even among those who are shopping, so a desire for the land lingers even in those who are hardly allowed to walk on the ground. I gave the instance of the slum population of Limehouse, who were forcibly lifted into high flats, bitterly lamenting the loss of the funny little farmyards they had constructed for themselves in the corners of their slum. It seems absurd to say of a country that none of its people could be countrymen, when even its cockneys try to be countrymen. I also noted that, in the case of the country, there is now a general discontent, in landlords as well as tenants. Everything seems to point to a simpler life of one man one field, free as far as possible of the complications of rent and labour, especially when the rent is so often unpaid or unprofitable, and the labourers are so often on strike or on the dole. Here again there may often be a million individuals feeling like this; but the million has not become a mob; for a mob is a moral thing. But I will never be so unpatriotic as to suggest that the English could never conduct an agrarian war in England as the Irish did in Ireland. Generally, therefore, under this first principle, the thing would most certainly have to be preached rather like a Crusade; but it is quite untrue and unhistorical to say, as a rule, that when once the Crusade is preached, there are no Crusaders.
And my second general principle, which may seem contradictory but is confirmatory, is this. I think the thing would have to be done step by step and with patience and partial concessions. I think this, not because I have any faith whatever in the silly cult of slowness that is sometimes called evolution, but because of the peculiar circumstances of the case. First, mobs may loot and burn and rob the rich man, very much to his spiritual edification and benefit. They may not unnaturally do it, almost absentmindedly, when they are thinking of something else, such as a dislike of Jews or Huguenots. But it would never do for us to give very violent shocks to the sentiment of property, even where it is very ill-placed or ill-proportioned; for that happens to be the very sentiment we are trying to revive. As a matter of psychology, it would be foolish to insult even an unfeminine feminist in order to awaken a delicate chivalry towards females. It would be unwise to use a sacred image as a club with which to thump an Iconoclast and teach him not to touch the holy images. Where the old-fashioned feeling of property is still honest, I think it should be dealt with by degrees and with some consideration. Where the sense of property does not exist at all, as in millionaires, it might well be regarded rather differently; there it would become a question of whether property procured in certain ways is property at all. As for the case of cornering and making monopolies in restraint of trade, that falls under the first of my two principles. It is simply a question of whether we have the moral courage to punish what is certainly immoral. There is no more doubt about these operations of high finance than there is about piracy on the high seas. It is merely a case of a country being so disorderly and ill-governed that it becomes infested with pirates. I have, therefore, in this book treated of Trusts and Anti-Trust Law as a matter, not merely for the popular protest of a boycott or a strike, but for the direct action of the State against criminals. But when the criminals are stronger than the State, any attempt to punish them will be certainly called a rebellion and may rightly be called a Crusade.
Recurring to the second principle, however, there is another and less abstract reason for recognizing that the goal must be reached by stages. I have here had to consider several things that may bring us a stage nearer to Distributism, even if they are in themselves not very satisfactory to ardent or austere Distributists. I took the examples of a Ford car, which may be made by mass production but is used for individual adventure; for, after all, a private car is more private than a train or a tram. I also took the example of a general supply of electricity, which might lead to many little workshops having a chance for the first time. I do not claim that all Distributists would agree with me in my decision here; but on the whole I am inclined to decide that we should use these things to break up the hopeless block of concentrated capital and management, even if we urge their abandonment when they have done their work. We are concerned to produce a particular sort of men, the sort of men who will not worship machines even if they use machines. But it is essential to insist at every stage that we hold ourselves free not only to cease worshipping machines, but to cease using them. It was in this connection that I criticized certain remarks of Mr. Ford and the whole of that idea of standardization which he may be said to represent. But everywhere I recognize a difference between the methods we may use to produce a saner society and the things which that saner society might itself be sane enough to do. For instance, a people who had really found out what fun it is to make things would never want to make most of them with a machine. Sculptors do not want to turn a statue out with a lathe or painters to print off a picture as a pattern, and a craftsman who was really capable of making pots or pans would be no readier to condescend to what is called manufacturing them. It is odd, by the way, that the very word “manufacture” means the opposite of what it is supposed to mean. It is itself a testimony to a better time when it did not mean the work of a modern factory. In the strict meaning of words, a sculptor does manufacture a statue, and a factory worker does not manufacture a screw.
But, anyhow, a world in which there were many independent men would probably be a world in which there were more individual craftsmen. When we have created anything like such a world, we may trust it to feel more than the modern world does the danger of machinery deadening creation, and the value of what it deadens. And I suggested that such a world might very well make special provision about machines, as we all do about weapons; admitting them for particular purposes, but keeping watch on them in particular ways.
But all that belongs to the later stage of improvement, when the commonwealth of free men already exists; I do not think it inconsistent with using any instruments that are innocent in themselves in order to help such citizens to find a footing. I have also noted that just as I do not think machinery an immoral instrument in itself, so I do not think State action an immoral instrument in itself. The State might do a great deal in the first stages, especially by education in the new and necessary crafts and labours, by subsidy or tariff to protect distributive experiments and by special laws, such as the taxation of contracts. All these are covered by what I call the second principle, that we may use intermediate or imperfect instruments; but it goes along with the first principle, that we must be perfect not only in our patience, but in our passion and our enduring indignation.
Lastly, there are the ordinary and obvious problems like that of population, and in that connection I fully concede that the process may sooner or later involve an element of emigration. But I think the emigration must be undertaken by those who understand the new England, and not by those who want to escape from it or from the necessity of it. Men must realize the new meaning of the old phrase, “the sacredness of private property.” There must be a spirit that will make the colonist feel at home and not abroad. And there, I admit, there is a difficulty; for I confess I know only one thing that will thus give to a new soil the sanctity of something already old and full of mystical affections. And that thing is a shrine—the real presence of a sacramental religion.
Thus, unavoidably, I end on the note of another controversy— a controversy that I have no idea of pursuing here. But I should not be honest if I did not mention it, and whatever be the case in that connection it is impossible to deny that there is a doctrine behind the whole of our political position. It is not necessarily the doctrine of the religious authority which I myself receive; but it cannot be denied that it must in a sense be religious. That is to say, it must at least have some reference to an ultimate view of the universe and especially of the nature of man. Those who are thus ready to see property atrophied would ultimately be ready to see arms and legs amputated. They really believe that these could become extinct organs like the appendix. In other words, there is indeed a fundamental difference between my own view and that vision of man as a merely intermediate and changing thing—a Link, if not a Missing Link. The creature, it is claimed, once went on four legs and now goes on two legs. The obvious inference would be that the next stage of evolution will be for a man to stand on one leg. And this will be of very great value to the capitalist or bureaucratic powers that are now to take charge of him. It will mean, for one thing, that only half the number of boots need be supplied to the working classes. It will mean that all wages will be of a one-legged sort. But I would testify at the end, as at the beginning, that I believe in Man standing on two legs and requiring two boots, and that I desire them to be his own boots. You may call it conservative to want this. You may call it revolutionary to attempt to get it. But if that is conservative, I am conservative; if that is revolutionary, I am revolutionary—but too democratic to be evolutionary, anyhow.
The thing behind Bolshevism and many other modern things is a new doubt. It is not merely a doubt about God; it is rather specially a doubt about Man. The old morality, the Christian religion, the Catholic Church, differed from all this new mentality because it really believed in the rights of men. That is, it believed that ordinary men were clothed with powers and privileges and a kind of authority. Thus the ordinary man had a right to deal with dead matter, up to a given point; that is the right of property. Thus the ordinary man had a right to rule the other animals within reason; that is the objection to vegetarianism and many other things. The ordinary man had a right to judge about his own health, and what risks he would take with the ordinary things of his environment; that is the objection to Prohibition and many other things. The ordinary man had a right to judge of his children’s health, and generally to bring up children to the best of his ability; that is the objection to many interpretations of modern State education. Now in these primary things in which the old religion trusted a man, the new philosophy utterly distrusts a man. It insists that he must be a very rare sort of man to have any rights in these matters; and when he is the rare sort, he has the right to rule others even more than himself. It is this profound scepticism about the common man that is the common point in the most contradictory elements of modern thought. That is why Mr. Bernard Shaw wants to evolve a new animal that shall live longer and grow wiser than man. That is why Mr. Sidney Webb wants to herd the men that exist like sheep, or animals much more foolish than man. They are not rebelling against an abnormal tyranny; they are rebelling against what they think is a normal tyranny— the tyranny of the normal. They are not in revolt against the King. They are in revolt against the Citizen. The old revolutionist, when he stood on the roof (like the revolutionist in The Dynamiter) and looked over the city, used to say to himself, “Think how the princes and nobles revel in their palaces; think how the captains and cohorts ride the streets and trample on the people.” But the new revolutionist is not brooding on that. He is saying, “Think of all those stupid men in vulgar villas or ignorant slums. Think how badly they teach their children; think how they do the wrong thing to the dog and offend the feelings of the parrot.” In short, these sages, rightly or wrongly, cannot trust the normal man to rule in the home, and most certainly do not want him to rule in the State. They do not really want to give him any political power. They are willing to give him a vote, because they have long discovered that it need not give him any power. They are not willing to give him a house, or a wife, or a child, or a dog, or a cow, or a piece of land, because these things really do give him power.
Now we wish it to be understood that our policy is to give him power by giving him these things. We wish to insist that this is the real moral division underlying all our disputes, and perhaps the only one really worth disputing. We are far from denying, especially at this time, that there is much to be said on the other side. We alone, perhaps, are likely to insist in the full sense that the average respectable citizen ought to have something to rule. We alone, to the same extent and for the same reason, have the right to call ourselves democratic. A republic used to be called a nation of kings, and in our republic the kings really have kingdoms. All modern governments, Prussian or Russian, all modern movements, Capitalist or Socialist, are taking away that kingdom from the king. Because they dislike the independence of that kingdom, they are against property. Because they dislike the loyalty of that kingdom, they are against marriage.
It is therefore with a somewhat sad amusement that I note the soaring visions that accompany the sinking wages. I observe that the social prophets are still offering the homeless something much higher and purer than a home, and promising a supernormal superiority to people who are not allowed to be normal. I am quite content to dream of the old drudgery of democracy, by which as much as possible of a human life should be given to every human being; while the brilliant author of The First Men in the Moon will doubtless be soon deriding us in a romance called The Last Men on the Earth. And indeed I do believe that when they lose the pride of personal ownership they will lose something that belongs to their erect posture and to their footing and poise upon the planet. Meanwhile I sit amid droves of overdriven clerks and underpaid workmen in a tube or a tram; I read of the great conception of Men Like Gods and I wonder when men will be like men.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
THE END
- On a Sense of Proportion
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
I THE BEGINNING OF THE QUARREL
I have been asked to republish these notes—which appeared in a weekly paper—as a rough sketch of certain aspects of the institution of Private Property, now so completely forgotten amid the journalistic jubilations over Private Enterprise. The very fact that the publicists say so much of the latter and so little of the former is a measure of the moral tone of the times. A pickpocket is obviously a champion of private enterprise. But it would perhaps be an exaggeration to say that a pickpocket is a champion of private property. The point about Capitalism and Commercialism, as conducted of late, is that they have really preached the extension of business rather than the preservation of belongings; and have at best tried to disguise the pickpocket with some of the virtues of the pirate. The point about Communism is that it only reforms the pickpocket by forbidding pockets.
Pockets and possessions generally seem to me to have not only a more normal but a more dignified defence than the rather dirty individualism that talks about private enterprise. In the hope that it may possibly help others to understand it, I have decided to reproduce these studies as they stand, hasty and sometimes merely topical as they were. It is indeed very hard to reproduce them in this form, because they were editorial notes to a controversy largely conducted by others; but the general idea is at least present. In any case, “private enterprise” is no very noble way of stating the truth of one of the Ten Commandments. But there was at least a time when it was more or less true. The Manchester Radicals preached a rather crude and cruel sort of competition; but at least they practised what they preached. The newspapers now praising private enterprise are preaching the very opposite of anything that anybody dreams of practising. The practical tendency of all trade and business to-day is towards big commercial combinations, often more imperial, more impersonal, more international than many a communist commonwealth— things that are at least collective if not collectivist. It is all very well to repeat distractedly, “What are we coming to, with all this Bolshevism?” It is equally relevant to add, “What are we coming to, even without Bolshevism?” The obvious answer is—Monopoly. It is certainly not private enterprise. The American Trust is not private enterprise. It would be truer to call the Spanish Inquisition private judgment. Monopoly is neither private nor enterprising. It exists to prevent private enterprise. And that system of trust or monopoly, that complete destruction of property, would still be the present goal of all our progress, if there were not a Bolshevist in the world.
Now I am one of those who believe that the cure for centralization is decentralization. It has been described as a paradox. There is apparently something elvish and fantastic about saying that when capital has come to be too much in the hand of the few, the right thing is to restore it into the hands of the many. The Socialist would put it in the hands of even fewer people; but those people would be politicians, who (as we know) always administer it in the interests of the many. But before I put before the reader things written in the very thick of the current controversy, I foresee it will be necessary to preface them with these few paragraphs, explaining a few of the terms and amplifying a few of the assumptions. I was in the weekly paper arguing with people who knew the shorthand of this particular argument; but to be clearly understood, we must begin with a few definitions or, at least, descriptions. I assure the reader that I use words in quite a definite sense, but it is possible that he may use them in a different sense; and a muddle and misunderstanding of that sort does not even rise to the dignity of a difference of opinion.
For instance, Capitalism is really a very unpleasant word. It is also a very unpleasant thing. Yet the thing I have in mind, when I say so, is quite definite and definable; only the name is a very unworkable word for it. But obviously we must have some word for it. When I say “Capitalism,” I commonly mean something that may be stated thus: “That economic condition in which there is a class of capitalists, roughly recognizable and relatively small, in whose possession so much of the capital is concentrated as to necessitate a very large majority of the citizens serving those capitalists for a wage.” This particular state of things can and does exist, and we must have some word for it, and some way of discussing it. But this is undoubtedly a very bad word, because it is used by other people to mean quite other things. Some people seem to mean merely private property. Others suppose that capitalism must mean anything involving the use of capital. But if that use is too literal, it is also too loose and even too large. If the use of capital is capitalism, then everything is capitalism. Bolshevism is capitalism and anarchist communism is capitalism; and every revolutionary scheme, however wild, is still capitalism. Lenin and Trotsky believe as much as Lloyd George and Thomas that the economic operations of to-day must leave something over for the economic operations of to-morrow. And that is all that capital means in its economic sense. In that case, the word is useless. My use of it may be arbitrary, but it is not useless. If capitalism means private property, I am capitalist. If capitalism means capital, everybody is capitalist. But if capitalism means this particular condition of capital, only paid out to the mass in the form of wages, then it does mean something, even if it ought to mean something else.
The truth is that what we call Capitalism ought to be called Proletarianism. The point of it is not that some people have capital, but that most people only have wages because they do not have capital. I have made an heroic effort in my time to walk about the world always saying Proletarianism instead of Capitalism. But my path has been a thorny one of troubles and misunderstandings. I find that when I criticize the Duke of Northumberland for his Proletarianism, my meaning does not get home. When I say I should often agree with the Morning Post if it were not so deplorably Proletarian, there seems to be some strange momentary impediment to the complete communion of mind with mind. Yet that would be strictly accurate; for what I complain of, in the current defence of existing capitalism, is that it is a defence of keeping most men in wage dependence; that is, keeping most men without capital. I am not the sort of precision who prefers conveying correctly what he doesn’t mean, rather than conveying incorrectly what he does. I am totally indifferent to the term as compared to the meaning. I do not care whether I call one thing or the other by this mere printed word beginning with a “C,” so long as it is applied to one thing and not the other. I do not mind using a term as arbitrary as a mathematical sign, if it is accepted like a mathematical sign. I do not mind calling Property x and Capitalism y, so long as nobody thinks it necessary to say that x=y. I do not mind saying “cat” for capitalism and “dog” for distributism, so long as people understand that the things are different enough to fight like cat and dog. The proposal of the wider distribution of capital remains the same, whatever we call it, or whatever we call the present glaring contradiction of it. It is the same whether we state it by saying that there is too much capitalism in the one sense or too little capitalism in the other. And it is really quite pedantic to say that the use of capital must be capitalist. We might as fairly say that anything social must be Socialist; that Socialism can be identified with a social evening or a social glass. Which, I grieve to say, is not the case.
- Il senso della proporzione
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
I L’INIZIO DELLA CONTESA
Mi è stato chiesto di ripubblicare queste note — apparse in un settimanale — come rozzo schizzo di certi aspetti dell’istituto della Proprietà Privata, ora così completamente dimenticata tra i giubili giornalistici sulla Libera Iniziativa. Il fatto stesso che i pubblicisti dicano tanto di quest’ultima e così poco della prima è una misura del tono morale dei tempi. Un borsaiolo è ovviamente un campione della libera iniziativa. Ma sarebbe forse un’esagerazione dire che un borsaiolo sia un campione della proprietà privata. Il punto riguardo al Capitalismo e al Commercialismo, come condotti di recente, è che essi hanno realmente predicato l’estensione degli affari piuttosto che la conservazione dei beni; e nel migliore dei casi hanno cercato di travestire il borsaiolo con alcune virtù del pirata. Il punto riguardo al Comunismo è che esso riforma il borsaiolo soltanto proibendo le tasche.
Le tasche e i possessi in genere mi paiono avere non solo una difesa più normale, ma più dignitosa, del piuttosto sordido individualismo che parla di libera iniziativa. Nella speranza che ciò possa forse aiutare altri a comprenderlo, ho deciso di riprodurre questi studi così come sono, frettolosi e talvolta meramente d’attualità com’erano. È in verità assai difficile riprodurli in questa forma, perché erano note redazionali a una controversia condotta in gran parte da altri; ma l’idea generale è almeno presente. In ogni caso, «libera iniziativa» non è un modo molto nobile di enunciare la verità di uno dei Dieci Comandamenti. Ma vi fu almeno un tempo in cui era più o meno vero. I Radicali di Manchester predicavano una sorta piuttosto rozza e crudele di competizione; ma almeno praticavano ciò che predicavano. I giornali che ora lodano la libera iniziativa predicano proprio l’opposto di qualsiasi cosa che chiunque sogni di praticare. La tendenza pratica di tutto il commercio e degli affari, oggi, è verso grandi combinazioni commerciali, spesso più imperiali, più impersonali, più internazionali di molti uno stato comunista — cose che sono almeno collettive, se non collettiviste. Sta tutto molto bene ripetere distrattamente: «Dove andremo a finire, con tutto questo Bolscevismo?» È ugualmente pertinente aggiungere: «Dove andremo a finire, anche senza il Bolscevismo?» La risposta ovvia è: il Monopolio. Non è certo libera iniziativa. Il Trust americano non è libera iniziativa. Sarebbe più veritiero chiamare l’Inquisizione spagnola giudizio privato. Il Monopolio non è né privato né intraprendente. Esiste per impedire la libera iniziativa. E quel sistema di trust o di monopolio, quella completa distruzione della proprietà, sarebbe tuttora la meta presente di tutto il nostro progresso, se non ci fosse un Bolscevico al mondo.
Ora, io sono tra coloro che credono che la cura per l’accentramento sia il decentramento. È stata descritta come un paradosso. C’è, a quanto pare, qualcosa di elfico e fantastico nel dire che, quando il capitale è giunto a stare troppo nelle mani di pochi, la cosa giusta sia restituirlo nelle mani dei molti. Il Socialista lo metterebbe nelle mani di gente ancor più ristretta; ma quella gente sarebbero politici, i quali (come sappiamo) lo amministrano sempre negli interessi dei molti. Ma prima di porre davanti al lettore cose scritte nel fitto stesso della controversia in corso, prevedo che sarà necessario premettervi questi pochi paragrafi, spiegando alcuni dei termini e ampliando alcuni dei presupposti. Nel settimanale discutevo con persone che conoscevano la stenografia di questo particolare argomento; ma per essere chiaramente compresi, dobbiamo cominciare con qualche definizione o, almeno, descrizione. Assicuro il lettore che uso le parole in un senso ben definito, ma è possibile che egli le usi in un senso diverso; e un imbroglio e un malinteso di tal genere non s’innalza nemmeno alla dignità di una divergenza d’opinione.
Per esempio, Capitalismo è davvero una parola molto sgradevole. È anche una cosa molto sgradevole. Eppure la cosa che ho in mente, quando lo dico, è del tutto definita e definibile; solo il nome è una parola assai poco maneggevole per essa. Ma ovviamente dobbiamo avere una parola per essa. Quando dico «Capitalismo», intendo comunemente qualcosa che si può enunciare così: «Quella condizione economica in cui esiste una classe di capitalisti, grossolanamente riconoscibile e relativamente piccola, nel cui possesso è concentrato tanto capitale da rendere necessario che una larghissima maggioranza dei cittadini serva quei capitalisti per un salario.» Questo particolare stato di cose può esistere ed esiste, e dobbiamo avere una parola per esso, e un qualche modo di discuterne. Ma questa è indubbiamente una parola pessima, perché è usata da altri per intendere tutt’altre cose. Alcuni sembrano intendere semplicemente la proprietà privata. Altri suppongono che il capitalismo debba significare qualsiasi cosa comporti l’uso del capitale. Ma se quell’uso è troppo letterale, è anche troppo vago e persino troppo ampio. Se l’uso del capitale è capitalismo, allora ogni cosa è capitalismo. Il Bolscevismo è capitalismo e il comunismo anarchico è capitalismo; e ogni schema rivoluzionario, per quanto folle, è ancora capitalismo. Lenin e Trockij credono, non meno di Lloyd George e Thomas, che le operazioni economiche di oggi debbano lasciare qualcosa in avanzo per le operazioni economiche di domani. E questo è tutto ciò che il capitale significa nel suo senso economico. In tal caso, la parola è inutile. Il mio uso di essa può essere arbitrario, ma non è inutile. Se capitalismo significa proprietà privata, io sono capitalista. Se capitalismo significa capitale, tutti sono capitalisti. Ma se capitalismo significa questa particolare condizione del capitale, pagato alla massa soltanto in forma di salari, allora significa davvero qualcosa, anche se dovrebbe significare qualcos’altro.
La verità è che ciò che chiamiamo Capitalismo dovrebbe chiamarsi Proletarismo. Il suo punto non è che alcuni abbiano capitale, ma che i più abbiano soltanto salari perché non hanno capitale. Ho compiuto uno sforzo eroico ai miei tempi per andare in giro per il mondo dicendo sempre Proletarismo invece di Capitalismo. Ma il mio cammino è stato spinoso, fatto di guai e malintesi. Trovo che, quando critico il Duca di Northumberland per il suo Proletarismo, il mio significato non giunge a casa. Quando dico che spesso concorderei con il Morning Post se non fosse così deplorevolmente Proletario, pare esserci qualche strano impedimento momentaneo alla piena comunione da mente a mente. Eppure sarebbe rigorosamente esatto; poiché ciò di cui mi lamento, nella difesa corrente del capitalismo esistente, è che essa è una difesa del mantenere la maggior parte degli uomini in dipendenza salariale; ossia, del mantenere la maggior parte degli uomini senza capitale. Non sono il tipo di preciso che preferisce trasmettere correttamente ciò che non intende, piuttosto che trasmettere scorrettamente ciò che intende. Sono totalmente indifferente al termine rispetto al significato. Non m’importa se chiamo una cosa o l’altra con questa mera parola stampata che comincia per «C», purché sia applicata a una cosa e non all’altra. Non mi dispiace usare un termine arbitrario quanto un segno matematico, se è accettato come un segno matematico. Non mi dispiace chiamare la Proprietà x e il Capitalismo y, purché nessuno ritenga necessario dire che x=y. Non mi dispiace dire «gatto» per capitalismo e «cane» per distributismo, purché la gente capisca che le cose sono abbastanza diverse da azzuffarsi come cane e gatto. La proposta di una più ampia distribuzione del capitale rimane la stessa, comunque la si chiami, o comunque chiamiamo l’attuale sua palese contraddizione. È la stessa sia che la enunciamo dicendo che c’è troppo capitalismo in un senso o troppo poco capitalismo nell’altro. Ed è davvero assai pedantesco dire che l’uso del capitale debba essere capitalista. Potremmo con pari giustizia dire che qualsiasi cosa sociale debba essere Socialista; che il Socialismo possa identificarsi con una serata in compagnia o un bicchiere in compagnia. Il che, mi duole dirlo, non è il caso.
Nevertheless, there is enough verbal vagueness about Socialism to call for a word of definition. Socialism is a system which makes the corporate unity of society responsible for all its economic processes, or all those affecting life and essential living. If anything important is sold, the Government has sold it; if anything important is given, the Government has given it; if anything important is even tolerated, the Government is responsible for tolerating it. This is the very reverse of anarchy; it is an extreme enthusiasm for authority. It is in many ways worthy of the moral dignity of the mind; it is a collective acceptance of a very complete responsibility. But it is silly of Socialists to complain of our saying that it must be a destruction of liberty. It is almost equally silly of Anti-Socialists to complain of the unnatural and unbalanced brutality of the Bolshevist Government in crushing a political opposition. A Socialist Government is one which in its nature does not tolerate any true and real opposition. For there the Government provides everything; and it is absurd to ask a Government to provide an opposition.
You cannot go to the Sultan and say reproachfully, “You have made no arrangements for your brother dethroning you and seizing the Caliphate.” You cannot go to a medieval king and say, “Kindly lend me two thousand spears and one thousand bowmen, as I wish to raise a rebellion against you.” Still less can you reproach a Government which professes to set up everything, because it has not set up anything to pull down all it has set up. Opposition and rebellion depend on property and liberty. They can only be tolerated where other rights have been allowed to strike root, besides the central right of the ruler. Those rights must be protected by a morality which even the ruler will hesitate to defy. The critic of the State can only exist where a religious sense of right protects his claims to his own bow and spear; or at least, to his own pen or his own printing-press. It is absurd to suppose that he could borrow the royal pen to advocate regicide or use the Government printing-presses to expose the corruption of the Government. Yet it is the whole point of Socialism, the whole case for Socialism, that unless all printing-presses are Government printing-presses, printers may be oppressed. Everything is staked on the State’s justice; it is putting all the eggs in one basket. Many of them will be rotten eggs; but even then you will not be allowed to use them at political elections.
About fifteen years ago a few of us began to preach, in the old New Age and New Witness, a policy of small distributed property (which has since assumed the awkward but accurate name of Distributism), as we should have said then, against the two extremes of Capitalism and Communism. The first criticism we received was from the most brilliant Fabians, especially Mr. Bernard Shaw. And the form which that first criticism took was simply to tell us that our ideal was impossible. It was only a case of Catholic credulity about fairy-tales. The Law of Rent, and other economic laws, made it inevitable that the little rivulets of property should run down into the pool of plutocracy. In truth, it was the Fabian wit, and not merely the Tory fool, who confronted our vision with that venerable verbal opening, “If it were all divided up to-morrow—”
Nevertheless, we had an answer even in those days, and though we have since found many others, it will clarify the question if I repeat this point of principle. It is true that I believe in fairy-tales— in the sense that I marvel so much at what does exist that I am the readier to admit what might. I understand the man who believes in the Sea Serpent on the ground that there are more fish in the sea than ever came out of it. But I do it the more because the other man, in his ardour for disproving the Sea Serpent, always argues that there are not only no snakes in Iceland, but none in the world. Suppose Mr. Bernard Shaw, commenting on this credulity, were to blame me for believing (on the word of some lying priest) that stones could be thrown up into the air and hang there suspended like a rainbow. Suppose he told me tenderly that I should not believe this Popish fable of the magic stones, if I had ever had the Law of Gravity scientifically explained to me. And suppose, after all this, I found he was only talking about the impossibility of building an arch. I think most of us would form two main conclusions about him and his school. First, we should think them very ill-informed about what is really meant by recognizing a law of nature. A law of nature can be recognized by resisting it, or out-manoeuvring it, or even using it against itself, as in the case of the arch. And second, and much more strongly, we should think them astonishingly ill-informed about what has already been done upon this earth.
Similarly, the first fact in the discussion of whether small properties can exist is the fact that they do exist. It is a fact almost equally unmistakable that they not only exist but endure. Mr. Shaw affirmed, in a sort of abstract fury, that “small properties will not stay small.” Now it is interesting to note here that the opponents of anything like a several proprietary bring two highly inconsistent charges against it. They are perpetually telling us that the peasant life in Latin or other countries is monotonous, is unprogressive, is covered with weedy superstitions, and is a sort of survival of the Stone Age. Yet even while they taunt us with its survival, they argue that it can never survive. They point to the peasant as a perennial stick-in-the-mud; and then refuse to plant him anywhere, on the specific ground that he would not stick. Now, the first of the two types of denunciation is arguable enough; but in order to denounce peasantries, the critics must admit that there are peasantries to denounce. And if it were true that they always tended rapidly to disappear, it would not be true that they exhibited those primitive customs and conservative opinions which they not only do, in fact, exhibit, but which the critics reproach them with exhibiting. They cannot in common sense accuse a thing at once of being antiquated and of being ephemeral. It is, of course, the dry fact, to be seen in broad daylight, that small peasant properties are not ephemeral. But anyhow, Mr. Shaw and his school must not say that arches cannot be built, and then that they disfigure the landscape. The Distributive State is not a hypothesis for him to demolish; it is a phenomenon for him to explain.
Nondimeno, c’è abbastanza vaghezza verbale intorno al Socialismo da richiedere una parola di definizione. Il Socialismo è un sistema che rende l’unità corporativa della società responsabile di tutti i suoi processi economici, o di tutti quelli che riguardano la vita e il vivere essenziale. Se qualcosa d’importante è venduto, è il Governo ad averlo venduto; se qualcosa d’importante è donato, è il Governo ad averlo donato; se qualcosa d’importante è anche solo tollerato, è il Governo a esser responsabile di tollerarlo. Questo è l’esatto contrario dell’anarchia; è un entusiasmo estremo per l’autorità. È per molti versi degno della dignità morale della mente; è un’accettazione collettiva di una responsabilità assai completa. Ma è sciocco da parte dei Socialisti lagnarsi del nostro dire che esso dev’essere una distruzione della libertà. È quasi altrettanto sciocco da parte degli Antisocialisti lagnarsi dell’innaturale e squilibrata brutalità del Governo bolscevico nello schiacciare un’opposizione politica. Un Governo socialista è tale che, per sua natura, non tollera alcuna vera e reale opposizione. Perché lì è il Governo a provvedere ogni cosa; ed è assurdo chiedere a un Governo di provvedere un’opposizione.
Non si può andare dal Sultano e dirgli con tono di rimprovero: «Non hai preso alcuna disposizione perché tuo fratello ti detronizzi e s’impadronisca del Califfato.» Non si può andare da un re medievale e dirgli: «Prestami cortesemente duemila lance e mille arcieri, poiché desidero sollevare una ribellione contro di te.» Ancor meno si può rimproverare un Governo che pretende di istituire ogni cosa, perché non ha istituito nulla per abbattere tutto ciò che ha istituito. L’opposizione e la ribellione dipendono dalla proprietà e dalla libertà. Possono essere tollerate soltanto là dove ad altri diritti è stato permesso di metter radice, oltre al diritto centrale del sovrano. Quei diritti devono essere protetti da una moralità che perfino il sovrano esiterà a sfidare. Il critico dello Stato può esistere soltanto là dove un senso religioso del diritto protegge le sue rivendicazioni sul proprio arco e sulla propria lancia; o almeno, sulla propria penna o sulla propria tipografia. È assurdo supporre che egli possa prendere in prestito la penna regia per perorare il regicidio o usare le tipografie del Governo per denunciare la corruzione del Governo. Eppure è tutto il punto del Socialismo, tutta la sua tesi, che, a meno che tutte le tipografie non siano tipografie del Governo, gli stampatori possano essere oppressi. Tutto è puntato sulla giustizia dello Stato; è mettere tutte le uova in un solo paniere. Molte di esse saranno uova marce; ma anche allora non vi sarà permesso di usarle alle elezioni politiche.
Circa quindici anni fa alcuni di noi cominciarono a predicare, sui vecchi New Age e New Witness, una politica di piccola proprietà distribuita (che da allora ha assunto il goffo ma accurato nome di Distributismo), come avremmo detto allora, contro i due estremi del Capitalismo e del Comunismo. La prima critica che ricevemmo venne dai più brillanti Fabiani, specialmente dal signor Bernard Shaw. E la forma che quella prima critica assunse fu semplicemente di dirci che il nostro ideale era impossibile. Non era che un caso di credulità cattolica verso le fiabe. La Legge della Rendita, e altre leggi economiche, rendevano inevitabile che i piccoli ruscelli della proprietà scorressero giù a confluire nella pozza della plutocrazia. In verità, fu lo spirito fabiano, e non il mero sciocco Tory, a fronteggiare la nostra visione con quell’apertura verbale venerabile: «Se tutto venisse diviso domani…»
Nondimeno, avevamo una risposta perfino in quei giorni, e sebbene da allora ne abbiamo trovate molte altre, chiarirà la questione se ripeto questo punto di principio. È vero che io credo nelle fiabe — nel senso che mi meraviglio tanto di ciò che esiste da essere più pronto ad ammettere ciò che potrebbe esistere. Comprendo l’uomo che crede nel Serpente di Mare sul fondamento che ci sono più pesci nel mare di quanti ne siano mai usciti. Ma lo faccio tanto più perché l’altro uomo, nel suo ardore di confutare il Serpente di Mare, argomenta sempre che non solo non ci sono serpenti in Islanda, ma nemmeno al mondo. Supponiamo che il signor Bernard Shaw, commentando questa credulità, mi biasimasse per aver creduto (sulla parola di qualche prete bugiardo) che delle pietre potessero essere gettate in aria e restarvi sospese come un arcobaleno. Supponiamo che mi dicesse teneramente che non dovrei credere a questa Favola papista delle pietre magiche, se mai mi fosse stata spiegata scientificamente la Legge di Gravità. E supponiamo che, dopo tutto questo, scoprissi che egli parlava soltanto dell’impossibilità di costruire un arco. Penso che i più di noi si formerebbero due conclusioni principali su di lui e sulla sua scuola. Primo, li riterremmo assai mal informati su ciò che davvero s’intende con il riconoscere una legge di natura. Una legge di natura può essere riconosciuta resistendovi, o aggirandola, o perfino usandola contro sé stessa, come nel caso dell’arco. E secondo, e molto più fortemente, li riterremmo sorprendentemente mal informati su ciò che è già stato fatto su questa terra.
Similmente, il primo fatto nella discussione se le piccole proprietà possano esistere è il fatto che esse esistono. È un fatto quasi altrettanto inconfondibile che esse non solo esistono ma durano. Il signor Shaw affermò, in una sorta di furia astratta, che «le piccole proprietà non resteranno piccole.» Ora è interessante notare qui che gli oppositori di qualcosa come un possesso frazionato muovono contro di esso due accuse altamente incoerenti. Ci vanno perpetuamente dicendo che la vita contadina nei paesi latini o altrove è monotona, è priva di progresso, è ricoperta di superstizioni infestanti, ed è una sorta di sopravvivenza dell’Età della Pietra. Eppure, mentre ci scherniscono con la sua sopravvivenza, sostengono che essa non potrà mai sopravvivere. Additano il contadino come un perenne piantato-nel-fango; e poi rifiutano di piantarlo in qualsiasi luogo, sul preciso fondamento che non attecchirebbe. Ora, la prima delle due specie di denuncia è abbastanza discutibile; ma per denunciare le contadinerie, i critici devono ammettere che vi siano contadinerie da denunciare. E se fosse vero che esse tendono sempre a scomparire rapidamente, non sarebbe vero che esibiscono quei costumi primitivi e quelle opinioni conservatrici che di fatto non solo esibiscono, ma che i critici rimproverano loro di esibire. Non possono, con buon senso, accusare una cosa a un tempo di essere antiquata e di essere effimera. È, naturalmente, il dato di fatto, visibile in piena luce del giorno, che le piccole proprietà contadine non sono effimere. Ma comunque, il signor Shaw e la sua scuola non devono dire che gli archi non possono essere costruiti, e poi che deturpano il paesaggio. Lo Stato Distributivo non è un’ipotesi che egli possa demolire; è un fenomeno che egli deve spiegare.
The truth is that the conception that small property evolves into Capitalism is a precise picture of what practically never takes place. The truth is attested even by facts of geography, facts which, as it seems to me, have been strangely overlooked. Nine times out of ten, an industrial civilization of the modern capitalist type does not arise, wherever else it may arise, in places where there has hitherto been a distributive civilization like that of a peasantry. Capitalism is a monster that grows in deserts. Industrial servitude has almost everywhere arisen in those empty spaces where the older civilization was thin or absent. Thus it grew up easily in the North of England rather than the South; precisely because the North had been comparatively empty and barbarous through all the ages when the South had a civilization of guilds and peasantries. Thus it grew up easily in the American continent rather than the European; precisely because it had nothing to supplant in America but a few savages, while in Europe it had to supplant the culture of multitudinous farms. Everywhere it has been but one stride from the mudhut to the manufacturing town. Everywhere the mudhut which really turned into the free farm has never since moved an inch towards the manufacturing town. Wherever there was the mere lord and the mere serf, they could almost instantly be turned into the mere employer and the mere employee. Wherever there has been the free man, even when he was relatively less rich and powerful, his mere memory has made complete industrial capitalism impossible. It is an enemy that has sown these tares, but even as an enemy he is a coward. For he can only sow them in waste places, where no wheat can spring up and choke them.
To take up our parable again, we say first that arches exist; and not only exist but remain. A hundred Roman aqueducts and amphitheatres are there to show that they can remain as long or longer than anything else. And if a progressive person informs us that an arch always turns into a factory chimney, or even that an arch always falls down because it is weaker than a factory chimney, or even that wherever it does fall down people perceive that they must replace it by a factory chimney—why, we shall be so audacious as to cast doubts on all these three assertions. All we could possibly admit is that the principle supporting the chimney is simpler than the principle of the arch; and for that very reason the factory chimney, like the feudal tower, can rise the more easily in a howling wilderness.
But the image has yet a further application. If at this moment the Latin countries are largely made our model in the matter of the small property, it is only in the sense in which they would have been, through certain periods of history, the only exemplars of the arch. There was a time when all arches were Roman arches; and when a man living by the Liffey or the Thames would know as little about them as Mr. Shaw knows about peasant proprietors. But that does not mean that we fight for something merely foreign, or advance the arch as a sort of Italian ensign; any more than we want to make the Thames as yellow as the Tiber, or have any particular taste in macaroni or malaria. The principle of the arch is human, and applicable to and by all humanity. So is the principle of well-distributed private property. That a few Roman arches stood in ruins in Britain is not a proof that arches cannot be built, but on the contrary, a proof that they can.
And now, to complete the coincidence or analogy, what is the principle of the arch? You can call it, if you like, an affront to gravitation; you will be more correct if you call it an appeal to gravitation. The principle asserts that by combining separate stones of a particular shape in a particular way, we can ensure that their very tendency to fall shall prevent them from falling. And though my image is merely an illustration, it does to a great extent hold even as to the success of more equalized properties. What upholds an arch is an equality of pressure of the separate stones upon each other. The equality is at once mutual aid and mutual obstruction. It is not difficult to show that in a healthy society the moral pressure of different private properties acts in exactly the same way. But if the other school finds the key or comparison insufficient, it must find some other. It is clear that no natural forces can frustrate the fact. To say that any law, such as that of rent, makes against it is true only in the sense that many natural laws make against all morality and the very essentials of manhood. In that sense, scientific arguments are as irrelevant to our case for property as Mr. Shaw used to say they were to his case against vivisection.
Lastly, it is not only true that the arch of property remains, it is true that the building of such arches increases, both in quantity and quality. For instance, the French peasant before the French Revolution was already indefinitely a proprietor; it has made his property more private and more absolute, not less. The French are now less than ever likely to abandon the system, when it has proved for the second, if not the hundredth time, the most stable type of prosperity in the stress of war. A revolution as heroic, and even more unconquerable, has already in Ireland disregarded alike the Socialist dream and the Capitalist reality, with a driving energy of which no one has yet dared to foresee the limits. So, when the round arch of the Romans and the Normans had remained for ages as a sort of relic, the rebirth of Christendom found for it a further application and issue. It sprang in an instant to the titanic stature of the Gothic; where man seemed to be a god who had hanged his worlds upon nothing. Then was unsealed again something of that ancient secret which had so strangely described the priest as the builder of bridges. And when I look to-day at some of the bridges which he built above the air, I can understand a man still calling them impossible, as their only possible praise.
La verità è che la concezione secondo cui la piccola proprietà si evolve in Capitalismo è un ritratto preciso di ciò che praticamente non avviene mai. La verità è attestata perfino dai fatti della geografia, fatti che, a quanto mi pare, sono stati stranamente trascurati. Nove volte su dieci, una civiltà industriale del moderno tipo capitalista non sorge, ovunque altro possa sorgere, nei luoghi dove finora c’è stata una civiltà distributiva come quella di una contadineria. Il Capitalismo è un Mostro che cresce nei deserti. La servitù industriale è sorta quasi ovunque in quegli spazi vuoti dove la più antica civiltà era rada o assente. Così esso crebbe facilmente nel Nord dell’Inghilterra piuttosto che nel Sud; proprio perché il Nord era stato comparativamente vuoto e barbaro attraverso tutte le età in cui il Sud aveva una civiltà di corporazioni e di contadinerie. Così esso crebbe facilmente nel continente americano piuttosto che in quello europeo; proprio perché non aveva nulla da soppiantare in America se non pochi selvaggi, mentre in Europa doveva soppiantare la cultura di innumerevoli fattorie. Ovunque non c’è stato che un solo passo dalla capanna di fango alla città manifatturiera. Ovunque la capanna di fango che si tramutò realmente nella libera fattoria non si è più mossa di un pollice, da allora, verso la città manifatturiera. Ovunque vi fossero il mero signore e il mero servo, essi potevano quasi istantaneamente essere tramutati nel mero datore di lavoro e nel mero dipendente. Ovunque vi sia stato l’uomo libero, anche quando era relativamente meno ricco e potente, la sua mera memoria ha reso impossibile un compiuto capitalismo industriale. È un nemico che ha seminato queste zizzanie, ma anche come nemico egli è un vigliacco. Perché può seminarle soltanto in luoghi incolti, dove nessun grano possa spuntare e soffocarle.
Per riprendere la nostra Parabola, diciamo anzitutto che gli archi esistono; e non solo esistono, ma permangono. Un centinaio di acquedotti e anfiteatri romani sono lì a mostrare che essi possono permanere tanto a lungo quanto qualsiasi altra cosa, o più a lungo. E se una persona progressista ci informa che un arco si tramuta sempre in una ciminiera di fabbrica, o perfino che un arco crolla sempre perché è più debole di una ciminiera di fabbrica, o perfino che ovunque esso crolli la gente s’avvede di doverlo sostituire con una ciminiera di fabbrica — ebbene, avremo l’audacia di gettar dubbi su tutte e tre queste asserzioni. Tutto ciò che potremmo ammettere è che il principio che sorregge la ciminiera è più semplice del principio dell’arco; e proprio per questa ragione la ciminiera di fabbrica, come la torre feudale, può innalzarsi più facilmente in un deserto ululante.
Ma l’immagine ha ancora un’ulteriore applicazione. Se in questo momento i paesi latini sono presi in larga misura a nostro modello in materia di piccola proprietà, è soltanto nel senso in cui essi sarebbero stati, attraverso certi periodi della storia, i soli esemplari dell’arco. Vi fu un tempo in cui tutti gli archi erano archi romani; e in cui un uomo che vivesse sulle rive del Liffey o del Tamigi ne saprebbe altrettanto poco di quanto il signor Shaw sa dei proprietari contadini. Ma ciò non significa che noi combattiamo per qualcosa di meramente straniero, o che innalziamo l’arco come una sorta di insegna italiana; non più di quanto vogliamo rendere il Tamigi giallo come il Tevere, o abbiamo qualche particolare gusto per i maccheroni o la malaria. Il principio dell’arco è umano, e applicabile a tutta l’umanità e da tutta l’umanità. Così è il principio della proprietà privata ben distribuita. Che pochi archi romani sorgessero in rovina in Britannia non è una prova che gli archi non possano essere costruiti, ma, al contrario, una prova che possono esserlo.
E ora, per completare la coincidenza o l’analogia, qual è il principio dell’arco? Potete chiamarlo, se volete, un affronto alla gravitazione; sarete più esatti se lo chiamate un appello alla gravitazione. Il principio afferma che, combinando pietre separate di una forma particolare in un modo particolare, possiamo far sì che la loro stessa tendenza a cadere impedisca loro di cadere. E benché la mia immagine sia soltanto un’illustrazione, essa vale in grande misura anche quanto al successo di proprietà più equalizzate. Ciò che regge un arco è un’uguaglianza di pressione delle pietre separate le une sulle altre. L’uguaglianza è a un tempo mutuo aiuto e mutuo ostacolo. Non è difficile mostrare che in una società sana la pressione morale di diverse proprietà private agisce esattamente allo stesso modo. Ma se l’altra scuola trova la chiave o il paragone insufficiente, deve trovarne un altro. È chiaro che nessuna forza naturale può frustrare il fatto. Dire che una qualsiasi legge, come quella della rendita, cospira contro di esso è vero soltanto nel senso in cui molte leggi naturali cospirano contro ogni moralità e contro gli stessi elementi essenziali della virilità. In quel senso, gli argomenti scientifici sono altrettanto irrilevanti alla nostra causa per la proprietà quanto il signor Shaw era solito dire che lo fossero alla sua causa contro la vivisezione.
Infine, non solo è vero che l’arco della proprietà permane, è vero che la costruzione di tali archi aumenta, sia in quantità sia in qualità. Per esempio, il contadino francese prima della Rivoluzione francese era già indefinitamente un proprietario; essa ha reso la sua proprietà più privata e più assoluta, non meno. I Francesi sono ora meno che mai propensi ad abbandonare il sistema, ora che esso ha dimostrato, per la seconda, se non per la centesima volta, di essere il tipo più stabile di prosperità nella tensione della guerra. Una rivoluzione altrettanto eroica, e ancor più invincibile, ha già in Irlanda ignorato tanto il sogno socialista quanto la realtà capitalista, con un’energia trascinante di cui nessuno ha ancora osato prevedere i limiti. Così, quando l’arco a tutto sesto dei Romani e dei Normanni era rimasto per età come una sorta di reliquia, la rinascita della Cristianità gli trovò un’ulteriore applicazione ed esito. Esso balzò in un istante alla statura titanica del Gotico; dove l’uomo pareva un dio che avesse appeso i suoi mondi al nulla. Allora fu di nuovo dissuggellato qualcosa di quell’antico segreto che aveva così stranamente descritto il sacerdote come il costruttore di ponti. E quando guardo oggi ad alcuni dei ponti che egli costruì sopra l’aria, posso comprendere un uomo che ancora li chiama impossibili, come la loro sola lode possibile.
What do we mean by that “equality of pressure” as of the stones in an arch? More will be said of this in detail; but in general we mean that the modern passion for incessant and restless buying and selling goes along with the extreme inequality of men too rich or too poor. The explanation of the continuity of peasantries (which their opponents are simply forced to leave unexplained) is that, where that independence exists, it is valued exactly as any other dignity is valued when it is regarded as normal to a man; as no man goes naked or is beaten with a stick for hire.
The theory that those who start reasonably equal cannot remain reasonably equal is a fallacy founded entirely on a society in which they start extremely unequal. It is quite true that when capitalism has passed a certain point, the broken fragments of property are very easily devoured. In other words, it is true when there is a small amount of small property; but it is quite untrue when there is a large amount of small property. To argue from what happened in the rush of big business and the rout of scattered small businesses to what must always happen when the parties are more on a level, is quite illogical. It is proving from Niagara that there is no such thing as a lake. Once tip up the lake and the whole of the water will rush one way; as the whole economic tendency of capitalist inequality rushes one way. Leave the lake as a lake, or the level as a level, and there is nothing to prevent the lake remaining until the crack of doom— as many levels of peasantry seem likely to remain until the crack of doom. This fact is proved by experience, even if it is not explained by experience; but, as a matter of fact, it is possible to suggest not only the experience but the explanation. The truth is that there is no economic tendency whatever towards the disappearance of small property, until that property becomes so very small as to cease to act as property at all. If one man has a hundred acres and another man has half an acre, it is likely enough that he will be unable to live on half an acre. Then there will be an economic tendency for him to sell his land and make the other man the proud possessor of a hundred and a half. But if one man has thirty acres and the other man has forty acres, there is no economic tendency of any kind whatever to make the first man sell to the second. It is simply false to say that the first man cannot be secure of thirty or the second man content with forty. It is sheer nonsense; like saying that any man who owns a bull terrier will be bound to sell it to somebody who owns a mastiff. It is like saying that I cannot own a horse because I have an eccentric neighbour who owns an elephant.
Needless to say, those who insist that roughly equalized ownership cannot exist, base their whole argument on the notion that it has existed. They have to suppose, in order to prove their point, that people in England, for instance, did begin as equals and rapidly reached inequality. And it only rounds off the humour of their whole position that they assume the existence of what they call an impossibility in the one case where it has really not occurred. They talk as if ten miners had run a race, and one of them became the Duke of Northumberland. They talk as if the first Rothschild was a peasant who patiently planted better cabbages than the other peasants. The truth is that England became a capitalist country because it had long been an oligarchical country. It would be much harder to point out in what way a country like Denmark need become oligarchical. But the case is even stronger when we add the ethical to the economic common sense. When there is once established a widely scattered ownership, there is a public opinion that is stronger than any law; and very often (what in modern times is even more remarkable) a law that is really an expression of public opinion. It may be very difficult for modern people to imagine a world in which men are not generally admired for covetousness and crushing their neighbours but I assure them that such strange patches of an earthly paradise do really remain on earth.
The truth is that this first objection of impossibility in the abstract flies flat in the face of all the facts of experience and human nature. It is not true that a moral custom cannot hold most men content with a reasonable status, and careful to preserve it. It is as if we were to say that because some men are more attractive to women than others, therefore the inhabitants of Balham under Queen Victoria could not possibly have been arranged on a monogamous model, with one man one wife. Sooner or later, it might be said, all females would be found clustering round the fascinating few, and nothing but bachelorhood be left for the unattractive many. Sooner or later the suburb must consist of a hundred hermitages and three harems. But this is not the case. It is not the case at present, whatever may happen if the moral tradition of marriage is really lost in Balham. So long as that moral tradition is alive, so long as stealing other people’s wives is reprobated or being faithful to a spouse is admired, there are limits to the extent to which the wildest profligate in Balham can disturb the balance of the sexes. So any land-grabber would very rapidly find that there were limits to the extent to which he could buy up land in an Irish or Spanish or Serbian village. When it is really thought hateful to take Naboth’s vineyard, as it is to take Uriah’s wife, there is little difficulty in finding a local prophet to pronounce the judgment of the Lord. In an atmosphere of capitalism the man who lays field to field is flattered; but in an atmosphere of property he is promptly jeered at or possibly stoned. The result is that the village has not sunk into plutocracy or the suburb into polygamy.
Property is a point of honour. The true contrary of the word “property” is the word “prostitution.” And it is not true that a human being will always sell what is sacred to that sense of self-ownership, whether it be the body or the boundary. A few do it in both cases; and by doing it they always become outcasts. But it is not true that a majority must do it; and anybody who says it is, is ignorant, not of our plans and proposals, not of anybody’s visions and ideals, not of distributism or division of capital by this or that process, but of the facts of history and the substance of humanity. He is a barbarian who has never seen an arch.
Che cosa intendiamo con quell’«uguaglianza di pressione» come delle pietre in un arco? Più se ne dirà nei dettagli; ma in generale intendiamo che la moderna passione per l’incessante e inquieto comprare e vendere va di pari passo con l’estrema disuguaglianza di uomini troppo ricchi o troppo poveri. La spiegazione della continuità delle contadinerie (che i loro avversari sono semplicemente costretti a lasciare inspiegata) è che, là dove quell’indipendenza esiste, essa è tenuta in pregio esattamente come qualsiasi altra dignità è tenuta in pregio quando è considerata normale per un uomo; come nessun uomo va nudo o è bastonato a pagamento.
La teoria secondo cui coloro che partono ragionevolmente uguali non possono rimanere ragionevolmente uguali è una fallacia fondata interamente su una società in cui essi partono estremamente disuguali. È verissimo che, quando il capitalismo ha oltrepassato un certo punto, i frammenti spezzati della proprietà sono divorati assai facilmente. In altre parole, è vero quando c’è una piccola quantità di piccola proprietà; ma è del tutto falso quando c’è una grande quantità di piccola proprietà. Argomentare da ciò che accadde nell’assalto dei grandi affari e nella disfatta delle sparse piccole imprese a ciò che deve sempre accadere quando le parti sono più su un piano di parità, è del tutto illogico. È dimostrare dal Niagara che non esiste una cosa come un lago. Inclina una volta il lago e tutta l’acqua si precipiterà da una parte; come tutta la tendenza economica della disuguaglianza capitalista si precipita da una parte. Lascia il lago come lago, o il livello come livello, e non c’è nulla che impedisca al lago di rimanere fino al giorno del giudizio — come molti livelli di contadineria paiono destinati a rimanere fino al giorno del giudizio. Questo fatto è provato dall’esperienza, anche se non è spiegato dall’esperienza; ma, di fatto, è possibile suggerire non solo l’esperienza ma la spiegazione. La verità è che non c’è alcuna tendenza economica verso la scomparsa della piccola proprietà, finché quella proprietà non divenga così piccola da cessare di agire affatto come proprietà. Se un uomo ha cento acri e un altro uomo ha mezzo acro, è assai probabile che egli non sarà in grado di vivere su mezzo acro. Allora ci sarà una tendenza economica per lui a vendere la sua terra e a fare dell’altro uomo l’orgoglioso possessore di cento acri e mezzo. Ma se un uomo ha trenta acri e l’altro uomo ne ha quaranta, non c’è alcuna tendenza economica di qualsiasi sorta a spingere il primo uomo a vendere al secondo. È semplicemente falso dire che il primo uomo non possa essere al sicuro con trenta o il secondo uomo contento con quaranta. È pura sciocchezza; come dire che qualsiasi uomo possieda un bull terrier sarà costretto a venderlo a qualcuno che possiede un mastino. È come dire che non posso possedere un cavallo perché ho un vicino eccentrico che possiede un elefante.
Inutile dire che coloro i quali insistono che una proprietà grossolanamente equalizzata non possa esistere basano tutto il loro argomento sulla nozione che essa sia esistita. Devono supporre, per dimostrare la loro tesi, che la gente in Inghilterra, per esempio, cominciò come eguale e rapidamente raggiunse la disuguaglianza. E non fa che arrotondare l’comicità di tutta la loro posizione il fatto che essi assumono l’esistenza di ciò che chiamano un’impossibilità nell’unico caso in cui essa realmente non si è verificata. Parlano come se dieci minatori avessero corso una gara, e uno di loro fosse divenuto il Duca di Northumberland. Parlano come se il primo Rothschild fosse stato un contadino che pazientemente coltivava cavoli migliori degli altri contadini. La verità è che l’Inghilterra divenne un paese capitalista perché era stata a lungo un paese oligarchico. Sarebbe molto più difficile indicare in che modo un paese come la Danimarca debba divenire oligarchico. Ma il caso è ancor più forte quando aggiungiamo il buon senso etico a quello economico. Una volta stabilito un possesso ampiamente disseminato, c’è un’opinione pubblica più forte di qualsiasi legge; e assai spesso (ciò che in tempi moderni è ancor più notevole) una legge che è realmente espressione dell’opinione pubblica. Può essere assai difficile per la gente moderna immaginare un mondo in cui gli uomini non siano generalmente ammirati per la cupidigia e per lo schiacciamento dei propri vicini; ma assicuro loro che tali strane chiazze di un paradiso terrestre permangono davvero sulla terra.
La verità è che questa prima obiezione di impossibilità in astratto va a cozzare in pieno contro tutti i fatti dell’esperienza e della natura umana. Non è vero che un costume morale non possa tenere la maggior parte degli uomini contenti di uno status ragionevole, e attenti a preservarlo. È come se dicessimo che, poiché alcuni uomini sono più attraenti per le donne di altri, perciò gli abitanti di Balham sotto la Regina Vittoria non avrebbero potuto in alcun modo essere disposti su un modello monogamo, con un uomo una moglie. Presto o tardi, si potrebbe dire, tutte le femmine si troverebbero a raggrupparsi attorno ai pochi affascinanti, e null’altro che lo scapolato resterebbe per i molti poco attraenti. Presto o tardi il sobborgo dovrebbe consistere di cento eremitaggi e tre harem. Ma non è questo il caso. Non è il caso al presente, checché possa accadere se la tradizione morale del Matrimonio è davvero perduta a Balham. Finché quella tradizione morale è viva, finché rubare le mogli altrui è riprovato o l’esser fedeli a un coniuge è ammirato, ci sono limiti alla misura in cui il più sfrenato libertino di Balham può turbare l’equilibrio dei sessi. Così qualsiasi arraffatore di terre scoprirebbe assai rapidamente che ci sono limiti alla misura in cui può accaparrarsi terra in un villaggio irlandese o spagnolo o serbo. Quando è davvero ritenuto odioso prendere la vigna di Nabot, come lo è prendere la moglie di Uria, c’è poca difficoltà a trovare un profeta locale che pronunci il giudizio del Signore. In un’atmosfera di capitalismo l’uomo che accosta campo a campo è adulato; ma in un’atmosfera di proprietà è prontamente schernito o forse lapidato. Il risultato è che il villaggio non è sprofondato nella plutocrazia né il sobborgo nella poligamia.
La proprietà è un punto d’onore. Il vero contrario della parola «proprietà» è la parola «prostituzione». E non è vero che un essere umano venderà sempre ciò che è sacro a quel senso di possesso di sé, sia esso il corpo o il confine. Alcuni lo fanno in entrambi i casi; e col farlo divengono sempre reietti. Ma non è vero che una maggioranza debba farlo; e chiunque dica che sia così è ignorante, non dei nostri piani e proposte, non delle visioni e degli ideali di alcuno, non del distributismo o della divisione del capitale con questo o quel procedimento, ma dei fatti della storia e della sostanza dell’umanità. È un barbaro che non ha mai visto un arco.
In the notes I have here jotted down it will be obvious, of course, that the restoration of this pattern, simple as it is, is much more complicated in a complicated society. Here I have only traced it in the simplest form as it stood, and still stands, at the beginning of our discussion. I disregard the view that such “reaction” cannot be. I hold the old mystical dogma that what Man has done, Man can do. My critics seem to hold a still more mystical dogma: that Man cannot possibly do a thing because he has done it. That is what seems to be meant by saying that small property is “antiquated.” It really means that all property is dead. There is nothing to be reached upon the present lines except the increasing loss of property by everybody, as something swallowed up into a system equally impersonal and inhuman, whether we call it Communism or Capitalism. If we cannot go back, it hardly seems worth while to go forward.
There is nothing in front but a flat wilderness of standardization either by Bolshevism or Big Business. But it is strange that some of us should have seen sanity, if only in a vision, while the rest go forward chained eternally to enlargement without liberty and progress without hope.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
II THE PERIL OF THE HOUR
When we are for a moment satisfied, or sated, with reading the latest news of the loftiest social circles, or the most exact records of the most responsible courts of justice, we naturally turn to the serial story in the newspaper, called “Poisoned by Her Mother” or “The Mystery of the Crimson Wedding Ring,” in search of something calmer and more quietly convincing, more restful, more domestic, and more like real life. But as we turn over the pages, in passing from the incredible fact to the comparatively credible fiction, we are very likely to encounter a particular phrase on the general subject of social degeneracy. It is one of a number of phrases that seem to be kept in solid blocks in the printing-offices of newspapers. Like most of these solid statements, it is of a soothing character. It is like the headline of “Hopes of a Settlement,” by which we learn that things are unsettled; or that topic of the “Revival of Trade,” which it is part of the journalistic trade periodically to revive. The sentence to which I refer is to this effect: that the fears about social degeneracy need not disturb us, because such fears have been expressed in every age; and there are always romantic and retrospective persons, poets, and such riff-raff, who look back to imaginary “good old times.”
It is the mark of such statements that they seem to satisfy the mind; in other words, it is the mark of such thoughts that they stop us from thinking. The man who has thus praised progress does not think it necessary to progress any further. The man who has dismissed a complaint, as being old, does not himself think it necessary to say anything new. He is content to repeat this apology for existing things; and seems unable to offer any more thoughts on the subject. Now, as a matter of fact, there are a number of further thoughts that might be suggested by the subject. Of course, it is quite true that this notion of the decline of a state has been suggested in many periods, by many persons, some of them, unfortunately, poets. Thus, for instance, Byron, notoriously so moody and melodramatic, had somehow or other got it into his head that the Isles of Greece were less glorious in arts and arms in the last days of Turkish rule than in the days of the battle of Salamis or the Republic of Plato. So again Wordsworth, in an equally sentimental fashion, seems to insinuate that the Republic of Venice was not quite so powerful when Napoleon trod it out like a dying ember as when its commerce and art filled the seas of the world with a conflagration of colour. So many writers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have even gone so far as to suggest that modern Spain played a less predominant part than Spain in the days of the discovery of America or the victory of Lepanto. Some, even more lacking in that Optimism which is the soul of commerce, have made an equally perverse comparison between the earlier and the later conditions of the commercial aristocracy of Holland. Some have even maintained that Tyre and Sidon are not quite so fashionable as they used to be; and somebody once said something about “the ruins of Carthage.”
In somewhat simpler language, we may say that all this argument has a very big and obvious hole in it. When a man says, “People were as pessimistic as you are in societies which were not declining, but were even advancing,” it is permissible to reply, “Yes, and people were probably as optimistic as you are in societies which really declined.” For, after all, there were societies which really declined. It is true that Horace said that every generation seemed to be worse than the last, and implied that Rome was going to the dogs, at the very moment when all the external world was being brought under the eagles. But it is quite likely that the last forgotten court poet, praising the last forgotten Augustulus at the stiff court of Byzantium, contradicted all the seditious rumours of social decline, exactly as our newspapers do, by saying that, after all, Horace had said the same thing. And it is also possible that Horace was right; that it was in his time that the turn was taken which led from Horatius on the bridge to Heracleius in the palace; that if Rome was not immediately going to the dogs, the dogs were coming to Rome, and their distant howling could first be heard in that hour of the uplifted eagles; that there had begun a long advance that was also a long decline, but ended in the Dark Ages. Rome had gone back to the Wolf.
I say this view is at least tenable, though it does not really represent my own; but it is quite sufficiently reasonable to refuse to be dismissed with the cheap cheerfulness of the current maxim. There has been, there can be, such a thing as social decline; and the only question is, at any given moment, whether Byzantium had declined or whether Britain is declining. In other words, we must judge any such case of alleged degeneracy on its own merits. It is no answer to say, what is, of course, perfectly true, that some people are naturally prone to such pessimism. We are not judging them, but the situation which they judged or misjudged. We may say that schoolboys have always disliked having to go to school. But there is such a thing as a bad school. We may say the farmers always grumble at the weather. But there is such a thing as a bad harvest. And we have to consider as a question of the facts of the case, and not of the feelings of the farmer, whether the moral world of modern England is likely to have a bad harvest.
Nelle note che ho qui buttato giù sarà ovvio, naturalmente, che la restaurazione di questo modello, per quanto semplice, è assai più complicata in una società complicata. Qui l’ho tracciato soltanto nella forma più semplice così come stava, e ancora sta, all’inizio della nostra discussione. Trascuro l’idea che una simile «reazione» non possa esserci. Sostengo il vecchio dogma mistico che ciò che l’Uomo ha fatto, l’Uomo può farlo. I miei critici sembrano sostenere un dogma ancor più mistico: che l’Uomo non possa in alcun modo fare una cosa perché l’ha fatta. È questo che pare si intenda dicendo che la piccola proprietà è «antiquata». In realtà significa che ogni proprietà è morta. Non c’è nulla da raggiungere lungo le linee presenti se non la crescente perdita di proprietà da parte di tutti, come qualcosa inghiottito in un sistema ugualmente impersonale e disumano, sia che lo chiamiamo Comunismo o Capitalismo. Se non possiamo tornare indietro, pare a stento valga la pena di andare avanti.
Non c’è nulla davanti se non una piatta desolazione di standardizzazione o per opera del Bolscevismo o dei Grandi Affari. Ma è strano che alcuni di noi abbiano scorto la sanità, sia pure soltanto in una visione, mentre gli altri procedono incatenati in eterno all’ampliamento senza libertà e al progresso senza speranza.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
II IL PERICOLO DELL’ORA
Quando siamo per un momento soddisfatti, o sazi, di leggere le ultime notizie dei più alti circoli sociali, o i più esatti resoconti delle più autorevoli corti di giustizia, ci rivolgiamo naturalmente al romanzo a puntate del giornale, intitolato «Avvelenata dalla madre» o «Il mistero dell’anello nuziale cremisi», in cerca di qualcosa di più calmo e più quietamente convincente, più riposante, più domestico, e più simile alla vita reale. Ma mentre voltiamo le pagine, passando dal fatto incredibile alla finzione comparativamente credibile, è assai probabile che ci imbattiamo in una particolare frase sul tema generale della degenerazione sociale. È una di una serie di frasi che paiono tenute in blocchi solidi nelle tipografie dei giornali. Come la maggior parte di queste solide affermazioni, è di carattere rasserenante. È come il titolo «Speranze di un accordo», dal quale apprendiamo che le cose sono in disaccordo; o come quell’argomento della «Ripresa del Commercio», che è parte del mestiere giornalistico far periodicamente riprendere. La frase a cui mi riferisco è di questo tenore: che i timori riguardo alla degenerazione sociale non devono turbarci, perché tali timori sono stati espressi in ogni età; e ci sono sempre persone romantiche e retrospettive, poeti, e simile marmaglia, che guardano indietro a immaginari «bei tempi andati».
È il marchio di tali affermazioni che paiono soddisfare la mente; in altre parole, è il marchio di tali pensieri che ci arrestano dal pensare. L’uomo che ha così lodato il progresso non ritiene necessario progredire oltre. L’uomo che ha respinto una lagnanza, in quanto vecchia, non ritiene egli stesso necessario dire alcunché di nuovo. Si accontenta di ripetere questa apologia delle cose esistenti; e pare incapace di offrire ulteriori pensieri sull’argomento. Ora, di fatto, ci sono un certo numero di ulteriori pensieri che potrebbero essere suggeriti dall’argomento. Naturalmente, è verissimo che questa nozione del declino di uno stato è stata suggerita in molti periodi, da molte persone, alcune di esse, sfortunatamente, poeti. Così, per esempio, Byron, notoriamente tanto tetro e melodrammatico, si era in qualche modo messo in testa che le Isole della Grecia fossero meno gloriose nelle arti e nelle armi negli ultimi giorni del dominio turco che nei giorni della battaglia di Salamina o della Repubblica di Platone. Così ancora Wordsworth, in una foggia ugualmente sentimentale, pare insinuare che la Repubblica di Venezia non fosse così potente quando Napoleone la calpestò come una brace morente come quando il suo commercio e la sua arte riempivano i mari del mondo con una conflagrazione di colore. Tanti scrittori del diciottesimo e diciannovesimo secolo si sono perfino spinti fino a suggerire che la Spagna moderna abbia recitato una parte meno predominante della Spagna nei giorni della scoperta dell’America o della vittoria di Lepanto. Alcuni, ancor più privi di quell’Ottimismo che è l’anima del commercio, hanno fatto un paragone ugualmente perverso tra le condizioni anteriori e posteriori dell’aristocrazia commerciale d’Olanda. Alcuni hanno perfino sostenuto che Tiro e Sidone non sono più tanto alla moda quanto lo erano un tempo; e qualcuno una volta disse qualcosa sulle «rovine di Cartagine».
In un linguaggio alquanto più semplice, possiamo dire che tutto questo argomento ha un buco molto grande e ovvio. Quando un uomo dice: «Le persone erano pessimiste quanto voi in società che non erano in declino, ma anzi in avanzata», è lecito replicare: «Sì, e le persone erano probabilmente ottimiste quanto voi in società che realmente declinarono.» Perché, dopo tutto, ci furono società che realmente declinarono. È vero che Orazio disse che ogni generazione pareva peggiore dell’ultima, e lasciò intendere che Roma andava ai cani, proprio nel momento in cui tutto il mondo esterno veniva assoggettato sotto le aquile. Ma è assai probabile che l’ultimo dimenticato poeta di corte, lodando l’ultimo dimenticato Augustolo alla rigida corte di Bisanzio, contraddicesse tutte le sediziose voci di declino sociale, esattamente come fanno i nostri giornali, dicendo che, dopo tutto, Orazio aveva detto la stessa cosa. Ed è anche possibile che Orazio avesse ragione; che fu ai suoi tempi che fu presa la svolta che condusse da Orazio sul ponte a Eraclio nel palazzo; che, se Roma non stava andando immediatamente ai cani, i cani stavano venendo a Roma, e il loro lontano ululato poté udirsi per la prima volta in quell’ora delle aquile levate in alto; che era cominciata una lunga avanzata che era anche un lungo declino, ma che terminò nei Secoli Bui. Roma era tornata al Lupo.
Dico che questa veduta è almeno sostenibile, benché non rappresenti in realtà la mia; ma è sufficientemente ragionevole da rifiutarsi di essere liquidata con la buona disposizione a buon mercato della massima corrente. C’è stata, ci può essere, una cosa come il declino sociale; e l’unica questione è, in un dato momento, se Bisanzio fosse in declino o se la Britannia sia in declino. In altre parole, dobbiamo giudicare ogni simile caso di presunta degenerazione secondo i suoi propri meriti. Non è una risposta dire, ciò che è, naturalmente, perfettamente vero, che alcune persone sono naturalmente inclini a tale pessimismo. Non stiamo giudicando loro, ma la situazione che essi giudicarono o mal giudicarono. Possiamo dire che gli scolari hanno sempre detestato dover andare a scuola. Ma esiste una cosa come una cattiva scuola. Possiamo dire che i contadini brontolano sempre per il tempo. Ma esiste una cosa come un cattivo raccolto. E dobbiamo considerare, come questione dei fatti del caso, e non dei sentimenti del contadino, se il mondo morale dell’Inghilterra moderna sia probabilmente destinato ad avere un cattivo raccolto.
Now the reasons for regarding the present problem of Europe, and especially of England, as most menacing and tragic, are entirely objective reasons; and have nothing to do with this alleged mood of melancholy reaction. The present system, whether we call it capitalism or anything else, especially as it exists in industrial countries, has already become a danger; and is rapidly becoming a death-trap. The evil is evident in the plainest private experience and in the coldest economic science. To take the practical test first, it is not merely alleged by the enemies of the system, but avowed by the defenders of it. In the Labour disputes of our time, it is not the employees but the employers who declare that business is bad. The successful business man is not pleading success; he is pleading bankruptcy. The case for Capitalists is the case against Capitalism. What is even more extraordinary is that its exponent has to fall back on the rhetoric of Socialism. He merely says that miners or railwaymen must go on working “in the interests of the public.” It will be noted that the capitalists now never use the argument of private property. They confine themselves entirely to this sort of sentimental version of general social responsibility. It is amusing to read the capitalist press on Socialists who sentimentally plead for people who are “failures.” It is now the chief argument of almost every capitalist in every strike that he is himself on the brink of failure.
I have one simple objection to this simple argument in the papers about Strikes and the Socialist peril. My objection is that their argument leads straight to Socialism. In itself it cannot possibly lead to anything else. If workmen are to go on working because they are the servants of the public, there cannot be any deduction except that they ought to be the servants of the public authority. If the Government ought to act in the interests of the public, and there is no more to be said, then obviously the Government ought to take over the whole business, and there is nothing else to be done. I do not think the matter is so simple as this; but they do. I do not think this argument for Socialism is conclusive. But according to the Anti-Socialists the argument for Socialism is quite conclusive. The public alone is to be considered, and the Government can do anything it likes so long as it considers the public. Presumably it can disregard the liberty of the employees and force them to work, possibly in chains. Presumably also it can disregard the property of the employers, and pay the proletariat for them, if necessary out of their trouser-pockets. All these consequences follow from the highly Bolshevist doctrine bawled at us every morning in the capitalist press. That is all they have to say; and if it is the only thing to be said, then the other is the only thing to be done.
In the last paragraph it is noted that if we were left to the logic of the leader-writers on the Socialist peril, they could only lead us straight to Socialism. And as some of us most heartily and vigorously refuse to be led to Socialism, we have long adopted the harder alternative called trying to think things out. And we shall certainly land in Socialism or in something worse called Socialism, or else in mere chaos and ruin, if we make no effort to see the situation as a whole apart from our immediate irritations. Now the capitalist system, good or bad, right or wrong, rests upon two ideas: that the rich will always be rich enough to hire the poor; and the poor will always be poor enough to want to be hired. But it also presumes that each side is bargaining with the other, and that neither is thinking primarily of the public. The owner of an omnibus does not run it for the good of all mankind, despite the universal fraternity blazoned in the Latin name of the vehicle. He runs it to make a profit for himself, and the poorer man consents to drive it in order to get wages for himself. Similarly, the omnibus-conductor is not filled with an abstract altruistic desire for the nice conduct of a crowded omnibus instead of a clouded cane. He does not want to conduct omnibuses because conduct is three-fourths of life. He is bargaining for the biggest wage he can get. Now the case for capitalism was that through this private bargain the public did really get served. And so for some time it did. But the only original case for capitalism collapses entirely, if we have to ask either party to go on for the good of the public. If capitalism cannot pay what will tempt men to work, capitalism is on capitalist principles simply bankrupt. If a tea-merchant cannot pay clerks, and cannot import tea without clerks, then his business is bust and there is an end of it. Nobody in the old capitalist conditions said the clerks were bound to work for less, so that a poor old lady might get a cup of tea.
So it is really the capitalist press that proves on capitalist principles that capitalism has come to an end. If it had not, it would not be necessary for them to make the social and sentimental appeals they do make. It would not be necessary for them to appeal for the intervention of the Government like Socialists. It would not have been necessary for them to plead the discomfort of passengers like sentimentalists or altruists. The truth is that everybody has now abandoned the argument on which the whole of the old capitalism was based: the argument that if men were left to bargain individually the public would benefit automatically. We have to find a new basis of some kind; and the ordinary Conservatives are falling back on the Communist basis without knowing it. Now I respectfully decline to fall back on the Communist basis. But I am sure it is perfectly impossible to continue to fall back on the old Capitalist basis. Those who try to do so tie themselves in quite impossible knots. The most practical and pressing affairs of the hour exhibit the contradiction day after day. For instance, when some great strike or lock-out takes place in a big business like that of the mines, we are always assured that no great saving could be achieved by cutting out private profits, because those private profits are now negligible and the trade in question is not now greatly enriching the few. Whatever be the value of this particular argument, it obviously entirely destroys the general argument. The general argument for capitalism or individualism is that men will not adventure unless there are considerable prizes in the lottery. It is what is familiar in all Socialistic debates as the argument of “the incentive of gain.” But if there is no gain, there is certainly no incentive. If royalty-owners and shareholders only get a little insecure or doubtful profit out of profiteering, it seems as if they might as well fall to the lowly estate of soldiers and servants of society. I have never understood, by the way, why Tory debaters are so very anxious to prove against Socialism that “State servants” must be incompetent and inert. Surely it might be left to others to point out the lethargy of Nelson or the dull routine of Gordon.
Ora le ragioni per considerare l’attuale problema dell’Europa, e specialmente dell’Inghilterra, come massimamente minaccioso e tragico, sono ragioni interamente oggettive; e non hanno nulla a che vedere con questo presunto stato d’animo di reazione malinconica. Il sistema presente, sia che lo chiamiamo capitalismo o in qualsiasi altro modo, specialmente come esiste nei paesi industriali, è già divenuto un pericolo; e sta rapidamente divenendo una trappola di morte. Il male è evidente nella più semplice esperienza privata e nella più fredda scienza economica. Per prendere anzitutto la prova pratica, esso non è soltanto affermato dai nemici del sistema, ma confessato dai suoi difensori. Nelle dispute del Lavoro dei nostri tempi, non sono i dipendenti ma i datori di lavoro a dichiarare che gli affari vanno male. L’uomo d’affari di successo non invoca il successo; invoca la bancarotta. La causa dei Capitalisti è la causa contro il Capitalismo. Ciò che è ancor più straordinario è che il suo esponente deve ripiegare sulla retorica del Socialismo. Egli dice soltanto che i minatori o i ferrovieri devono continuare a lavorare «nell’interesse del pubblico». Si noterà che i capitalisti ora non usano mai l’argomento della proprietà privata. Si limitano interamente a questa sorta di versione sentimentale della responsabilità sociale generale. È divertente leggere la stampa capitalista sui Socialisti che sentimentalmente perorano per le persone che sono dei «falliti». È ora l’argomento principale di quasi ogni capitalista in ogni sciopero di essere egli stesso sull’orlo del fallimento.
Ho una semplice obiezione a questo semplice argomento nei giornali sugli Scioperi e sul pericolo Socialista. La mia obiezione è che il loro argomento conduce dritto al Socialismo. In sé non può in alcun modo condurre a nient’altro. Se gli operai devono continuare a lavorare perché sono i servitori del pubblico, non ci può essere altra deduzione se non che essi dovrebbero essere i servitori dell’autorità pubblica. Se il Governo deve agire nell’interesse del pubblico, e non c’è altro da aggiungere, allora ovviamente il Governo dovrebbe assumersi l’intera impresa, e non c’è nient’altro da fare. Io non penso che la faccenda sia così semplice; ma loro sì. Io non penso che questo argomento a favore del Socialismo sia conclusivo. Ma secondo gli Antisocialisti l’argomento a favore del Socialismo è del tutto conclusivo. Il pubblico soltanto dev’essere considerato, e il Governo può fare qualsiasi cosa gli piaccia purché consideri il pubblico. Presumibilmente può ignorare la libertà dei dipendenti e costringerli a lavorare, possibilmente in catene. Presumibilmente può anche ignorare la proprietà dei datori di lavoro, e pagare per loro il proletariato, se necessario di tasca loro. Tutte queste conseguenze discendono dalla dottrina altamente Bolscevica strillataci ogni mattina nella stampa capitalista. È tutto ciò che hanno da dire; e se è la sola cosa da dire, allora l’altra è la sola cosa da fare.
Nell’ultimo paragrafo si è notato che, se fossimo lasciati alla logica degli editorialisti sul pericolo Socialista, essi potrebbero solo condurci dritto al Socialismo. E poiché alcuni di noi assai calorosamente e vigorosamente rifiutano di essere condotti al Socialismo, abbiamo da tempo adottato l’alternativa più ardua chiamata cercare di pensare le cose fino in fondo. E certamente approderemo al Socialismo o a qualcosa di peggiore chiamato Socialismo, o altrimenti al mero caos e alla rovina, se non facciamo alcuno sforzo per vedere la situazione nel suo insieme, a prescindere dalle nostre irritazioni immediate. Ora il sistema capitalista, buono o cattivo, giusto o sbagliato, poggia su due idee: che i ricchi saranno sempre abbastanza ricchi da assumere i poveri; e che i poveri saranno sempre abbastanza poveri da voler essere assunti. Ma esso presume anche che ciascuna parte stia contrattando con l’altra, e che nessuna delle due stia pensando in primo luogo al pubblico. Il proprietario di un omnibus non lo fa correre per il bene di tutta l’umanità, malgrado la fraternità universale ostentata nel nome latino del veicolo. Lo fa correre per ricavarne un profitto per sé, e l’uomo più povero acconsente a guidarlo per ottenere un salario per sé. Similmente, il bigliettaio dell’omnibus non è colmo di un astratto desiderio altruistico per la buona condotta di un omnibus affollato invece che di una canna appannata. Non desidera condurre gli omnibus perché la condotta è tre quarti della vita. Sta contrattando per il salario più grande che possa ottenere. Ora la causa a favore del capitalismo era che, attraverso questa contrattazione privata, il pubblico veniva davvero servito. E così, per qualche tempo, fu. Ma l’unica causa originaria a favore del capitalismo crolla interamente, se dobbiamo chiedere all’una o all’altra parte di continuare per il bene del pubblico. Se il capitalismo non può pagare ciò che tenterà gli uomini a lavorare, il capitalismo è, secondo i principi capitalisti, semplicemente in bancarotta. Se un mercante di tè non può pagare i commessi, e non può importare tè senza commessi, allora i suoi affari sono a pezzi e la cosa finisce lì. Nessuno, nelle vecchie condizioni capitaliste, diceva che i commessi fossero obbligati a lavorare per meno, affinché una povera vecchia signora potesse avere una tazza di tè.
Così è davvero la stampa capitalista che dimostra, secondo i principi capitalisti, che il capitalismo è giunto alla fine. Se così non fosse, non sarebbe necessario per essa fare gli appelli sociali e sentimentali che fa. Non sarebbe necessario per essa appellarsi all’intervento del Governo come i Socialisti. Non sarebbe stato necessario per essa perorare il disagio dei passeggeri come i sentimentali o gli altruisti. La verità è che tutti hanno ormai abbandonato l’argomento su cui si fondava l’intero vecchio capitalismo: l’argomento che, se gli uomini fossero lasciati a contrattare individualmente, il pubblico ne trarrebbe automaticamente beneficio. Dobbiamo trovare un qualche nuovo fondamento; e i comuni Conservatori stanno ripiegando sul fondamento comunista senza saperlo. Ora io rispettosamente rifiuto di ripiegare sul fondamento comunista. Ma sono certo che è perfettamente impossibile continuare a ripiegare sul vecchio fondamento capitalista. Coloro che tentano di farlo si legano in nodi del tutto impossibili. Gli affari più pratici e pressanti dell’ora esibiscono la contraddizione giorno dopo giorno. Per esempio, quando qualche grande sciopero o serrata ha luogo in un grande affare come quello delle miniere, ci viene sempre assicurato che nessun grande risparmio potrebbe essere conseguito tagliando i profitti privati, perché quei profitti privati sono ora trascurabili e il commercio in questione non sta ora grandemente arricchendo i pochi. Qualunque sia il valore di questo particolare argomento, esso ovviamente distrugge interamente l’argomento generale. L’argomento generale a favore del capitalismo o dell’individualismo è che gli uomini non si avventureranno a meno che non ci siano premi considerevoli nella lotteria. È ciò che è familiare in tutti i dibattiti Socialistici come l’argomento dell’«incentivo del guadagno». Ma se non c’è guadagno, non c’è certamente incentivo. Se i proprietari di canoni e gli azionisti ricavano soltanto un piccolo profitto malsicuro o dubbio dal profittare, pare che potrebbero anche bene scendere all’umile stato di soldati e servitori della società. Non ho mai capito, per inciso, perché i disputatori Tory siano tanto ansiosi di dimostrare contro il Socialismo che i «servitori dello Stato» debbano essere incompetenti e inerti. Sicuramente si potrebbe lasciare ad altri il compito di additare la letargia di Nelson o la piatta routine di Gordon.
But this collapse of industrial individualism, which is not only a collapse but a contradiction (since it has to contradict all its own commonest maxims), is not only an accident of our condition, though it is most marked in our country. Anybody who can think in theories, those highly practical things, will see that sooner or later this paralysis in the system is inevitable. Capitalism is a contradiction; it is even a contradiction in terms. It takes a long time to box the compass, and a still longer time to see that it has done so; but the wheel has come full circle now. Capitalism is contradictory as soon as it is complete; because it is dealing with the mass of men in two opposite ways at once. When most men are wage-earners, it is more and more difficult for most men to be customers. For, the capitalist is always trying to cut down what his servant demands, and in doing so is cutting down what his customer can spend. As soon as his business is in any difficulties, as at present in the coal business, he tries to reduce what he has to spend on wages, and in doing so reduces what others have to spend on coal. He is wanting the same man to be rich and poor at the same time. This contradiction in capitalism does not appear in the earlier stages, because there are still populations not reduced to the common proletarian condition. But as soon as the wealthy as a whole are employing the wage-earners as a whole, this contradiction stares them in the face like an ironic doom and judgment. Employer and employee are simplified and solidified to the relation of Robinson Crusoe and Man Friday. Robinson Crusoe may say he has two problems: the supply of cheap labour and the prospect of trade with the natives. But as he is dealing in these two different ways with the same man, he will get into a muddle. Robinson Crusoe may possibly force Friday to work for nothing but his bare keep, the white man possessing all the weapons. As in the Geddes parallel, he may economize with an Axe. But he cannot cut down Friday’s salary to nothing and then expect Friday to give him gold and silver and orient pearls in return for rum and rifles. Now in proportion as capitalism covers the whole earth, links up large populations, and is ruled by centralized systems, the nearer and nearer approaches this resemblance to the lonely figures on the remote island. If the trade with the natives is really going down, so as to necessitate the wages of the natives also going down, we can only say that the case is rather more tragic if the excuse is true than if it is false. We can only say that Crusoe is now indeed alone, and that Friday is unquestionably unlucky.
I think it very important that people should understand that there is a principle at work behind the industrial troubles of England in our time; and that, whoever be right or wrong in any particular quarrel, it is no particular person or party who is responsible for our commercial experiment being faced with failure. It is a vicious circle into which wage-earning society will finally sink when it begins to lose profits and lower wages; and though some industrial countries are still rich enough to remain ignorant of the strain, it is only because their progress is incomplete; when they reach the goal they will find the riddle. In our own country, which concerns most of us most, we are already falling into that vicious circle of sinking wages and decreasing demand. And as I am going to suggest here, in however sketchy a manner, the line of escape from this slowly closing snare, and because I know some of the things that are commonly said about any such suggestion, I have a reason for reminding the reader of all these things at this stage.
“Safe! Of course it’s not safe! It’s a beggarly chance to cheat the gallows.” Such was the intemperate exclamation of Captain Wicks in the romance of Stevenson; and the same romancer has put a somewhat similar piece of candour into the mouth of Alan Breck Stewart. “But mind you, it’s no small thing! ye maun lie bare and hard … and ye shall sleep with your hand upon your weapons. Aye, man, ye shall taigle many a weary foot or we get clear. I tell ye this at the start, for it’s a life that I ken well. But if ye ask what other chance you have, I answer; Nane.”
And I myself am sometimes tempted to talk in this abrupt manner, after listening to long and thoughtful disquisitions throwing doubt on the detailed perfection of a Distributist State, as compared with the rich happiness and final repose that crowns the present Capitalist and Industrial State. People ask us how we should deal with the unskilled labour at the docks, and what we have to offer to replace the radiant popularity of Lord Devonport and the permanent industrial peace of the Port of London. Those who ask us what we shall do with the docks seldom seem to ask themselves what the docks will do with themselves, if our commerce steadily declines like that of so many commercial cities in the past. Other people ask us how we should deal with workmen holding shares in a business that might possibly go bankrupt. It never occurs to them to answer their own question, in a capitalist state in which business after business is going bankrupt. We have got to deal with the smallest and most remote possibilities of our more simple and static society, while they do not deal with the biggest and most blatant facts about their own complex and collapsing one. They are inquisitive about the details of our scheme, and wish to arrange beforehand a science of casuistry for all the exceptions. But they dare not look their own systems in the face, where ruin has become the rule. Other people wish to know whether a machine would be permitted to exist in this or that position in our Utopia; as an exhibit in a museum, or a toy in the nursery, or a “torture implement of the twentieth century” shown in the Chamber of Horrors. But those who ask us so anxiously how men are to work without machines do not tell us how machines are to work if men do not work them, or how either machines or men are to work if there is no work to do. They are so eager to discover the weak points in our proposal that they have not yet discovered any strong points in their own practice. Strange that our vain and sentimental vision should be so vivid to these realists that they can see its every detail; and that their own reality should be so vague to them that they cannot see it at all; that they cannot see the most obvious and overwhelming fact about it: that it is no longer there.
Ma questo crollo dell’individualismo industriale, che non è soltanto un crollo ma una contraddizione (poiché è costretto a contraddire tutte le sue stesse massime più comuni), non è soltanto un accidente della nostra condizione, per quanto sia più marcato nel nostro paese. Chiunque sappia pensare per teorie, quelle cose altamente pratiche, vedrà che presto o tardi questa paralisi del sistema è inevitabile. Il capitalismo è una contraddizione; è persino una contraddizione nei termini. Ci vuole molto tempo per fare il giro completo della bussola, e ancor più tempo per accorgersi di averlo fatto; ma la ruota ha ormai compiuto il giro intero. Il capitalismo è contraddittorio non appena è completo; perché tratta la massa degli uomini in due modi opposti nello stesso tempo. Quando la maggior parte degli uomini sono salariati, diventa sempre più difficile per la maggior parte degli uomini essere clienti. Poiché il capitalista cerca sempre di ridurre ciò che il suo servitore chiede, e così facendo riduce ciò che il suo cliente può spendere. Non appena i suoi affari incontrano qualche difficoltà, come attualmente nel commercio del carbone, egli tenta di ridurre ciò che deve spendere in salari, e così facendo riduce ciò che altri hanno da spendere in carbone. Vuole che lo stesso uomo sia ricco e povero nello stesso tempo. Questa contraddizione del capitalismo non appare negli stadi iniziali, perché vi sono ancora popolazioni non ridotte alla comune condizione proletaria. Ma non appena i ricchi nel loro complesso impiegano i salariati nel loro complesso, questa contraddizione li fissa in faccia come una condanna e un giudizio ironici. Datore di lavoro e lavoratore sono semplificati e solidificati fino al rapporto tra Robinson Crusoe e Venerdì. Robinson Crusoe può dire di avere due problemi: la fornitura di manodopera a buon mercato e la prospettiva di commercio con i nativi. Ma poiché tratta in questi due modi diversi con lo stesso uomo, finirà in un pasticcio. Robinson Crusoe può forse costringere Venerdì a lavorare per nient’altro che il suo puro mantenimento, possedendo l’uomo bianco tutte le armi. Come nel parallelo di Geddes, può economizzare con un’Ascia. Ma non può ridurre a nulla il salario di Venerdì e poi aspettarsi che Venerdì gli dia oro e argento e perle d’oriente in cambio di rum e fucili. Ora, nella misura in cui il capitalismo copre l’intera terra, collega vaste popolazioni ed è governato da sistemi centralizzati, tanto più si avvicina questa somiglianza con le figure solitarie sull’isola remota. Se il commercio con i nativi sta davvero declinando, così da rendere necessario che anche i salari dei nativi declinino, possiamo solo dire che il caso è piuttosto più tragico se la scusa è vera che se è falsa. Possiamo solo dire che Crusoe è ora davvero solo, e che Venerdì è indubbiamente sfortunato.
Ritengo molto importante che la gente comprenda che c’è un principio all’opera dietro i disordini industriali dell’Inghilterra ai nostri tempi; e che, chiunque abbia ragione o torto in una particolare contesa, non è nessuna persona o partito in particolare a essere responsabile del fatto che il nostro esperimento commerciale si trovi di fronte al fallimento. È un circolo vizioso nel quale la società salariata finirà per sprofondare quando comincerà a perdere profitti e ad abbassare i salari; e benché alcuni paesi industriali siano ancora abbastanza ricchi da restare ignari della tensione, ciò avviene solo perché il loro progresso è incompleto; quando raggiungeranno la meta troveranno l’enigma. Nel nostro stesso paese, che riguarda la maggior parte di noi più di ogni altro, stiamo già cadendo in quel circolo vizioso di salari calanti e domanda decrescente. E poiché intendo qui suggerire, per quanto in maniera sommaria, la via di fuga da questo laccio che lentamente si stringe, e poiché conosco alcune delle cose che si dicono comunemente su ogni simile suggerimento, ho una ragione per ricordare al lettore tutte queste cose a questo punto.
«Sicuro! Certo che non è sicuro! È una miserabile possibilità di ingannare la forca.» Tale fu l’intemperante esclamazione del capitano Wicks nel romanzo di Stevenson; e lo stesso romanziere ha messo un pezzo di candore in qualche modo simile in bocca ad Alan Breck Stewart. «Ma bada bene, non è cosa da poco! dovrai giacere nudo e duro… e dovrai dormire con la mano sulle tue armi. Sì, uomo, dovrai arrancare per molti passi stanchi prima che ci si liberi. Te lo dico fin dall’inizio, perché è una vita che conosco bene. Ma se chiedi quale altra possibilità hai, io rispondo: Nessuna.»
E io stesso talvolta sono tentato di parlare in questa maniera brusca, dopo aver ascoltato lunghe e meditate dissertazioni che gettano il dubbio sulla dettagliata perfezione di uno Stato Distributista, in confronto alla ricca felicità e al riposo finale che coronano l’attuale Stato Capitalista e Industriale. La gente ci chiede come dovremmo trattare la manodopera non qualificata dei moli, e che cosa abbiamo da offrire per sostituire la raggiante popolarità di Lord Devonport e la permanente pace industriale del Porto di Londra. Coloro che ci chiedono che cosa faremo dei moli raramente sembrano chiedersi che cosa faranno i moli di se stessi, se il nostro commercio declina costantemente come quello di tante città commerciali del passato. Altri ci chiedono come dovremmo trattare gli operai che detengono azioni in un’impresa che potrebbe forse fallire. Non viene loro in mente di rispondere alla propria domanda, in uno stato capitalista in cui un’impresa dopo l’altra sta fallendo. Noi dobbiamo occuparci delle più piccole e remote possibilità della nostra società più semplice e statica, mentre loro non si occupano dei fatti più grandi e clamorosi riguardo alla propria, complessa e in rovina. Sono curiosi dei dettagli del nostro progetto e desiderano predisporre in anticipo una scienza casistica per tutte le eccezioni. Ma non osano guardare in faccia i propri sistemi, dove la rovina è divenuta la regola. Altri desiderano sapere se a una macchina sarebbe permesso di esistere in questa o quella posizione nella nostra Utopia; come reperto in un museo, o giocattolo nella stanza dei bambini, o «strumento di tortura del ventesimo secolo» esposto nella Camera degli Orrori. Ma coloro che ci chiedono con tanta ansia come gli uomini debbano lavorare senza macchine non ci dicono come le macchine debbano funzionare se gli uomini non le fanno funzionare, o come macchine o uomini debbano funzionare se non c’è lavoro da fare. Sono così ansiosi di scoprire i punti deboli della nostra proposta che non hanno ancora scoperto alcun punto di forza nella propria pratica. Strano che la nostra vana e sentimentale visione sia così vivida per questi realisti da poterne vedere ogni dettaglio; e che la loro stessa realtà sia per loro così vaga da non poterla vedere affatto; da non poter vedere il fatto più ovvio e schiacciante che la riguarda: che essa non è più là.
For it is one of the grim and even grisly jokes of the situation that the very complaint they always make of us is specially and peculiarly true of them. They are always telling us that we think we can bring back the past, or the barbarous simplicity and superstition of the past; apparently under the impression that we want to bring back the ninth century. But they do really think they can bring back the nineteenth century. They are always telling us that this or that tradition has gone for ever, that this or that craft or creed has gone for ever; but they dare not face the fact that their own vulgar and huckstering commerce has gone for ever. They call us reactionaries if we talk of a Revival of Faith or a Revival of Catholicism. But they go on calmly plastering their papers with the headline of a Revival of Trade. What a cry out of the distant past! What a voice from the tomb! They have no reason whatever for believing that there will be a revival of trade, except that their great-grandfathers would have found it impossible to believe in a decline of trade. They have no conceivable ground for supposing that we shall grow richer, except that our ancestors never prepared us for the prospect of growing poorer. Yet it is they who are always blaming us for depending on a sentimental tradition of the wisdom of our ancestors. It is they who are always rejecting social ideals merely because they were the social ideals of some former age. They are always telling us that the mill will never grind again the water that is past; without noticing that their own mills are already idle and grinding nothing at all—like ruined mills in some watery Early Victorian landscape suitable to their watery Early Victorian quotation. They are always telling us that we are fighting against the tide of time, as Mrs. Partington with a mop fought against the tide of the sea. And they cannot even see that time itself has made Mrs. Partington as antiquated a figure as Mother Shipton. They are always telling us that in resisting capitalism and commercialism we are like Canute rebuking the waves; and they do not even know that the England of Cobden is already as dead as the England of Canute. They are always seeking to overwhelm us in the water-floods, to sweep us away upon these weary and washy metaphors of tide and time; for all the world as if they could call back the rivers that have left our cities so far behind, or summon back the seven seas to their allegiance to the trident; or bridle again, with gold for the few and iron for the many, the roaring river of the Clyde.
We may well be tempted to the exclamation of Captain Wicks. We are not choosing between a possible peasantry and a successful commerce. We are choosing between a peasantry that might succeed and a commerce that has already failed. We are not seeking to lure men away from a thriving business to a sort of holiday in Arcadia or the peasant type of Utopia. We are trying to make suggestions about starting anew after a bankrupt business has really gone bankrupt. We can see no possible reason for supposing that English trade will regain its nineteenth-century predominance, except mere Victorian sentimentalism and that particular sort of lying which the newspapers call “optimism.” They taunt us for trying to bring back the conditions of the Middle Ages; as if we were trying to bring back the bows or the body-armour of the Middle Ages. Well, helmets have come back; and body-armour may come back; and bows and arrows will have to come back, a long time before there is any return of that fortunate moment on whose luck they live. It is quite as likely that the long bow will be found through some accident superior to the rifle as that the battleship will be able any longer to rule the waves without reference to the aeroplane. The commercial system implied the security of our commercial routes; and that implied the superiority of our national navy. Everybody who faces facts knows that aviation has altered the whole theory of that naval security. The whole huge horrible problem of a big population on a small island dependent on insecure imports is a problem quite as much for Capitalists and Collectivists as for Distributists. We are not choosing between model villages as part of a serene system of town-planning. We are making a sortie from a besieged city, sword in hand; a sortie from the ruin of Carthage. “Safe! Of course it’s not safe!” said Captain Wicks.
I think it is not unlikely that in any case a simpler social life will return; even if it return by the road of ruin. I think the soul will find simplicity again, if it be in the Dark Ages. But we are Christians and concerned with the body as well as the soul; we are Englishmen and we do not desire, if we can help it, that the English people should be merely the People of the Ruins. And we do most earnestly desire a serious consideration of whether the transition cannot be made in the light of reason and tradition; whether we cannot yet do deliberately and well what nemesis will do wastefully and without pity; whether we cannot build a bridge from these slippery downward slopes to freer and firmer land beyond, without consenting yet that our most noble nation must descend into that valley of humiliation in which nations disappear from history. For this purpose, with great conviction of our principles and with no shame of being open to argument about their application, we have called our companions to council.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
III THE CHANCE OF RECOVERY
Once upon a time, or conceivably even more than once, there was a man who went into a public-house and asked for a glass of beer. I will not mention his name, for various and obvious reasons; it may be libel nowadays to say this about a man; or it may lay him open to police prosecution under the more humane laws of our day. So far as this first recorded action is concerned, his name may have been anything: William Shakespeare or Geoffrey Chaucer or Charles Dickens or Henry Fielding, or any of those common names that crop up everywhere in the populace. The important thing about him is that he asked for a glass of beer. The still more important thing about him is that he drank it; and the most important thing of all is that he spat it out again (I regret to say) and threw the pewter mug at the publican. For the beer was abominably bad.
Poiché è uno degli scherzi tetri e persino macabri della situazione che la stessa accusa che essi ci muovono sempre sia specialmente e particolarmente vera di loro. Ci dicono sempre che noi crediamo di poter riportare il passato, o la barbara semplicità e superstizione del passato; apparentemente con l’impressione che vogliamo riportare il nono secolo. Ma loro credono davvero di poter riportare il diciannovesimo secolo. Ci dicono sempre che questa o quella tradizione se n’è andata per sempre, che questo o quel mestiere o credo se n’è andato per sempre; ma non osano affrontare il fatto che il loro stesso commercio volgare e mercantile se n’è andato per sempre. Ci chiamano reazionari se parliamo di un Ritorno della Fede o di un Ritorno del Cattolicesimo. Ma continuano tranquillamente a tappezzare i loro giornali con il titolo di un Ritorno del Commercio. Che grido dal remoto passato! Che voce dalla tomba! Non hanno alcuna ragione di credere che vi sarà un ritorno del commercio, se non che i loro bisnonni avrebbero trovato impossibile credere a un declino del commercio. Non hanno alcun fondamento concepibile per supporre che diventeremo più ricchi, se non che i nostri antenati non ci prepararono mai alla prospettiva di diventare più poveri. Eppure sono loro che sempre ci biasimano per il nostro dipendere da una sentimentale tradizione della saggezza dei nostri antenati. Sono loro che sempre respingono gli ideali sociali solo perché furono gli ideali sociali di qualche epoca passata. Ci dicono sempre che il mulino non macinerà mai più l’acqua che è passata; senza accorgersi che i loro stessi mulini sono già oziosi e non macinano nulla affatto — come mulini in rovina in qualche acquoso paesaggio del primo periodo vittoriano, adatto alla loro acquosa citazione del primo periodo vittoriano. Ci dicono sempre che stiamo combattendo contro la marea del tempo, come la signora Partington con uno straccio combatté contro la marea del mare. E non riescono nemmeno a vedere che il tempo stesso ha reso la signora Partington una figura tanto antiquata quanto Mother Shipton. Ci dicono sempre che, nel resistere al capitalismo e al commercialismo, siamo come Canuto che rimprovera le onde; e non sanno nemmeno che l’Inghilterra di Cobden è già morta quanto l’Inghilterra di Canuto. Cercano sempre di travolgerci nelle inondazioni d’acqua, di spazzarci via su queste stanche e sciacquate metafore di marea e di tempo; proprio come se potessero richiamare i fiumi che hanno lasciato le nostre città tanto indietro, o riconvocare i sette mari alla loro fedeltà al tridente; o imbrigliare di nuovo, con oro per i pochi e ferro per i molti, il ruggente fiume del Clyde.
Possiamo bene essere tentati dall’esclamazione del capitano Wicks. Non stiamo scegliendo tra un possibile contadinato e un commercio prospero. Stiamo scegliendo tra un contadinato che potrebbe riuscire e un commercio che è già fallito. Non cerchiamo di adescare gli uomini lontano da un’impresa fiorente verso una sorta di vacanza in Arcadia o l’Utopia di tipo contadino. Stiamo cercando di avanzare suggerimenti sul come ricominciare da capo dopo che un’impresa in bancarotta è davvero andata in bancarotta. Non vediamo alcuna possibile ragione per supporre che il commercio inglese riacquisterà la sua preminenza ottocentesca, se non il mero sentimentalismo vittoriano e quella particolare sorta di menzogna che i giornali chiamano «ottimismo». Ci scherniscono per aver tentato di riportare le condizioni del Medioevo; come se cercassimo di riportare gli archi o l’armatura del corpo del Medioevo. Ebbene, gli elmi sono tornati; e l’armatura del corpo potrà tornare; e archi e frecce dovranno tornare, molto tempo prima che vi sia un qualsiasi ritorno di quel fortunato momento della cui fortuna essi vivono. È del tutto probabile che l’arco lungo si riveli, per qualche accidente, superiore al fucile, quanto che la corazzata possa ancora dominare le onde senza riguardo all’aeroplano. Il sistema commerciale implicava la sicurezza delle nostre rotte commerciali; e ciò implicava la superiorità della nostra marina nazionale. Chiunque affronti i fatti sa che l’aviazione ha alterato l’intera teoria di quella sicurezza navale. L’intero enorme orribile problema di una grande popolazione su una piccola isola dipendente da importazioni insicure è un problema tanto per i Capitalisti e i Collettivisti quanto per i Distributisti. Non stiamo scegliendo tra villaggi modello come parte di un sereno sistema di pianificazione urbana. Stiamo compiendo una sortita da una città assediata, con la spada in pugno; una sortita dalla rovina di Cartagine. «Sicuro! Certo che non è sicuro!» disse il capitano Wicks.
Ritengo non improbabile che in ogni caso una vita sociale più semplice ritornerà; anche se ritornasse per la strada della rovina. Ritengo che l’anima ritroverà la semplicità, foss’anche nei Secoli Bui. Ma noi siamo cristiani e ci preoccupiamo del corpo tanto quanto dell’anima; siamo inglesi e non desideriamo, se possiamo evitarlo, che il popolo inglese sia semplicemente il Popolo delle Rovine. E desideriamo con la più fervida serietà una seria considerazione del se la transizione non possa essere compiuta alla luce della ragione e della tradizione; se non possiamo ancora fare deliberatamente e bene ciò che la nemesi farà con spreco e senza pietà; se non possiamo costruire un ponte da questi scivolosi pendii discendenti verso una terra più libera e più salda al di là, senza acconsentire ancora che la nostra nazione più nobile debba discendere in quella valle dell’umiliazione in cui le nazioni scompaiono dalla storia. A questo scopo, con grande convinzione dei nostri principi e senza vergogna di essere aperti alla discussione sulla loro applicazione, abbiamo chiamato a consiglio i nostri compagni.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
III LA POSSIBILITÀ DI RIPRESA
C’era una volta, o forse anche più di una volta, un uomo che entrò in una osteria e chiese un bicchiere di birra. Non farò il suo nome, per varie e ovvie ragioni; potrebbe essere diffamazione, di questi tempi, dire ciò di un uomo; oppure potrebbe esporlo a procedimento poliziesco sotto le più umane leggi dei nostri giorni. Per quanto riguarda questa prima azione registrata, il suo nome può essere stato qualsiasi cosa: William Shakespeare o Geoffrey Chaucer o Charles Dickens o Henry Fielding, o uno qualsiasi di quei nomi comuni che spuntano dovunque tra il popolo. La cosa importante di lui è che chiese un bicchiere di birra. La cosa ancor più importante di lui è che lo bevve; e la cosa più importante di tutte è che lo risputò (mi rincresce dirlo) e scagliò il boccale di peltro contro l’oste. Poiché la birra era abominevolmente cattiva.
True, he had not yet submitted it to any chemical analysis; but, after he had drank a little of it, he felt an inward, a very inward, persuasion that there was something wrong about it. When he had been ill for a week, steadily getting worse all the time, he took some of the beer to the Public Analyst; and that learned man, after boiling it, freezing it, turning it green, blue, and yellow, and so on, told him that it did indeed contain a vast quantity of deadly poison. “To continue drinking it,” said the man of science thoughtfully, “will undoubtedly be a course attended with risks, but life is inseparable from risk. And before you decide to abandon it, you must make up your mind what Substitute you propose to put into your inside, in place of the beverage which at present (more or less) reposes there. If you will bring me a list of your selections in this difficult matter, I will willingly point out the various scientific objections that can be raised to all of them.”
The man went away, and became more and more ill; and indeed he noticed that nobody else seemed to be really well. As he passed the tavern, his eye chanced to fall upon various friends of his writhing in agony on the ground, and indeed not a few of them lying dead and stiff in heaps about the road. To his simple mind this seemed a matter of some concern to the community; so he hurried to a police court and laid before a magistrate a complaint against the inn. “It would indeed appear,” said the Justice of the Peace, “that the house you mention is one in which people are systematically murdered by means of poison. But before you demand so drastic a course as that of pulling it down or even shutting it up, you have to consider a problem of no little difficulty. Have you considered precisely what building you would Put In Its Place, whether a—.” At this point I regret to say that the man gave a loud scream and was forcibly removed from the court announcing that he was going mad. Indeed, this conviction of his mental malady increased with his bodily malady; to such an extent that he consulted a distinguished Doctor of Psychology and Psycho-Analysis, who said to him confidentially, “As a matter of diagnosis, there can be no doubt that you are suffering from Bink’s Aberration; but when we come to treatment I may say frankly that it is very difficult to find anything to take the place of that affliction. Have you considered what is the alternative to madness—?” Whereupon the man sprang up waving his arms and cried, “There is none. There is no alternative to madness. It is inevitable. It is universal. We must make the best of it.”
So making the best of it, he killed the doctor and then went back and killed the magistrate and the public analyst, and is now in an asylum, as happy as the day is long.
In the fable appearing above the case is propounded which is primarily necessary to see at the start of a sketch of social renewal. It concerned a gentleman who was asked what he would substitute for the poison that had been put into his inside, or what constructive scheme he had to put in place of the den of assassins that had poisoned him. A similar demand is made of those of us who regard plutocracy as a poison or the present plutocratic state as something like a den of thieves. In the parable of the poison it is possible that the reader may share some of the impatience of the hero. He will say that nobody would be such a fool as not to get rid of prussic acid or professional criminals, merely because there were differences of opinion about the course of action that would follow getting rid of them. But I would ask the reader to be a little more patient, not only with me but with himself; and ask himself why it is that we act with this promptitude in the case of poison and crime. It is not, even here, really because we are indifferent to the substitute. We should not regard one poison as an antidote to the other poison, if it made the malady worse. We should not set a thief to catch a thief, if it really increased the amount of thieving. The principle upon which we are acting, even if we are acting too quickly to think, or thinking too quickly to define, is nevertheless a principle that we could define. If we merely give a man an emetic after he has taken a poison, it is not because we think he can live on emetics any more than he can live on poisons. It is because we think that after he has first recovered from the poison, and then recovered from the emetic, there will come a time when he himself will think he would like a little ordinary food. That is the starting-point of the whole speculation, so far as we are concerned. If certain impediments are removed, it is not so much a question of what we would do as of what he would do. So if we save the lives of a number of people from the den of poisoners, we do not at that moment ask what they will do with their lives. We assume that they will do something a little more sensible than taking poison. In other words, the very simple first principle upon which all such reforms rest, is that there is some tendency to recovery in every living thing if we remove the pressure of an immediate peril or pain. Now at the beginning of all this rough outline of a social reform, which I propose to trace here, I wish to make clear this general principle of recovery, without which it will be unintelligible. We believe that if things were released they would recover; but we also believe (and this is very important in the practical question) that if things even begin to be released, they will begin to recover. If the man merely leaves off drinking the bad beer, his body will make some effort to recover its ordinary condition. If the man merely escapes from those who are slowly poisoning him, to some extent the very air he breathes will be an antidote to his poison.
È vero, non l’aveva ancora sottoposta ad alcuna analisi chimica; ma, dopo averne bevuto un poco, ebbe una intima, una intimissima persuasione che vi fosse qualcosa di sbagliato in essa. Quando fu stato male per una settimana, peggiorando costantemente per tutto il tempo, portò un po’ della birra all’Analista Pubblico; e quel dotto uomo, dopo averla bollita, congelata, resa verde, blu e gialla, e così via, gli disse che conteneva in effetti una vasta quantità di veleno mortale. «Continuare a berla», disse pensosamente l’uomo di scienza, «sarà indubbiamente un corso attraversato da rischi, ma la vita è inseparabile dal rischio. E prima di decidere di abbandonarla, dovete stabilire quale Sostituto intendete introdurre nel vostro interno, al posto della bevanda che al presente (più o meno) vi riposa. Se mi porterete una lista delle vostre scelte in questa difficile materia, vi indicherò volentieri le varie obiezioni scientifiche che si possono sollevare a tutte quante.»
L’uomo se ne andò, e divenne sempre più malato; e in verità notò che nessun altro sembrava star davvero bene. Mentre passava davanti alla taverna, il suo occhio cadde per caso su vari amici suoi che si contorcevano in agonia sul terreno, e in verità non pochi di loro giacevano morti e rigidi a mucchi lungo la strada. Alla sua mente semplice ciò parve una faccenda di qualche importanza per la comunità; così si affrettò a un tribunale di polizia e depose davanti a un magistrato una denuncia contro la locanda. «Parrebbe in effetti», disse il Giudice di Pace, «che la casa da voi menzionata sia una in cui la gente viene sistematicamente assassinata per mezzo di veleno. Ma prima che esigiate un corso tanto drastico quanto quello di abbatterla o persino di chiuderla, dovete considerare un problema di non poca difficoltà. Avete considerato con precisione quale edificio Mettereste al Suo Posto, se un—.» A questo punto mi rincresce dire che l’uomo emise un forte grido e fu rimosso con la forza dal tribunale, annunciando che stava impazzendo. In verità, questa convinzione della sua malattia mentale crebbe insieme alla sua malattia corporea; a tal punto che consultò un distinto Dottore di Psicologia e Psicoanalisi, il quale gli disse in confidenza: «Come questione di diagnosi, non vi può essere alcun dubbio che voi soffriate dell’Aberrazione di Bink; ma quando veniamo al trattamento posso dire francamente che è molto difficile trovare qualcosa che prenda il posto di quell’afflizione. Avete considerato quale sia l’alternativa alla follia—?» Al che l’uomo balzò in piedi agitando le braccia e gridò: «Non ce n’è. Non c’è alternativa alla follia. È inevitabile. È universale. Dobbiamo trarne il meglio.»
Così, traendone il meglio, uccise il dottore e poi tornò indietro e uccise il magistrato e l’analista pubblico, ed è ora in un manicomio, felice quanto è lungo il giorno.
Nella favola che appare qui sopra è proposto il caso che è primariamente necessario cogliere all’inizio di uno schizzo di rinnovamento sociale. Riguardava un gentiluomo al quale fu chiesto che cosa avrebbe sostituito al veleno che gli era stato messo dentro, o quale schema costruttivo avesse da mettere al posto della tana di assassini che lo aveva avvelenato. Una richiesta simile è rivolta a quelli di noi che considerano la plutocrazia un veleno o l’attuale stato plutocratico come qualcosa di simile a una tana di ladri. Nella parabola del veleno è possibile che il lettore condivida un po’ dell’impazienza dell’eroe. Egli dirà che nessuno sarebbe tanto sciocco da non liberarsi dell’acido prussico o dei criminali di professione, solo perché vi erano divergenze di opinione sul corso d’azione che sarebbe seguito al liberarsene. Ma pregherei il lettore di essere un po’ più paziente, non solo con me ma con se stesso; e di chiedersi perché sia che agiamo con questa prontezza nel caso del veleno e del crimine. Non è, nemmeno qui, davvero perché siamo indifferenti al sostituto. Non considereremmo un veleno come antidoto all’altro veleno, se rendesse peggiore la malattia. Non manderemmo un ladro a catturare un ladro, se ciò aumentasse davvero la quantità di furti. Il principio secondo il quale agiamo, anche se agiamo troppo in fretta per pensare, o pensiamo troppo in fretta per definirlo, è nondimeno un principio che potremmo definire. Se ci limitiamo a dare a un uomo un emetico dopo che ha preso un veleno, non è perché pensiamo che possa vivere di emetici più di quanto possa vivere di veleni. È perché pensiamo che, dopo che si sarà prima ripreso dal veleno, e poi ripreso dall’emetico, verrà un momento in cui egli stesso penserà che gradirebbe un po’ di cibo ordinario. Questo è il punto di partenza dell’intera speculazione, per quanto ci concerne. Se certi impedimenti sono rimossi, non è tanto una questione di che cosa faremmo noi quanto di che cosa farebbe lui. Così, se salviamo le vite di un certo numero di persone dalla tana degli avvelenatori, non chiediamo in quel momento che cosa faranno delle loro vite. Presumiamo che faranno qualcosa di un po’ più sensato che prendere veleno. In altre parole, il primissimo, semplicissimo principio sul quale poggiano tutte queste riforme è che vi è una qualche tendenza alla guarigione in ogni cosa vivente, se rimuoviamo la pressione di un pericolo o di un dolore immediato. Ora, all’inizio di tutto questo rozzo abbozzo di una riforma sociale, che mi propongo di tracciare qui, desidero rendere chiaro questo principio generale della guarigione, senza il quale esso risulterà inintelligibile. Crediamo che se le cose fossero liberate esse guarirebbero; ma crediamo anche (e ciò è molto importante nella questione pratica) che se le cose anche solo cominciano a essere liberate, cominceranno a guarire. Se l’uomo semplicemente smette di bere la birra cattiva, il suo corpo farà qualche sforzo per riprendere la sua condizione ordinaria. Se l’uomo semplicemente sfugge a coloro che lentamente lo avvelenano, in qualche misura la stessa aria che respira sarà un antidoto al suo veleno.
As I hope to explain in the essays that follow, I think the question of the real social reform divides itself into two distinct stages and even ideas. One is arresting a race towards mad monopoly that is already going on, reversing that revolution and returning to something that is more or less normal, but by no means ideal; the other is trying to inspire that more normal society with something that is in a real sense ideal, though not necessarily merely Utopian. But the first thing to be understood is that any relief from the present pressure will probably have more moral effect than most of our critics imagine. Hitherto all the triumphs have been triumphs of plutocratic monopoly; all the defeats have been defeats of private property. I venture to guess that one real defeat of a monopoly would have an instant and incalculable effect, far beyond itself, like the first defeats in the field of a military empire like Prussia parading itself as invincible. As each group or family finds again the real experience of private property, it will become a centre of influence, a mission. What we are dealing with is not a question of a General Election to be counted by a calculating machine. It is a question of a popular movement, that never depends on mere numbers.
That is why we have so often taken, merely as a working model, the matter of a peasantry. The point about a peasantry is that it is not a machine, as practically every ideal social state is a machine; that is, a thing that will work only as it is set down to work in the pattern. You make laws for a Utopia; it is only by keeping those laws that it can be kept a Utopia. You do not make laws for a peasantry. You make a peasantry; and the peasants make the laws. I do not mean, as will be clear enough when I come to more detailed matters, that laws must not be used for the establishment of a peasantry or even for the protection of it. But I mean that the character of a peasantry does not depend on laws. The character of a peasantry depends on peasants. Men have remained side by side for centuries in their separate and fairly equal farms, without many of them losing their land, without any of them buying up the bulk of the land. Yet very often there was no law against their buying up the bulk of the land. Peasants could not buy because peasants would not sell. That is, this form of moderate equality, when once it exists, is not merely a legal formula; it is also a moral and psychological fact. People behave when they find themselves in that position as they do when they find themselves at home. That is, they stay there; or at least they behave normally there. There is nothing in abstract logic to prove that people cannot thus feel at home in a Socialist Utopia. But the Socialists who describe Utopias generally feel themselves in some dim way that people will not; and that is why they have to make their mere laws of economic control so elaborate and so clear. They use their army of officials to move men about like crowds of captives, from old quarters to new quarters, and doubtless to better quarters. But we believe that the slaves that we free will fight for us like soldiers.
In other words, all that I ask in this preliminary note is that the reader should understand that we are trying to make something that will run of itself. A machine will not run of itself. A man will run of himself; even if he runs into a good many things that he would have been wiser to avoid. When freed from certain disadvantages, he can to some extent take over the responsibility. All schemes of collective concentration have in them the character of controlling the man even when he is free; if you will, of controlling him to keep him free. They have the idea that the man will not be poisoned if he has a doctor standing behind his chair at dinner-time, to check the mouthfuls and measure the wine. We have the idea that the man may need a doctor when he is poisoned, but no longer needs him when he is unpoisoned. We do not say, as they possibly do say, that he will always be perfectly happy or perfectly good; because there are other elements in life besides the economic; and even the economic is affected by original sin. We do not say that because he does not need a doctor he does not need a priest or a wife or a friend or a God; or that his relations to these things can be ensured by any social scheme. But we do say that there is something which is much more real and much more reliable than any social scheme; and that is a society. There is such a thing as people finding a social life that suits them and enables them to get on reasonably well with each other. You do not have to wait till you have established that sort of society everywhere. It makes all the difference so soon as you have established it anywhere. So if I am told at the start: “You do not think Socialism or reformed Capitalism will save England; do you really think Distributism will save England?” I answer, “No; I think Englishmen will save England, if they begin to have half a chance.”
I am therefore in this sense hopeful; I believe that the breakdown has been a breakdown of machinery and not of men. And I fully agree, as I have just explained, that leaving work for a man is very different from leaving a plan for a machine. I ask the reader to realize this distinction, at this stage of the description, before I go on to describe more definitely some of the possible directions of reform. I am not at all ashamed of being ready to listen to reason; I am not at all afraid of leaving matters open to adjustment; I am not at all annoyed at the prospect of those who carry out these principles varying in many ways in their programmes. I am much too much in earnest to treat my own programme as a party programme; or to pretend that my private bill must become an Act of Parliament without any amendments. But I have a particular cause, in this particular case, for insisting in this chapter that there is a reasonable chance of escape; and for asking that the reasonable chance should be considered with reasonable cheerfulness. I do not care very much for that sort of American virtue which is now sometimes called optimism. It has too much of the flavour of Christian Science to be a comfortable thing for Christians. But I do feel, in the facts of this particular case, that there is a reason for warning people against a too hasty exhibition of pessimism and the pride of impotence. I do ask everybody to consider, in a free and open fashion, whether something of the sort here indicated cannot be carried out, even if it be carried out differently in detail; for it is a matter of the understanding of men. The position is much too serious for men to be anything but cheerful. And in this connection I would venture to utter a warning.
Come spero di spiegare nei saggi che seguono, ritengo che la questione della vera riforma sociale si divida in due stadi distinti e persino in due idee. Uno è arrestare una corsa verso il folle monopolio che è già in atto, invertendo quella rivoluzione e ritornando a qualcosa che è più o meno normale, ma per nulla ideale; l’altro è cercare di ispirare quella società più normale con qualcosa che è in senso reale ideale, sebbene non necessariamente soltanto utopico. Ma la prima cosa da comprendere è che qualsiasi sollievo dalla presente pressione avrà probabilmente più effetto morale di quanto la maggior parte dei nostri critici immagini. Finora tutti i trionfi sono stati trionfi del monopolio plutocratico; tutte le sconfitte sono state sconfitte della proprietà privata. Mi azzardo a supporre che una sola vera sconfitta di un monopolio avrebbe un effetto istantaneo e incalcolabile, ben al di là di se stessa, come le prime sconfitte sul campo di un impero militare come la Prussia che si pavoneggia come invincibile. Man mano che ogni gruppo o famiglia ritrova la reale esperienza della proprietà privata, essa diventerà un centro di influenza, una missione. Ciò con cui abbiamo a che fare non è una questione di Elezioni Generali da contare con una macchina calcolatrice. È una questione di un movimento popolare, che non dipende mai dai meri numeri.
È per questo che tanto spesso abbiamo preso, semplicemente come modello di lavoro, la questione di un contadinato. Il punto riguardo a un contadinato è che esso non è una macchina, come praticamente ogni stato sociale ideale è una macchina; cioè, una cosa che funzionerà solo così come è disposta a funzionare secondo lo schema. Voi fate leggi per un’Utopia; è solo mantenendo quelle leggi che essa può essere mantenuta un’Utopia. Voi non fate leggi per un contadinato. Voi fate un contadinato; e i contadini fanno le leggi. Non intendo, come sarà abbastanza chiaro quando verrò a questioni più dettagliate, che le leggi non debbano essere usate per la fondazione di un contadinato o persino per la sua protezione. Ma intendo che il carattere di un contadinato non dipende dalle leggi. Il carattere di un contadinato dipende dai contadini. Gli uomini sono rimasti fianco a fianco per secoli nelle loro fattorie separate e abbastanza uguali, senza che molti di loro perdessero la loro terra, senza che alcuno di loro comprasse il grosso della terra. Eppure molto spesso non c’era alcuna legge contro il loro comprare il grosso della terra. I contadini non potevano comprare perché i contadini non volevano vendere. Cioè, questa forma di moderata uguaglianza, una volta che esiste, non è soltanto una formula giuridica; è anche un fatto morale e psicologico. Le persone si comportano, quando si trovano in quella posizione, come fanno quando si trovano a casa. Cioè, restano lì; o almeno si comportano normalmente lì. Non c’è nulla nella logica astratta che provi che le persone non possano così sentirsi a casa in un’Utopia socialista. Ma i socialisti che descrivono le Utopie generalmente sentono, in qualche modo confuso, che le persone non lo faranno; ed è per questo che devono rendere le loro mere leggi di controllo economico così elaborate e così chiare. Usano il loro esercito di funzionari per spostare gli uomini come folle di prigionieri, dai vecchi alloggi ai nuovi alloggi, e senza dubbio verso alloggi migliori. Ma noi crediamo che gli schiavi che libereremo combatteranno per noi come soldati.
In altre parole, tutto ciò che chiedo in questa nota preliminare è che il lettore comprenda che stiamo cercando di fare qualcosa che funzioni da sé. Una macchina non funzionerà da sé. Un uomo funzionerà da sé; anche se incappa in parecchie cose che sarebbe stato più saggio evitare. Quando è liberato da certi svantaggi, egli può in qualche misura assumersi la responsabilità. Tutti gli schemi di concentrazione collettiva hanno in sé il carattere di controllare l’uomo anche quando è libero; se volete, di controllarlo per mantenerlo libero. Hanno l’idea che l’uomo non sarà avvelenato se ha un medico che gli sta dietro la sedia all’ora del pranzo, per controllare i bocconi e misurare il vino. Noi abbiamo l’idea che l’uomo possa aver bisogno di un medico quando è avvelenato, ma non ne abbia più bisogno quando è disavvelenato. Non diciamo, come forse essi dicono, che egli sarà sempre perfettamente felice o perfettamente buono; perché ci sono altri elementi nella vita oltre a quello economico; e persino l’economico è influenzato dal peccato originale. Non diciamo che, poiché non ha bisogno di un medico, non abbia bisogno di un prete o di una moglie o di un amico o di un Dio; o che le sue relazioni con queste cose possano essere assicurate da un qualsiasi schema sociale. Ma diciamo che c’è qualcosa che è molto più reale e molto più affidabile di qualsiasi schema sociale; e cioè una società. C’è una cosa come le persone che trovano una vita sociale che si addice loro e che le rende capaci di andare ragionevolmente d’accordo le une con le altre. Non dovete aspettare finché non avrete stabilito quel tipo di società dappertutto. Fa tutta la differenza non appena l’avrete stabilita in un qualsiasi luogo. Così, se all’inizio mi si dice: «Non ritenete che il Socialismo o il Capitalismo riformato salveranno l’Inghilterra; ritenete davvero che il Distributismo salverà l’Inghilterra?» io rispondo: «No; ritengo che gli inglesi salveranno l’Inghilterra, se cominciano ad avere anche solo mezza opportunità.»
Sono dunque in questo senso pieno di speranza; credo che il tracollo sia stato un tracollo di macchinari e non di uomini. E concordo pienamente, come ho appena spiegato, che lasciare del lavoro a un uomo è molto diverso dal lasciare un piano a una macchina. Chiedo al lettore di rendersi conto di questa distinzione, a questo stadio della descrizione, prima che io proceda a descrivere più definitamente alcune delle possibili direzioni della riforma. Non mi vergogno affatto di essere pronto ad ascoltare la ragione; non ho affatto paura di lasciare le questioni aperte all’aggiustamento; non sono affatto seccato dalla prospettiva che coloro che attuano questi principi varino in molti modi nei loro programmi. Sono fin troppo serio per trattare il mio stesso programma come un programma di partito; o per pretendere che la mia proposta privata debba diventare un Atto del Parlamento senza alcun emendamento. Ma ho una particolare ragione, in questo particolare caso, per insistere in questo capitolo sul fatto che vi è una ragionevole possibilità di scampo; e per chiedere che la ragionevole possibilità sia considerata con ragionevole allegria. Non mi importa granché di quel tipo di virtù americana che ora talvolta si chiama ottimismo. Ha troppo del sapore della Scienza Cristiana per essere una cosa confortevole per i cristiani. Ma sento davvero, nei fatti di questo particolare caso, che vi è una ragione per mettere in guardia le persone contro una troppo affrettata esibizione di pessimismo e l’orgoglio dell’impotenza. Chiedo davvero a tutti di considerare, in modo libero e aperto, se qualcosa del genere qui indicato non possa essere attuato, anche se venisse attuato diversamente nei dettagli; poiché è una questione della comprensione degli uomini. La posizione è fin troppo seria perché gli uomini possano essere altro che allegri. E a questo proposito mi azzarderei a pronunciare un avvertimento.
A man has been led by a foolish guide or a self-confident fellow-traveller to the brink of a precipice, which he might well have fallen over in the dark. It may well be said that there is nothing to be done but to sit down and wait for the light. Still, it might be well to pass the hours of darkness in some discussion about how it will be best for them to make their way backwards to more secure ground; and the recollection of any facts and the formulation of any coherent plan of travel will not be waste of time, especially if there is nothing else to do. But there is one piece of advice which we should be inclined to give to the guide who has misguided the simple stranger— especially if he is a really simple stranger, a man perhaps of rude education and elementary emotions. We should strongly advise him not to beguile the time by proving conclusively that it is impossible to go back, that there is no really secure ground behind, that there is no chance of finding the homeward path again, that the steps recently taken are irrevocable, and that progress must go forward and can never return. If he is a tactful man, in spite of his previous error, he will avoid this tone in conversation. If he is not a tactful man, it is not altogether impossible that before the end of the conversation, somebody will go over the precipice after all; and it will not be the simple stranger.
An army has marched across a wilderness, its column, in the military phrase, in the air; under a confident commander who is certain he will pick up new communications which will be far better than the old ones. When the soldiers are almost worn out with marching, and the rank and file of them have suffered horrible privations from hunger and exposure, they find they have only advanced unsupported into a hostile country; and that the signs of military occupation to be seen on every side are only those of an enemy closing round. The march is suddenly halted and the commander addresses his men. There are a great many things that he may say. Some may hold that he had much better say nothing at all. Many may hold that the less he says the better. Others may urge, very truly, that courage is even more needed for a retreat than for an advance. He may be advised to rouse his disappointed men by threatening the enemy with a more dramatic disappointment; by declaring that they will best him yet; that they will dash out of the net even as it is thrown, and that their escape will be far more victorious than his victory. But anyhow there is one kind of speech which the commander will not make to his men, unless he is much more of a fool than his original blunder proves him. He will not say: “We have now taken up a position which may appear to you very depressing; but I assure you it is nothing to the depression which you will certainly suffer as you make a series of inevitably futile attempts to improve it, or to fall back on what you may foolishly regard as a stronger position. I am very much amused at your absurd suggestions for getting back to our old communications; for I never thought much of your mangy old communications anyhow.” There have been mutinies in the desert before now; and it is possible that the general will not be killed in battle with the enemy.
A great nation and civilization has followed for a hundred years or more a form of progress which held itself independent of certain old communications, in the form of ancient traditions about the land, the hearth, or the altar. It has advanced under leaders who were confident, not to say cocksure. They were quite sure that their economic rules were rigid, that their political theory was right, that their commerce was beneficent, that their parliaments were popular, that their press was enlightened, that their science was humane. In this confidence they committed their people to certain new and enormous experiments; to making their own independent nation an eternal debtor to a few rich men; to piling up private property in heaps on the faith of financiers; to covering their land with iron and stone and stripping it of grass and grain; to driving food out of their own country in the hope of buying it back again from the ends of the earth; to loading up their little island with iron and gold till it was weighted like a sinking ship; to letting the rich grow richer and fewer and the poor poorer and more numerous; to letting the whole world be cloven in two with a war of mere masters and mere servants; to losing every type of moderate prosperity and candid patriotism, till there was no independence without luxury and no labour without ugliness; to leaving the millions of mankind dependent on indirect and distant discipline and indirect and distant sustenance, working themselves to death for they knew not whom and taking the means of life from they knew not where; and all hanging on a thread of alien trade which grew thinner and thinner. To the people who have been brought into this position many things may still be said. It will be right to remind them that mere wild revolt will make things worse and not better. It may be true to say that certain complexities must be tolerated for a time because they correspond to other complexities, and the two must be carefully simplified together. But if I may say one word to the princes and rulers of such a people, who have led them into such a pass, I would say to them as seriously as anything was ever said by man to men: “For God’s sake, for our sake, but, above all, for your own sake, do not be in this blind haste to tell them there is no way out of the trap into which your folly has led them; that there is no road except the road by which you have brought them to ruin; that there is no progress except the progress that has ended here. Do not be so eager to prove to your hapless victims that what is hapless is also hopeless. Do not be so anxious to convince them, now that you are at the end of your experiment, that you are also at the end of your resources. Do not be so very eloquent, so very elaborate, so very rational and radiantly convincing in proving that your own error is even more irrevocable and irremediable than it is. Do not try to minimize the industrial disease by showing it is an incurable disease. Do not brighten the dark problem of the coal-pit by proving it is a bottomless pit. Do not tell the people there is no way but this; for many even now will not endure this. Do not say to men that this alone is possible; for many already think it impossible to bear. And at some later time, at some eleventh hour, when the fates have grown darker and the ends have grown clearer, the mass of men may suddenly understand into what a blind alley your progress has led them. Then they may turn on you in the trap. And if they bore all else, they might not bear the final taunt that you can do nothing; that you will not even try to do anything. ‘What art thou, man, and why art thou despairing?’ wrote the poet. ‘God shall forgive thee all but thy despair.’ Man also may forgive you for blundering and may not forgive you for despairing.”
Un uomo è stato condotto da una guida sciocca o da un compagno di viaggio troppo sicuro di sé sull’orlo di un precipizio, dal quale avrebbe ben potuto cadere nel buio. Si può ben dire che non c’è nulla da fare se non sedersi e aspettare la luce. Tuttavia, potrebbe essere bene passare le ore di oscurità in qualche discussione su come sarà meglio per loro farsi strada all’indietro verso un terreno più sicuro; e il ricordo di qualsiasi fatto e la formulazione di qualsiasi coerente piano di viaggio non saranno uno spreco di tempo, specialmente se non c’è nient’altro da fare. Ma c’è un consiglio che saremmo inclini a dare alla guida che ha sviato il semplice straniero—specialmente se è uno straniero davvero semplice, un uomo forse di rozza educazione ed elementari emozioni. Gli consiglieremmo vivamente di non ingannare il tempo dimostrando in modo conclusivo che è impossibile tornare indietro, che non c’è alcun terreno davvero sicuro alle spalle, che non c’è possibilità di ritrovare il sentiero di casa, che i passi recentemente compiuti sono irrevocabili, e che il progresso deve andare avanti e non può mai tornare. Se è un uomo pieno di tatto, malgrado il suo errore precedente, eviterà questo tono nella conversazione. Se non è un uomo pieno di tatto, non è del tutto impossibile che, prima della fine della conversazione, qualcuno finisca oltre il precipizio dopotutto; e non sarà il semplice straniero.
Un esercito ha marciato attraverso un deserto, la sua colonna, nella frase militare, in aria; sotto un comandante fiducioso che è certo di raccogliere nuove comunicazioni che saranno assai migliori delle vecchie. Quando i soldati sono quasi sfiniti dalla marcia, e la truppa di essi ha sofferto orribili privazioni per la fame e l’esposizione, scoprono di essere avanzati soltanto, privi di sostegno, in un paese ostile; e che i segni di occupazione militare da vedersi da ogni lato sono solo quelli di un nemico che si stringe attorno. La marcia è improvvisamente arrestata e il comandante si rivolge ai suoi uomini. Ci sono moltissime cose che egli può dire. Alcuni possono ritenere che farebbe assai meglio a non dire nulla affatto. Molti possono ritenere che meno dice meglio è. Altri possono sostenere, molto veracemente, che il coraggio è ancor più necessario per una ritirata che per un’avanzata. Gli si può consigliare di ridestare i suoi uomini delusi minacciando il nemico con una delusione più drammatica; dichiarando che lo batteranno ancora; che si slanceranno fuori dalla rete proprio mentre viene gettata, e che la loro fuga sarà assai più vittoriosa della sua vittoria. Ma comunque c’è un genere di discorso che il comandante non farà ai suoi uomini, a meno che non sia assai più sciocco di quanto il suo errore originario lo provi. Non dirà: «Abbiamo ora assunto una posizione che può apparirvi assai deprimente; ma vi assicuro che non è nulla in confronto alla depressione che certamente soffrirete mentre farete una serie di tentativi inevitabilmente futili per migliorarla, o per ripiegare su ciò che potreste scioccamente considerare una posizione più forte. Sono molto divertito dalle vostre assurde proposte di tornare alle nostre vecchie comunicazioni; poiché non ho mai avuto gran stima delle vostre rognose vecchie comunicazioni, comunque.» Ci sono stati ammutinamenti nel deserto prima d’ora; ed è possibile che il generale non venga ucciso in battaglia col nemico.
Una grande nazione e civiltà ha seguito per cento anni o più una forma di progresso che si teneva indipendente da certe vecchie comunicazioni, sotto forma di antiche tradizioni riguardo alla terra, al focolare o all’altare. È avanzata sotto capi che erano fiduciosi, per non dire tracotanti. Erano del tutto sicuri che le loro regole economiche fossero rigide, che la loro teoria politica fosse giusta, che il loro commercio fosse benefico, che i loro parlamenti fossero popolari, che la loro stampa fosse illuminata, che la loro scienza fosse umana. In questa fiducia essi impegnarono il loro popolo in certi nuovi ed enormi esperimenti; nel fare della loro stessa nazione indipendente un eterno debitore verso pochi uomini ricchi; nell’ammucchiare la proprietà privata a cataste sulla fede dei finanzieri; nel coprire la loro terra di ferro e pietra e nello spogliarla d’erba e di grano; nello scacciare il cibo fuori dal loro stesso paese nella speranza di ricomprarlo dai confini della terra; nel caricare la loro piccola isola di ferro e oro finché non fu appesantita come una nave che affonda; nel lasciare che i ricchi si facessero più ricchi e più pochi e i poveri più poveri e più numerosi; nel lasciare che il mondo intero fosse spaccato in due da una guerra di meri padroni e meri servi; nel perdere ogni tipo di moderata prosperità e di candido patriottismo, finché non ci fu indipendenza senza lusso né lavoro senza bruttezza; nel lasciare i milioni dell’umanità dipendenti da una disciplina indiretta e distante e da un sostentamento indiretto e distante, lavorando fino alla morte per non sapevano chi e traendo i mezzi di vita da non sapevano dove; e il tutto appeso a un filo di commercio straniero che si faceva sempre più sottile. Alle persone che sono state condotte in questa posizione molte cose possono ancora essere dette. Sarà giusto ricordare loro che una mera rivolta selvaggia renderà le cose peggiori e non migliori. Può essere vero dire che certe complessità devono essere tollerate per un tempo perché corrispondono ad altre complessità, e le due devono essere accuratamente semplificate insieme. Ma se posso dire una parola ai principi e ai governanti di un simile popolo, che lo hanno condotto in un tale frangente, direi loro con tutta la serietà con cui mai cosa alcuna fu detta da uomo a uomini: «Per amor di Dio, per amor nostro, ma, soprattutto, per amor vostro, non abbiate questa cieca fretta di dir loro che non c’è via d’uscita dalla trappola in cui la vostra follia li ha condotti; che non c’è altra strada se non la strada per cui li avete portati alla rovina; che non c’è progresso se non il progresso che è finito qui. Non siate così ansiosi di provare alle vostre sventurate vittime che ciò che è sventurato è anche senza speranza. Non siate così ansiosi di convincerle, ora che siete alla fine del vostro esperimento, che siete anche alla fine delle vostre risorse. Non siate così eloquenti, così elaborati, così razionali e radiosamente convincenti nel provare che il vostro stesso errore è ancor più irrevocabile e irrimediabile di quanto sia. Non cercate di minimizzare la malattia industriale mostrando che è una malattia incurabile. Non rischiarate il buio problema della miniera di carbone provando che è un pozzo senza fondo. Non dite alla gente che non c’è altra via che questa; poiché molti anche ora non sopporteranno questa. Non dite agli uomini che questa soltanto è possibile; poiché molti già ritengono impossibile sopportarla. E in un momento più tardi, in qualche undicesima ora, quando i fati si saranno fatti più oscuri e i fini si saranno fatti più chiari, la massa degli uomini potrà improvvisamente comprendere in quale vicolo cieco il vostro progresso li ha condotti. Allora potranno rivoltarsi contro di voi nella trappola. E se sopportassero tutto il resto, potrebbero non sopportare lo scherno finale che voi non potete far nulla; che non volete nemmeno provare a far nulla. “Che sei tu, uomo, e perché ti disperi?” scrisse il poeta. “Dio ti perdonerà ogni cosa fuorché la tua disperazione.” Anche l’uomo può perdonarvi per aver commesso errori e può non perdonarvi per esservi disperati.»
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
IV ON A SENSE OF PROPORTION
Those of us who study the papers and the parliamentary speeches with proper attention must have by this time a fairly precise idea of the nature of the evil of Socialism. It is a remote Utopian dream impossible of fulfilment and also an overwhelming practical danger that threatens us at every moment. It is only a thing that is as distant as the end of the world and as near as the end of the street. All that is clear enough; but the aspect of it that arrests me at this moment is more especially the Utopian aspect. A person who used to write in the Daily Mail paid some attention to this aspect; and represented this social ideal, or indeed almost any other social ideal, as a sort of paradise of poltroons. He suggested that “weaklings” wished to be protected from the strain and stress of our vigorous individualism, and so cried out for this paternal government or grand-motherly legislation. And it was while I was reading his remarks, with a deep and never-failing enjoyment, that the image of the Individualist rose before me; of the sort of man who probably writes such remarks and certainly reads them.
The reader refolds the Daily Mail and rises from his intensely individualistic breakfast-table, where he has just dispatched his bold and adventurous breakfast; the bacon cut in rashers from the wild boar which but lately turned to bay in his back garden; the eggs perilously snatched from swaying nest and flapping bird at the top of those toppling trees which gave the house its appropriate name of Pine Crest. He puts on his curious and creative hat, built on some bold plan entirely made up out of his own curious and creative head. He walks outside his unique and unparalleled house, also built with his own well-won wealth according to his own well-conceived architectural design, and seeming by its very outline against the sky to express his own passionate personality. He strides down the street, making his own way over hill and dale towards the place of his own chosen and favourite labour, the workshop of his imaginative craft. He lingers on the way, now to pluck a flower, now to compose a poem, for his time is his own; he is an individual and a free man and not as these Communists. He can work at his own craft when he will, and labour far into the night to make up for an idle morning. Such is the life of the clerk in a world of private enterprise and practical individualism; such the manner of his free passage from his home. He continues to stride lightly along, until he sees afar off the picturesque and striking tower of that workshop in which he will, as with the creative strokes of a god …
He sees it, I say, afar off. The expression is not wholly accidental. For that is exactly the defect in all that sort of journalistic philosophy of individualism and enterprise; that those things are at present even more remote and improbable than communal visions. It is not the dreadful Bolshevist republic that is afar off. It is not the Socialistic State that is Utopian. In that sense, it is not even Utopia that is Utopian. The Socialist State may in one sense be very truly described as terribly and menacingly near. The Socialist State is exceedingly like the Capitalist State, in which the clerk reads and the journalist writes. Utopia is exactly like the present state of affairs, only worse.
It would make no difference to the clerk if his job became a part of a Government department to-morrow. He would be equally civilized and equally uncivic if the distant and shadowy person at the head of the department were a Government official. Indeed, it does make very little difference to him now, whether he or his sons and daughters are employed at the Post Office on bold and revolutionary Socialistic principles or employed at the Stores on wild and adventurous Individualist principles. I never heard of anything resembling civil war between the daughter at the Stores and the daughter in the Post Office. I doubt whether the young lady at the Post Office is so imbued with Bolshevist principles that she would think it a part of the Higher Morality to expropriate something without payment off the counter of the Stores. I doubt whether the young lady at the Stores shudders when she passes a red pillar box, seeing in it an outpost of the Red Peril.
What is really a long way off is this individuality and liberty the Daily Mail praised. It is the tower that a man has built for himself that is seen in the distance. It is Private Enterprise that is Utopian, in the sense of something as distant as Utopia. It is Private Property that is for us an ideal and for our critics an impossibility. It is that which can really be discussed almost exactly as the writer in the Daily Mail discusses Collectivism. It is that which some people consider a goal and some people a mirage. It is that which its friends maintain to be the final satisfaction of modern hopes and hungers, and its enemies maintain to be a contradiction to common sense and common human possibilities. All the controversialists who have become conscious of the real issue are already saying of our ideal exactly what used to be said of the Socialists’ ideal. They are saying that private property is too ideal not to be impossible. They are saying that private enterprise is too good to be true. They are saying that the idea of ordinary men owning ordinary possessions is against the laws of political economy and requires an alteration in human nature. They are saying that all practical business men know that the thing would never work, exactly as the same obliging people are always prepared to know that State management would never work. For they hold the simple and touching faith that no management except their own could ever work. They call this the law of nature; and they call anybody who ventures to doubt it a weakling. But the point to see is that, although the normal solution of private property for all is even now not very widely realized, in so far as it is realized by the rulers of the modern market (and therefore of the modern world) it is to this normal notion of property that they apply the same criticism as they applied to the abnormal notion of Communism. They say it is Utopian; and they are right. They say it is idealistic; and they are right. They say it is quixotic; and they are right. It deserves every name that will indicate how completely they have driven justice out of the world; every name that will measure how remote from them and their sort is the standard of honourable living; every name that will emphasize and repeat the fact that property and liberty are sundered from them and theirs, by an abyss between heaven and hell.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
IV SUL SENSO DELLA PROPORZIONE
Coloro tra noi che studiano i giornali e i discorsi parlamentari con la dovuta attenzione devono ormai avere, a questo punto, un’idea abbastanza precisa della natura del male del Socialismo. È un remoto sogno utopico, impossibile a compiersi, e insieme un travolgente pericolo pratico che ci minaccia a ogni istante. È soltanto una cosa lontana come la fine del mondo e vicina come la fine della strada. Tutto questo è abbastanza chiaro; ma l’aspetto che in questo momento mi ferma è più specialmente l’aspetto utopico. Una persona che soleva scrivere sul Daily Mail prestò una certa attenzione a questo aspetto; e rappresentò tale ideale sociale, o anzi quasi ogni altro ideale sociale, come una sorta di paradiso di poltroni. Suggerì che i «deboli» desiderassero essere protetti dalla tensione e dallo sforzo del nostro vigoroso individualismo, e perciò invocassero questo governo paterno, questa legislazione da nonna. E fu mentre leggevo le sue osservazioni, con un piacere profondo e mai venuto meno, che l’immagine dell’Individualista mi sorse dinanzi; di quel genere d’uomo che probabilmente scrive simili osservazioni e certamente le legge.
Il lettore ripiega il Daily Mail e si leva dalla sua tavola da colazione intensamente individualistica, dove ha appena spedito la sua ardita e avventurosa colazione; il lardo tagliato a fette dal cinghiale selvatico che di recente si è voltato a far fronte nel giardino di casa; le uova strappate rischiosamente dal nido oscillante e dall’uccello sbattente in cima a quegli alberi vacillanti che diedero alla casa il nome appropriato di Pine Crest. Si mette il suo cappello curioso e creativo, foggiato su qualche ardito disegno interamente concepito dalla sua curiosa e creativa testa. Cammina fuori dalla sua unica e ineguagliata casa, anch’essa costruita con la sua ricchezza ben guadagnata secondo il suo ben concepito disegno architettonico, e che pare, dal suo stesso profilo contro il cielo, esprimere la sua appassionata personalità. Percorre a grandi passi la strada, aprendosi la propria via per colle e valle verso il luogo del lavoro da lui prescelto e prediletto, l’officina della sua arte immaginosa. Indugia lungo il cammino, ora a cogliere un fiore, ora a comporre una poesia, poiché il suo tempo è suo; egli è un individuo e un uomo libero e non come questi Comunisti. Può lavorare alla sua arte quando vuole, e faticare fin nel cuore della notte per compensare un mattino ozioso. Tale è la vita dell’impiegato in un mondo di libera impresa e di pratico individualismo; tale è il modo del suo libero transito dalla propria dimora. Continua a incedere lieve, finché non scorge da lontano la pittoresca e imponente torre di quell’officina in cui, come con i colpi creativi di un dio …
La scorge, dico, da lontano. L’espressione non è del tutto casuale. Poiché è esattamente questo il difetto di tutta quella sorta di filosofia giornalistica dell’individualismo e dell’impresa; che quelle cose sono attualmente ancora più remote e improbabili delle visioni comuniste. Non è la spaventosa repubblica bolscevica a essere lontana. Non è lo Stato socialista a essere utopico. In quel senso, non è nemmeno Utopia a essere utopica. Lo Stato socialista può in un certo senso essere descritto assai veracemente come terribilmente e minacciosamente vicino. Lo Stato socialista è straordinariamente simile allo Stato capitalista, in cui l’impiegato legge e il giornalista scrive. Utopia è esattamente uguale all’attuale stato di cose, solo peggiore.
Non farebbe alcuna differenza per l’impiegato se il suo impiego divenisse domani parte di un dipartimento governativo. Sarebbe ugualmente civilizzato e ugualmente incivico se la persona lontana e ombrosa a capo del dipartimento fosse un funzionario governativo. Anzi, ben poca differenza fa già ora, che egli o i suoi figli e figlie siano impiegati all’Ufficio Postale su arditi e rivoluzionari principi socialistici, o impiegati ai Magazzini su selvaggi e avventurosi principi individualisti. Non ho mai sentito parlare di alcunché di simile a una guerra civile tra la figlia ai Magazzini e la figlia all’Ufficio Postale. Dubito che la signorina all’Ufficio Postale sia tanto imbevuta di principi bolscevichi da ritenere parte della Morale Superiore l’espropriare qualcosa senza pagamento dal bancone dei Magazzini. Dubito che la signorina ai Magazzini rabbrividisca quando passa davanti a una rossa cassetta postale, scorgendovi un avamposto del Pericolo Rosso.
Ciò che è davvero assai lontano è questa individualità e libertà che il Daily Mail lodava. È la torre che un uomo si è costruito da sé quella che si vede in lontananza. È la Libera Impresa a essere utopica, nel senso di qualcosa di lontano come Utopia. È la Proprietà Privata a essere per noi un ideale e per i nostri critici un’impossibilità. È ciò che si può davvero discutere quasi esattamente come lo scrittore del Daily Mail discute il Collettivismo. È ciò che alcuni considerano una meta e altri un miraggio. È ciò che i suoi amici sostengono essere la definitiva soddisfazione delle speranze e delle fami moderne, e i suoi nemici sostengono essere una contraddizione al senso comune e alle comuni possibilità umane. Tutti i controversisti che sono divenuti consapevoli della vera questione stanno già dicendo del nostro ideale esattamente ciò che si soleva dire dell’ideale dei Socialisti. Dicono che la proprietà privata è troppo ideale per non essere impossibile. Dicono che la libera impresa è troppo bella per essere vera. Dicono che l’idea che uomini comuni possiedano beni comuni è contraria alle leggi dell’economia politica e richiede una modificazione della natura umana. Dicono che tutti gli uomini d’affari pratici sanno che la cosa non funzionerebbe mai, esattamente come le medesime servizievoli persone sono sempre pronte a sapere che la gestione statale non funzionerebbe mai. Poiché nutrono la semplice e commovente fede che nessuna gestione tranne la loro potrebbe mai funzionare. Chiamano ciò la legge di natura; e chiamano debole chiunque osi dubitarne. Ma il punto da vedere è che, sebbene la soluzione normale della proprietà privata per tutti non sia neppure ora molto largamente compresa, nella misura in cui è compresa dai dominatori del mercato moderno (e perciò del mondo moderno) è a questa normale nozione di proprietà che essi applicano la stessa critica che applicavano all’anormale nozione di Comunismo. Dicono che è utopica; e hanno ragione. Dicono che è idealistica; e hanno ragione. Dicono che è donchisciottesca; e hanno ragione. Merita ogni nome che indichi quanto completamente essi abbiano scacciato la giustizia dal mondo; ogni nome che misuri quanto remoto sia da loro e dalla loro specie lo standard di una vita onorevole; ogni nome che sottolinei e ripeta il fatto che la proprietà e la libertà sono separate da loro e dai loro, da un abisso pari a quello tra cielo e inferno.
That is the real issue to be fought out with our serious critics; and I have written here a series of articles dealing more directly with it. It is the question of whether this ideal can be anything but an ideal; not the question of whether it is to be confounded with the present contemptible reality. It is simply the question of whether this good thing is really too good to be true. For the present I will merely say that if the pessimists are convinced of their pessimism, if the sceptics really hold that our social ideal is now banished for ever by mechanical difficulties or materialistic fate, they have at least reached a remarkable and curious conclusion. It is hardly stranger to say that man will have henceforth to be separated from his arms and legs, owing to the improved pattern of wheels, than to say that he must for ever say farewell to two supports so natural as the sense of choosing for himself and of owning something of his own. These critics, whether they figure as critics of Socialism or Distributism, are very fond of talking about extravagant stretches of the imagination or impossible strains upon human nature. I confess I have to stretch and strain my own human imagination and human nature very far, to conceive anything so crooked and uncanny as the human race ending with a complete forgetfulness of the possessive pronoun.
Nevertheless, as we say, it is with these critics we are in controversy. Distribution may be a dream; three acres and a cow may be a joke; cows may be fabulous animals; liberty may be a name; private enterprise may be a wild goose chase on which the world can go no further. But as for the people who talk as if property and private enterprise were the principles now in operation—those people are so blind and deaf and dead to all the realities of their own daily existence, that they can be dismissed from the debate.
In this sense, therefore, we are indeed Utopian; in the sense that our task is possibly more distant and certainly more difficult. We are more revolutionary in the sense that a revolution means a reversal: a reversal of direction, even if it were accompanied with a restraint upon pace. The world we want is much more different from the existing world than the existing world is different from the world of Socialism. Indeed, as has been already noted, there is not much difference between the present world and Socialism; except that we have left out the less important and more ornamental notions of Socialism, such additional fancies as justice, citizenship, the abolition of hunger, and so on. We have already accepted anything that anybody of intelligence ever disliked in Socialism. We have everything that critics used to complain of in the desolate utility and unity of Looking Backward. In so far as the world of Wells or Webb was criticized as a centralized, impersonal, and monotonous civilization, that is an exact description of existing civilization. Nothing has been left out but some idle fancies about feeding the poor or giving rights to the populace. In every other way the unification and regimentation is already complete. Utopia has done its worst. Capitalism has done all that Socialism threatened to do. The clerk has exactly the sort of passive functions and permissive pleasures that he would have in the most monstrous model village. I do not sneer at him; he has many intelligent tastes and domestic virtues in spite of the civilization he enjoys. They are exactly the tastes and virtues he could have as a tenant and servant of the State. But from the moment he wakes up to the moment he goes to sleep again, his life is run in grooves made for him by other people, and often other people he will never even know. He lives in a house that he does not own, that he did not make, that he does not want. He moves everywhere in ruts; he always goes up to his work on rails. He has forgotten what his fathers, the hunters and the pilgrims and the wandering minstrels, meant by finding their way to a place. He thinks in terms of wages; that is, he has forgotten the real meaning of wealth. His highest ambition is concerned with getting this or that subordinate post in a business that is already a bureaucracy. There is a certain amount of competition for that post inside that business; but so there would be inside any bureaucracy. This is a point that the apologists of monopoly often miss. They sometimes plead that even in such a system there may still be a competition among servants; presumably a competition in servility. But so there might be after Nationalization, when they were all Government servants. The whole objection to State Socialism vanishes, if that is an answer to the objection. If every shop were as thoroughly nationalized as a police station, it would not prevent the pleasing virtues of jealousy, intrigue, and selfish ambition from blooming and blossoming among them, as they sometimes do even among policemen.
Anyhow, that world exists; and to challenge that world may be called Utopian; to change that world may be called insanely Utopian. In that sense the name may be applied to me and those who agree with me, and we shall not quarrel with it. But in another sense the name is highly misleading and particularly inappropriate. The word “Utopia” implies not only difficulty of attainment but also other qualities attached to it in such examples as the Utopia of Mr. Wells. And it is essential to explain at once why they do not attach to our Utopia—if it is a Utopia.
There is such a thing as what we should call ideal Distributism; though we should not, in this vale of tears, expect Distributism to be ideal. In the same sense there certainly is such a thing as ideal Communism. But there is no such thing as ideal Capitalism; and there is no such thing as a Capitalist ideal. As we have already noticed (though it has not been noticed often enough), whenever the capitalist does become an idealist, and specially when he does become a sentimentalist, he always talks like a Socialist. He always talks about “social service” and our common interests in the whole community. From this it follows that in so far as such a man is likely to have such a thing as a Utopia, it will be more or less in the style of a Socialist Utopia. The successful financier can put up with an imperfect world, whether or no he has the Christian humility to recognize himself as one of its imperfections. But if he is called upon to conceive a perfect world, it will be something in the way of the pattern state of the Fabians or the I.L.P. He will look for something systematized, something simplified, something all on the same plan. And he will not get it; at least he will not get it from me. It is exactly from that simplification and sameness that I pray to be saved, and should be proud if I could save anybody. It is exactly from that order and unity that I call on the name of Liberty to deliver us.
Questa è la vera questione da combattere con i nostri critici seri; e ho scritto qui una serie di articoli che la trattano più direttamente. È la questione se questo ideale possa essere qualcosa di diverso da un ideale; non la questione se debba essere confuso con l’attuale realtà spregevole. È semplicemente la questione se questa cosa buona sia davvero troppo buona per essere vera. Per ora dirò soltanto che se i pessimisti sono convinti del loro pessimismo, se gli scettici davvero ritengono che il nostro ideale sociale sia ormai bandito per sempre da difficoltà meccaniche o dal fato materialistico, essi hanno per lo meno raggiunto una conclusione notevole e curiosa. Non è granché più strano dire che l’uomo dovrà d’ora in poi essere separato dalle sue braccia e dalle sue gambe, in virtù del modello migliorato delle ruote, che dire che egli deve per sempre dire addio a due sostegni tanto naturali quanto il senso di scegliere per sé e di possedere qualcosa di proprio. Questi critici, sia che si presentino come critici del Socialismo o del Distributismo, sono assai inclini a parlare di stiramenti stravaganti dell’immaginazione o di impossibili sforzi sulla natura umana. Confesso di dover stirare e sforzare la mia stessa immaginazione e natura umana assai lontano, per concepire qualcosa di tanto storto e perturbante quanto la razza umana che finisce con una completa dimenticanza del pronome possessivo.
Nondimeno, come diciamo, è con questi critici che siamo in polemica. La distribuzione può essere un sogno; tre acri e una vacca possono essere uno scherzo; le vacche possono essere animali favolosi; la libertà può essere un nome; la libera impresa può essere una caccia all’oca selvatica in cui il mondo non può andare oltre. Ma quanto alla gente che parla come se la proprietà e la libera impresa fossero i principi ora in vigore — quella gente è tanto cieca e sorda e morta a tutte le realtà della propria esistenza quotidiana, che può essere congedata dal dibattito.
In questo senso, dunque, siamo davvero utopici; nel senso che il nostro compito è forse più lontano e certamente più difficile. Siamo più rivoluzionari nel senso che una rivoluzione significa un rovesciamento: un rovesciamento di direzione, anche se fosse accompagnato da un freno all’andatura. Il mondo che vogliamo è assai più diverso dal mondo esistente di quanto il mondo esistente sia diverso dal mondo del Socialismo. Anzi, come si è già notato, non c’è molta differenza tra il mondo presente e il Socialismo; se non che abbiamo tralasciato le nozioni meno importanti e più ornamentali del Socialismo, quelle fantasie aggiuntive come la giustizia, la cittadinanza, l’abolizione della fame, e così via. Abbiamo già accettato tutto ciò che qualsiasi persona d’intelligenza abbia mai detestato del Socialismo. Abbiamo tutto ciò di cui i critici solevano lamentarsi nella desolata utilità e unità di Looking Backward. Nella misura in cui il mondo di Wells o di Webb era criticato come una civiltà centralizzata, impersonale e monotona, ciò è una descrizione esatta della civiltà esistente. Nulla è stato tralasciato tranne qualche oziosa fantasia sul nutrire i poveri o sul dare diritti alla popolazione. In ogni altro modo l’unificazione e l’irreggimentazione sono già complete. Utopia ha fatto il suo peggio. Il Capitalismo ha fatto tutto ciò che il Socialismo minacciava di fare. L’impiegato ha esattamente quel genere di funzioni passive e di piaceri permessi che avrebbe nel più mostruoso villaggio modello. Non lo derido; ha molti gusti intelligenti e virtù domestiche a dispetto della civiltà di cui gode. Sono esattamente i gusti e le virtù che potrebbe avere come inquilino e servo dello Stato. Ma dal momento in cui si sveglia al momento in cui torna a dormire, la sua vita scorre in solchi tracciati per lui da altre persone, e spesso da persone che non conoscerà mai neppure. Vive in una casa che non possiede, che non ha fatto, che non desidera. Si muove ovunque in carreggiate; sale sempre al lavoro su rotaie. Ha dimenticato ciò che i suoi padri, i cacciatori e i pellegrini e i menestrelli erranti, intendevano per il trovare la via verso un luogo. Pensa in termini di salari; cioè, ha dimenticato il vero significato della ricchezza. La sua più alta ambizione riguarda l’ottenere questo o quel posto subordinato in un’impresa che è già una burocrazia. C’è una certa quantità di competizione per quel posto all’interno di quell’impresa; ma altrettanto ve ne sarebbe dentro qualsiasi burocrazia. Questo è un punto che gli apologeti del monopolio spesso mancano. Talvolta adducono che perfino in un tal sistema può ancora esservi una competizione tra i servi; presumibilmente una competizione nella servilità. Ma altrettanto ve ne potrebbe essere dopo la Nazionalizzazione, quando fossero tutti servi dello Stato. L’intera obiezione al Socialismo di Stato svanisce, se questa è una risposta all’obiezione. Se ogni bottega fosse tanto accuratamente nazionalizzata quanto un posto di polizia, ciò non impedirebbe alle amabili virtù della gelosia, dell’intrigo e dell’ambizione egoistica di sbocciare e fiorire tra loro, come talora fanno perfino tra i poliziotti.
Comunque, quel mondo esiste; e sfidare quel mondo può essere detto utopico; cambiare quel mondo può essere detto pazzamente utopico. In quel senso il nome può essere applicato a me e a quelli che concordano con me, e non ci metteremo a litigare per esso. Ma in un altro senso il nome è altamente fuorviante e particolarmente inappropriato. La parola «Utopia» implica non solo la difficoltà del conseguimento, ma anche altre qualità ad essa attribuite in esempi come l’Utopia del signor Wells. Ed è essenziale spiegare subito perché esse non si attribuiscano alla nostra Utopia — se è un’Utopia.
Esiste una cosa che dovremmo chiamare Distributismo ideale; benché non dovremmo, in questa valle di lacrime, aspettarci che il Distributismo sia ideale. Nello stesso senso esiste certamente una cosa come il Comunismo ideale. Ma non esiste una cosa come il Capitalismo ideale; e non esiste una cosa come un ideale capitalista. Come abbiamo già notato (benché non lo si sia notato abbastanza spesso), ogni volta che il capitalista diventa idealista, e specialmente quando diventa sentimentale, egli parla sempre come un Socialista. Parla sempre di «servizio sociale» e dei nostri comuni interessi nell’intera comunità. Da ciò segue che, nella misura in cui un tal uomo è probabile che abbia una cosa come un’Utopia, essa sarà più o meno nello stile di un’Utopia socialista. Il finanziere di successo può sopportare un mondo imperfetto, che abbia o no l’umiltà cristiana di riconoscere sé stesso come una delle sue imperfezioni. Ma se è chiamato a concepire un mondo perfetto, sarà qualcosa sul modello dello stato-tipo dei Fabiani o dell’I.L.P. Cercherà qualcosa di sistematizzato, qualcosa di semplificato, qualcosa tutto sullo stesso piano. E non l’otterrà; per lo meno non l’otterrà da me. È esattamente da quella semplificazione e uniformità che prego di essere salvato, e sarei fiero se potessi salvarne qualcun altro. È esattamente da quell’ordine e quell’unità che invoco il nome della Libertà perché ci liberi.
We do not offer perfection; what we offer is proportion. We wish to correct the proportions of the modern state; but proportion is between varied things; and a proportion is hardly ever a pattern. It is as if we were drawing the picture of a living man and they thought we were drawing a diagram of wheels and rods for the construction of a Robot. We do not propose that in a healthy society all land should be held in the same way; or that all property should be owned on the same conditions; or that all citizens should have the same relation to the city. It is our whole point that the central power needs lesser powers to balance and check it, and that these must be of many kinds: some individual, some communal, some official, and so on. Some of them will probably abuse their privilege; but we prefer the risk to that of the State or of the Trust, which abuses its omnipotence.
For instance, I am sometimes blamed for not believing in my own age, or blamed still more for believing in my own religion. I am called medieval; and some have even traced in me a bias in favour of the Catholic Church to which I belong. But suppose we were to take a parallel from these things. If anyone said that medieval kings or modern peasant countries were to blame for tolerating patches of avowed Bolshevism, we should be rather surprised if we found that the remark really referred to their tolerating monasteries. Yet it is quite true in one sense that monasteries are devoted to Communism and that monks are all Communists. Their economic and ethical life is an exception to a general civilization of feudalism or family life. Yet their privileged position was regarded as rather a prop of social order. They give to certain communal ideas their proper and proportionate place in the State; and something of the same thing was true of the Common Land. We should welcome the chance of allowing any guilds or groups of a communal colour their proper and proportionate place in the State; we should be perfectly willing to mark off some part of the land as Common Land. What we say is that merely nationalizing all the land is like merely making monks of all the people; it is giving those ideals more than their proper and proportionate place in the State. The ordinary meaning of Communism is not that some people are Communists, but that all people are Communists. But we should not say, in the same hard and literal sense, that the meaning of Distributism is that all people are Distributists. We certainly should not say that the meaning of a peasant state is that all people are peasants. We should mean that it had the general character of a peasant state; that the land was largely held in that fashion and the law generally directed in that spirit; that any other institutions stood up as recognizable exceptions, as landmarks on that high tableland of equality.
If this is inconsistent, nothing is consistent; if this is unpractical, all human life in unpractical. If a man wants what he calls a flower-garden he plants flowers where he can, and especially where they will determine the general character of the landscape gardening. But they do not completely cover the garden; they only positively colour it. He does not expect roses to grow in the chimney-pots, or daisies to climb up the railings; still less does he expect tulips to grow on the pine, or the monkey tree to blossom like a rhododendron. But he knows perfectly well what he means by a flower-garden; and so does everybody else. If he does not want a flower-garden but a kitchen-garden, he proceeds differently. But he does not expect a kitchen-garden to be exactly like a kitchen. He does not dig out all the potatoes, because it is not a flower-garden and the potato has a flower. He knows the main thing he is trying to achieve; but, not being a born fool, he does not think he can achieve it everywhere in exactly the same degree, or in a manner equally unmixed with things of another sort. The flower-gardener will not banish nasturtiums to the kitchen-garden because some strange people have been known to eat them. Nor will the other class a vegetable as a flower because it is called a cauliflower. So, from our social garden, we should not necessarily exclude every modern machine any more than we should exclude every medieval monastery. And indeed the apologue is appropriate enough; for this is the sort of elementary human reason that men never lost until they lost their gardens: just as that higher reason that is more than human was lost with a garden long ago.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Non offriamo la perfezione; ciò che offriamo è la proporzione. Desideriamo correggere le proporzioni dello stato moderno; ma la proporzione è tra cose varie; e una proporzione non è quasi mai uno schema. È come se stessimo disegnando il ritratto di un uomo vivo ed essi credessero che stiamo disegnando un diagramma di ruote e aste per la costruzione di un Robot. Non proponiamo che in una società sana tutta la terra debba essere posseduta nello stesso modo; o che tutta la proprietà debba essere detenuta alle stesse condizioni; o che tutti i cittadini debbano avere la stessa relazione con la città. È tutto il nostro punto che il potere centrale ha bisogno di poteri minori che lo bilancino e lo frenino, e che questi devono essere di molte specie: alcuni individuali, alcuni comunali, alcuni ufficiali, e così via. Alcuni di essi probabilmente abuseranno del loro privilegio; ma preferiamo il rischio a quello dello Stato o del Trust, che abusa della propria onnipotenza.
Per esempio, talora vengo biasimato per non credere nella mia stessa epoca, o biasimato ancor più per credere nella mia stessa religione. Vengo detto medievale; e alcuni hanno perfino rintracciato in me una parzialità in favore della Chiesa Cattolica cui appartengo. Ma supponiamo di prendere un parallelo da queste cose. Se qualcuno dicesse che i re medievali o i moderni paesi contadini erano da biasimare per aver tollerato chiazze di dichiarato Bolscevismo, saremmo piuttosto sorpresi di scoprire che l’osservazione si riferiva in realtà al loro tollerare i monasteri. Eppure è del tutto vero, in un certo senso, che i monasteri sono votati al Comunismo e che i monaci sono tutti Comunisti. La loro vita economica ed etica è un’eccezione a una civiltà generale di feudalesimo o di vita familiare. Eppure la loro posizione privilegiata era considerata piuttosto un sostegno dell’ordine sociale. Essi danno a certe idee comunali il loro proprio e proporzionato posto nello Stato; e qualcosa di simile era vero delle terre comuni. Dovremmo accogliere con favore l’occasione di concedere a qualsiasi corporazione o gruppo di colore comunale il suo proprio e proporzionato posto nello Stato; saremmo perfettamente disposti a segnare qualche parte della terra come terra comune. Ciò che diciamo è che il semplice nazionalizzare tutta la terra è come il semplice fare monaci di tutta la gente; è dare a quegli ideali più del loro proprio e proporzionato posto nello Stato. Il significato ordinario di Comunismo non è che alcune persone siano Comuniste, ma che tutte le persone siano Comuniste. Ma non dovremmo dire, nello stesso senso duro e letterale, che il significato del Distributismo è che tutte le persone siano Distributisti. Non dovremmo certo dire che il significato di uno stato contadino è che tutte le persone siano contadini. Vorremmo dire che esso ha il carattere generale di uno stato contadino; che la terra è in gran parte detenuta in quella maniera e la legge generalmente diretta in quello spirito; che qualsiasi altra istituzione si erge come eccezione riconoscibile, come punto di riferimento su quell’alto tavolato dell’uguaglianza.
Se questo è incoerente, nulla è coerente; se questo è impraticabile, tutta la vita umana è impraticabile. Se un uomo vuole ciò che chiama un giardino fiorito, pianta fiori dove può, e specialmente dove essi determineranno il carattere generale del giardinaggio paesaggistico. Ma essi non coprono completamente il giardino; lo colorano soltanto positivamente. Egli non si aspetta che le rose crescano nei comignoli, o che le margherite si arrampichino sulle ringhiere; ancor meno si aspetta che i tulipani crescano sul pino, o che l’araucaria fiorisca come un rododendro. Ma egli sa perfettamente bene cosa intende per giardino fiorito; e così fa chiunque altro. Se non vuole un giardino fiorito ma un orto, procede diversamente. Ma non si aspetta che un orto sia esattamente come una cucina. Non estirpa tutte le patate, perché non è un giardino fiorito e la patata ha un fiore. Egli conosce la cosa principale che sta cercando di ottenere; ma, non essendo uno sciocco nato, non pensa di poterla ottenere ovunque esattamente nella stessa misura, o in un modo egualmente immune da cose di altra specie. Il coltivatore di fiori non bandirà i nasturzi nell’orto perché alcune strane persone son note per averli mangiati. Né l’altro classificherà un ortaggio come fiore perché è chiamato cavolfiore. Così, dal nostro giardino sociale, non dovremmo necessariamente escludere ogni macchina moderna più di quanto dovremmo escludere ogni monastero medievale. E invero l’apologo è abbastanza appropriato; poiché questa è la sorta di elementare ragione umana che gli uomini non persero mai finché non persero i loro giardini: proprio come quella ragione superiore che è più che umana fu perduta con un giardino tanto tempo fa.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
- A Misunderstanding about Method
- A Case in Point
- The Tyranny of Trusts
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
I THE BLUFF OF THE BIG SHOPS
Twice in my life has an editor told me in so many words that he dared not print what I had written, because it would offend the advertisers in his paper. The presence of such pressure exists everywhere in a more silent and subtle form. But I have a great respect for the honesty of this particular editor; for it was, evidently as near to complete honesty as the editor of an important weekly magazine can possibly go. He told the truth about the falsehood he had to tell.
On both those occasions he denied me liberty of expression because I said that the widely advertised stores and large shops were really worse than little shops. That, it may be interesting to note, is one of the things that a man is now forbidden to say; perhaps the only thing he is really forbidden to say. If it had been an attack on Government, it would have been tolerated. If it had been an attack on God, it would have been respectfully and tactfully applauded. If I had been abusing marriage or patriotism or public decency, I should have been heralded in headlines and allowed to sprawl across Sunday newspapers. But the big newspaper is not likely to attack the big shop; being itself a big shop in its way and more and more a monument of monopoly. But it will be well if I repeat here in a book what I found it impossible to repeat in an article. I think the big shop is a bad shop. I think it bad not only in a moral but a mercantile sense; that is, I think shopping there is not only a bad action but a bad bargain. I think the monster emporium is not only vulgar and insolent, but incompetent and uncomfortable; and I deny that its large organization is efficient. Large organization is loose organization. Nay, it would be almost as true to say that organization is always disorganization. The only thing perfectly organic is an organism; like that grotesque and obscure organism called a man. He alone can be quite certain of doing what he wants; beyond him, every extra man may be an extra mistake. As applied to things like shops, the whole thing is an utter fallacy. Some things like armies have to be organized; and therefore do their very best to be well organized. You must have a long rigid line stretched out to guard a frontier; and therefore you stretch it tight. But it is not true that you must have a long rigid line of people trimming hats or tying bouquets, in order that they may be trimmed or tied neatly. The work is much more likely to be neat if it is done by a particular craftsman for a particular customer with particular ribbons and flowers. The person told to trim the hat will never do it quite suitably to the person who wants it trimmed; and the hundredth person told to do it will do it badly; as he does. If we collected all the stories from all the housewives and householders about the big shops sending the wrong goods, smashing the right goods, forgetting to send any sort of goods, we should behold a welter of inefficiency. There are far more blunders in a big shop than ever happen in a small shop, where the individual customer can curse the individual shopkeeper. Confronted with modern efficiency the customer is silent; well aware of that organization’s talent for sacking the wrong man. In short, organization is a necessary evil—which in this case is not necessary.
I have begun these notes with a note on the big shops because they are things near to us and familiar to us all. I need not dwell on other and still more entertaining claims made for the colossal combination of departments. One of the funniest is the statement that it is convenient to get everything in the same shop. That is to stay, it is convenient to walk the length of the street, so long as you walk indoors, or more frequently underground, instead of walking the same distance in the open air from one little shop to another. The truth is that the monopolists’ shops are really very convenient—to the monopolist. They have all the advantage of concentrating business as they concentrate wealth, in fewer and fewer of the citizens. Their wealth sometimes permits them to pay tolerable wages; their wealth also permits them to buy up better businesses and advertise worse goods. But that their own goods are better nobody has ever even begun to show; and most of us know any number of concrete cases where they are definitely worse. Now I expressed this opinion of my own (so shocking to the magazine editor and his advertisers) not only because it is an example of my general thesis that small properties should be revived, but because it is essential to the realization of another and much more curious truth. It concerns the psychology of all these things: of mere size, of mere wealth, of mere advertisement and arrogance. And it gives us the first working model of the way in which things are done to-day and the way in which (please God) they may be undone to-morrow.
There is one obvious and enormous and entirely neglected general fact to be noted before we consider the laws chiefly needed to renew the State. And that is the fact that one considerable revolution could be made without any laws at all. It does not concern any existing law, but rather an existing superstition. And the curious thing is that its upholders boast that it is a superstition. The other day I saw and very thoroughly enjoyed a popular play called It Pays to Advertise; which is all about a young business man who tries to break up the soap monopoly of his father, a more old-fashioned business man, by the wildest application of American theories of the psychology of advertising. One thing that struck me as rather interesting about it was this. It was quite good comedy to give the old man and the young man our sympathy in turn. It was quite good farce to make the old man and the young man each alternately look a fool. But nobody seemed to feel what I felt to be the most outstanding and obvious points of folly. They scoffed at the old man because he was old; because he was old-fashioned; because he himself was healthy enough to scoff at the monkey tricks of their mad advertisements. But nobody really criticized him for having made a corner, for which he might once have stood in a pillory. Nobody seemed to have enough instinct for independence and human dignity to be irritated at the idea that one purse-proud old man could prevent us all from having an ordinary human commodity if he chose. And as with the old man, so it was with the young man. He had been taught by his American friend that advertisement can hypnotize the human brain; that people are dragged by a deadly fascination into the doors of a shop as into the mouth of a snake; that the subconscious is captured and the will paralysed by repetition; that we are all made to move like mechanical dolls when a Yankee advertiser says, “Do It Now.” But it never seemed to occur to anybody to resent this. Nobody seemed sufficiently alive to be annoyed. The young man was made game of because he was poor; because he was bankrupt; because he was driven to the shifts of bankruptcy; and so on. But he did not seem to know he was something much worse than a swindler, a sorcerer. He did not know he was by his own boast a mesmerist and a mystagogue; a destroyer of reason and will; an enemy of truth and liberty.
- Un equivoco sul metodo
- Un caso esemplare
- La tirannia dei Trust
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
I IL BLUFF DEI GRANDI NEGOZI
Due volte nella mia vita un direttore mi ha detto con tante parole che non osava stampare ciò che avevo scritto, perché avrebbe offeso gli inserzionisti del suo giornale. La presenza di una tale pressione esiste ovunque in forma più silenziosa e sottile. Ma ho un grande rispetto per l’onestà di questo particolare direttore; poiché era, evidentemente, quanto di più vicino alla completa onestà possa mai spingersi il direttore di un importante settimanale. Egli disse la verità sulla menzogna che era costretto a dire.
In entrambe quelle occasioni mi negò la libertà di espressione perché avevo detto che i magazzini largamente pubblicizzati e i grandi negozi erano in realtà peggiori dei piccoli negozi. Questa, può essere interessante notarlo, è una delle cose che a un uomo è ora vietato dire; forse l’unica cosa che gli è realmente vietato dire. Se fosse stato un attacco al Governo, sarebbe stato tollerato. Se fosse stato un attacco a Dio, sarebbe stato rispettosamente e tattosamente applaudito. Se avessi vilipeso il matrimonio o il patriottismo o la pubblica decenza, sarei stato annunciato a grandi titoli e mi si sarebbe permesso di distendermi per i giornali della domenica. Ma il grande giornale non è propenso ad attaccare il grande negozio; essendo esso stesso un grande negozio a suo modo, e sempre più un monumento del monopolio. Ma sarà bene che io ripeta qui in un libro ciò che ho trovato impossibile ripetere in un articolo. Io penso che il grande negozio sia un cattivo negozio. Lo penso cattivo non solo in senso morale ma mercantile; cioè, penso che comprarvi non sia solo una cattiva azione ma un cattivo affare. Penso che il mostruoso emporio non sia solo volgare e insolente, ma incompetente e scomodo; e nego che la sua grande organizzazione sia efficiente. La grande organizzazione è organizzazione sciolta. Anzi, sarebbe quasi altrettanto vero dire che l’organizzazione è sempre disorganizzazione. L’unica cosa perfettamente organica è un organismo; come quel grottesco e oscuro organismo chiamato uomo. Egli solo può essere del tutto certo di fare ciò che vuole; oltre lui, ogni uomo in più può essere un errore in più. Applicata a cose come i negozi, l’intera faccenda è una totale fallacia. Alcune cose come gli eserciti devono essere organizzate; e perciò fanno del loro meglio per essere ben organizzate. Bisogna avere una lunga linea rigida distesa a guardia di una frontiera; e perciò la si tende tesa. Ma non è vero che si debba avere una lunga linea rigida di persone che guarniscono cappelli o legano mazzi, affinché essi siano guarniti o legati con cura. Il lavoro è assai più probabile che riesca accurato se è fatto da un particolare artigiano per un particolare cliente con particolari nastri e fiori. La persona incaricata di guarnire il cappello non lo farà mai in modo del tutto conforme alla persona che lo vuole guarnito; e la centesima persona incaricata di farlo lo farà male; come infatti fa. Se raccogliessimo tutte le storie di tutte le massaie e i capifamiglia sui grandi negozi che spediscono la merce sbagliata, che sfracellano la merce giusta, che dimenticano di spedire qualsiasi sorta di merce, contempleremmo un guazzabuglio di inefficienza. Ci sono assai più abbagli in un grande negozio di quanti mai ne accadano in un piccolo negozio, dove il singolo cliente può maledire il singolo bottegaio. Di fronte alla moderna efficienza il cliente tace; ben consapevole del talento di quell’organizzazione nel licenziare l’uomo sbagliato. In breve, l’organizzazione è un male necessario — che in questo caso non è necessario.
Ho cominciato queste note con una nota sui grandi negozi perché sono cose vicine a noi e familiari a tutti noi. Non ho bisogno di dilungarmi su altre e ancor più divertenti pretese avanzate per la colossale combinazione di reparti. Una delle più buffe è l’affermazione che è comodo procurarsi tutto nello stesso negozio. Vale a dire, è comodo percorrere la lunghezza della strada, purché si cammini al chiuso, o più spesso sottoterra, invece di percorrere la stessa distanza all’aria aperta da un piccolo negozio all’altro. La verità è che i negozi dei monopolisti sono davvero molto comodi — per il monopolista. Hanno tutto il vantaggio di concentrare gli affari come concentrano la ricchezza, in un numero sempre minore di cittadini. La loro ricchezza talora permette loro di pagare salari tollerabili; la loro ricchezza permette loro anche di comprare imprese migliori e di pubblicizzare merci peggiori. Ma che le loro merci siano migliori nessuno ha mai neppure cominciato a dimostrarlo; e la maggior parte di noi conosce un gran numero di casi concreti in cui sono decisamente peggiori. Ora, ho espresso questa mia opinione (così scioccante per il direttore della rivista e i suoi inserzionisti) non solo perché è un esempio della mia tesi generale che le piccole proprietà dovrebbero essere fatte rivivere, ma perché è essenziale alla realizzazione di un’altra e assai più curiosa verità. Essa concerne la psicologia di tutte queste cose: della mera grandezza, della mera ricchezza, del mero réclame e arroganza. E ci dà il primo modello funzionante del modo in cui le cose sono fatte oggi e del modo in cui (piaccia a Dio) potranno essere disfatte domani.
C’è un fatto generale ovvio ed enorme e interamente trascurato da rilevare prima di considerare le leggi principalmente necessarie a rinnovare lo Stato. Ed è il fatto che una considerevole rivoluzione potrebbe essere fatta senza alcuna legge. Essa non concerne alcuna legge esistente, ma piuttosto una superstizione esistente. E la cosa curiosa è che i suoi sostenitori si vantano che sia una superstizione. L’altro giorno ho visto e goduto assai a fondo una commedia popolare intitolata It Pays to Advertise; che è tutta incentrata su un giovane uomo d’affari che tenta di spezzare il monopolio del sapone di suo padre, un uomo d’affari più all’antica, con la più sfrenata applicazione delle teorie americane della psicologia della pubblicità. Una cosa che mi colpì come piuttosto interessante fu questa. Era buona commedia dare a turno la nostra simpatia al vecchio e al giovane. Era buona farsa far apparire a turno il vecchio e il giovane ciascuno uno sciocco. Ma nessuno pareva sentire ciò che io sentivo essere i più cospicui e ovvi punti di follia. Deridevano il vecchio perché era vecchio; perché era all’antica; perché egli stesso era abbastanza sano da deridere le scimmiesche buffonate delle loro folli pubblicità. Ma nessuno lo criticava davvero per aver fatto un accaparramento, per il quale un tempo sarebbe potuto stare alla gogna. Nessuno pareva avere abbastanza istinto d’indipendenza e di dignità umana da irritarsi all’idea che un solo vecchio superbo della sua borsa potesse impedire a tutti noi di avere un’ordinaria merce umana, se così sceglieva. E come col vecchio, così fu col giovane. Gli era stato insegnato dal suo amico americano che la pubblicità può ipnotizzare il cervello umano; che la gente è trascinata da un fascino mortale nelle porte di un negozio come nella bocca di un serpente; che il subconscio è catturato e la volontà paralizzata dalla ripetizione; che siamo tutti fatti muovere come bambole meccaniche quando un pubblicitario yankee dice: «Fallo Ora». Ma non pareva mai venire in mente ad alcuno di risentirsene. Nessuno pareva abbastanza vivo per esserne infastidito. Il giovane era deriso perché era povero; perché era in bancarotta; perché era ridotto agli espedienti della bancarotta; e così via. Ma egli non pareva sapere di essere qualcosa di assai peggiore di un truffatore: uno stregone. Non sapeva di essere, per suo stesso vanto, un mesmerista e un mistagogo; un distruttore della ragione e della volontà; un nemico della verità e della libertà.
I think such people exaggerate the extent to which it pays to advertise; even if there is only the devil to pay. But in one sense this psychological case for advertising is of great practical importance to any programme of reform. The American advertisers have got hold of the wrong end of the stick; but it is a stick that can be used to beat something else besides their own absurd big drum. It is a stick that can be used also to beat their own absurd business philosophy. They are always telling us that the success of modern commerce depends on creating an atmosphere, on manufacturing a mentality, on assuming a point of view. In short, they insist that their commerce is not merely commercial, or even economic or political, but purely psychological. I hope they will go on saying it; for then some day everybody may suddenly see that it is true.
For the success of big shops and such things really is psychology; not to say psycho-analysis; or, in other words, nightmare. It is not real and, therefore, not reliable. This point concerns merely our immediate attitude, at the moment and on the spot, towards the whole plutocratic occupation of which such publicity is the gaudy banner. The very first thing to do, before we come to any of our proposals that are political and legal, is something that really is (to use their beloved word) entirely psychological. The very first thing to do is to tell these American poker-players that they do not know how to play poker. For they not only bluff, but they boast that they are bluffing. In so far as it really is a question of an instant psychological method, there must be, and there is, an immediate psychological answer. In other words, because they are admittedly bluffing, we can call their bluff.
I said recently that any practical programme for restoring normal property consists of two parts, which current cant would call destructive and constructive; but which might more truly be called defensive and offensive. The first is stopping the mere mad stampede towards monopoly, before the last traditions of property and liberty are lost. It is with that preliminary problem of resisting the world’s trend towards being more monopolist, that I am first of all dealing here. Now, when we ask what we can do, here and now, against the actual growth of monopoly, we are always given a very simple answer. We are told that we can do nothing. By a natural and inevitable operation the large things are swallowing the small, as large fish might swallow little fish. The trust can absorb what it likes, like a dragon devouring what it likes, because it is already the largest creature left alive in the land. Some people are so finally resolved to accept this result that they actually condescend to regret it. They are so convinced that it is fate that they will even admit that it is fatality. The fatalists almost become sentimentalists when looking at the little shop that is being bought up by the big company. They are ready to weep, so long as it is admitted that they weep because they weep in vain. They are willing to admit that the loss of a little toy-shop of their childhood, or a little tea-shop of their youth, is even in the true sense a tragedy. For a tragedy means always a man’s struggle with that which is stronger than man. And it is the feet of the gods themselves that are here trampling on our traditions; it is death and doom themselves that have broken our little toys like sticks; for against the stars of destiny none shall prevail. It is amazing what a little bluff will do in this world.
For they go on saying that the big fish eats the little fish, without asking whether little fish swim up to big fish and ask to be eaten. They accept the devouring dragon without wondering whether a fashionable crowd of princesses ran after the dragon to be devoured. They have never heard of a fashion; and do not know the difference between fashion and fate. The necessitarians have here carefully chosen the one example of something that is certainly not necessary, whatever else is necessary. They have chosen the one thing that does happen still to be free, as a proof of the unbreakable chains in which all things are bound. Very little is left free in the modern world; but private buying and selling are still supposed to be free; and indeed still are free; if anyone has a will free enough to use his freedom. Children may be driven by force to a particular school. Men may be driven by force away from a public-house. All sorts of people, for all sorts of new and nonsensical reasons, may be driven by force to a prison. But nobody is yet driven by force to a particular shop.
I shall deal later with some practical remedies and reactions against the rush towards rings and corners. But even before we consider these, it is well to have paused a moment on the moral fact which is so elementary and so entirely ignored. Of all things in the world, the rush to the big shops is the thing that could be most easily stopped—by the people who rush there. We do not know what may come later; but they cannot be driven there by bayonets just yet. American business enterprise, which has already used British soldiers for purposes of advertisement, may doubtless in time use British soldiers for purposes of coercion. But we cannot yet be dragooned by guns and sabres into Yankee shops or international stores. The alleged economic attraction, with which I will deal in due course, is quite a different thing: I am merely pointing out that if we came to the conclusion that big shops ought to be boycotted, we could boycott them as easily as we should (I hope) boycott shops selling instruments of torture or poisons for private use in the home. In other words, this first and fundamental question is not a question of necessity but of will. If we chose to make a vow, if we chose to make a league, for dealing only with little local shops and never with large centralized shops, the campaign could be every bit as practical as the Land Campaign in Ireland. It would probably be nearly as successful. It will be said, of course, that people will go to the best shop. I deny it; for Irish boycotters did not take the best offer. I deny that the big shop is the best shop; and I especially deny that people go there because it is the best shop. And if I be asked why, I answer at the end with the unanswerable fact with which I began at the beginning. I know it is not merely a matter of business, for the simple reason that the business men themselves tell me it is merely a matter of bluff. It is they who say that nothing succeeds like a mere appearance of success. It is they who say that publicity influences us without our will or knowledge. It is they who say that “It Pays to Advertise”; that is, to tell people in a bullying way that they must “Do It Now,” when they need not do it at all.
Penso che tali persone esagerino la misura in cui conviene fare pubblicità; anche se non c’è che il diavolo da pagare. Ma in un certo senso questo argomento psicologico a favore della pubblicità è di grande importanza pratica per qualsiasi programma di riforma. Gli inserzionisti americani hanno afferrato il bastone dalla parte sbagliata; ma è un bastone che può essere usato per battere anche qualcos’altro oltre al loro assurdo gran tamburo. È un bastone che può essere usato anche per battere la loro stessa assurda filosofia degli affari. Ci dicono sempre che il successo del commercio moderno dipende dal creare un’atmosfera, dal fabbricare una mentalità, dall’assumere un punto di vista. In breve, insistono che il loro commercio non è meramente commerciale, e neppure economico o politico, ma puramente psicologico. Spero che continuino a dirlo; poiché allora un giorno tutti potranno d’un tratto vedere che è vero.
Poiché il successo dei grandi negozi e di simili cose è davvero psicologia; per non dire psicoanalisi; o, in altre parole, incubo. Non è reale e, perciò, non è affidabile. Questo punto concerne meramente il nostro atteggiamento immediato, sul momento e sul posto, verso l’intera occupazione plutocratica di cui tale pubblicità è il vistoso vessillo. La primissima cosa da fare, prima di giungere a una qualsiasi delle nostre proposte politiche e legali, è qualcosa che davvero è (per usare la loro parola prediletta) interamente psicologica. La primissima cosa da fare è dire a questi giocatori di poker americani che non sanno giocare a poker. Poiché non solo bluffano, ma si vantano di bluffare. Nella misura in cui è davvero una questione di un metodo psicologico istantaneo, ci deve essere, e c’è, una risposta psicologica immediata. In altre parole, poiché ammettono di bluffare, possiamo vedere il loro bluff.
Ho detto di recente che qualsiasi programma pratico per restaurare la proprietà normale consta di due parti, che il gergo corrente chiamerebbe distruttiva e costruttiva; ma che più veracemente potrebbero essere chiamate difensiva e offensiva. La prima è arrestare la mera folle fuga precipitosa verso il monopolio, prima che le ultime tradizioni di proprietà e libertà vadano perdute. È con quel problema preliminare di resistere alla tendenza del mondo verso un maggior monopolismo che qui mi occupo anzitutto. Ora, quando ci chiediamo cosa possiamo fare, qui e ora, contro l’effettiva crescita del monopolio, ci viene data sempre una risposta assai semplice. Ci viene detto che non possiamo fare nulla. Per un’operazione naturale e inevitabile le cose grandi stanno inghiottendo le piccole, come i grandi pesci potrebbero inghiottire i pesci piccoli. Il trust può assorbire ciò che vuole, come un drago che divora ciò che vuole, perché è già la più grande creatura rimasta viva nel paese. Alcuni sono così definitivamente rassegnati ad accettare questo esito che perfino si degnano di rimpiangerlo. Sono così convinti che sia fato che ammetteranno perfino che è fatalità. I fatalisti diventano quasi sentimentali guardando il piccolo negozio che viene rilevato dalla grande società. Sono pronti a piangere, purché si ammetta che piangono perché piangono invano. Sono disposti ad ammettere che la perdita di un piccolo negozio di giocattoli della loro infanzia, o di una piccola sala da tè della loro giovinezza, è persino nel vero senso una tragedia. Poiché una tragedia significa sempre la lotta di un uomo con ciò che è più forte dell’uomo. E sono i piedi degli dèi stessi che qui calpestano le nostre tradizioni; sono la morte e il fato stessi che hanno spezzato i nostri piccoli balocchi come fuscelli; poiché contro le stelle del destino nessuno prevarrà. È stupefacente ciò che un piccolo bluff riesce a fare in questo mondo.
Poiché continuano a dire che il pesce grande mangia il pesce piccolo, senza chiedersi se i pesci piccoli nuotino incontro ai grandi e chiedano di essere mangiati. Accettano il drago divoratore senza domandarsi se una folla alla moda di principesse corresse dietro al drago per essere divorata. Non hanno mai sentito parlare di una moda; e non conoscono la differenza tra moda e fato. I necessitaristi hanno qui accuratamente scelto l’unico esempio di qualcosa che certamente non è necessario, qualunque altra cosa sia necessaria. Hanno scelto l’unica cosa che accade ancora di essere libera, come prova delle infrangibili catene in cui tutte le cose sono avvinte. Assai poco è lasciato libero nel mondo moderno; ma il comprare e il vendere privati sono ancora ritenuti liberi; e invero lo sono ancora; se qualcuno ha una volontà abbastanza libera da usare la propria libertà. I bambini possono essere condotti con la forza a una particolare scuola. Gli uomini possono essere allontanati con la forza da un’osteria. Ogni sorta di persone, per ogni sorta di ragioni nuove e insensate, possono essere condotte con la forza a una prigione. Ma nessuno è ancora condotto con la forza a un particolare negozio.
Tratterò più avanti alcuni rimedi e reazioni pratiche contro la corsa verso cartelli e monopoli. Ma anche prima di considerarli, è bene esserci soffermati un momento sul fatto morale che è tanto elementare e tanto interamente ignorato. Di tutte le cose al mondo, la corsa ai grandi negozi è la cosa che potrebbe più facilmente essere fermata — dalle persone che vi corrono. Non sappiamo cosa possa venire più tardi; ma non le si può spingere là con le baionette, non ancora. L’intraprendenza commerciale americana, che ha già usato i soldati britannici a scopo di pubblicità, potrà senza dubbio col tempo usare i soldati britannici a scopo di coercizione. Ma non possiamo ancora essere sospinti da fucili e sciabole nei negozi yankee o nei magazzini internazionali. La presunta attrattiva economica, di cui tratterò a suo tempo, è tutt’altra cosa: sto soltanto rilevando che se giungessimo alla conclusione che i grandi negozi vanno boicottati, potremmo boicottarli con la stessa facilità con cui dovremmo (lo spero) boicottare i negozi che vendono strumenti di tortura o veleni per uso privato in casa. In altre parole, questa prima e fondamentale questione non è questione di necessità ma di volontà. Se scegliessimo di fare un voto, se scegliessimo di fare una lega, per trattare solo con i piccoli negozi locali e mai con i grandi negozi centralizzati, la campagna potrebbe essere pratica in ogni suo aspetto quanto la Land Campaign in Irlanda. Probabilmente avrebbe quasi altrettanto successo. Si dirà, naturalmente, che la gente andrà al negozio migliore. Lo nego; poiché i boicottatori irlandesi non presero l’offerta migliore. Nego che il grande negozio sia il negozio migliore; e nego specialmente che la gente vi vada perché è il negozio migliore. E se mi si chiede perché, rispondo alla fine con il fatto inconfutabile con cui ho cominciato al principio. So che non è meramente questione di affari, per la semplice ragione che gli uomini d’affari stessi mi dicono che è meramente questione di bluff. Sono loro a dire che nulla riesce come una mera apparenza di successo. Sono loro a dire che la pubblicità ci influenza senza la nostra volontà o consapevolezza. Sono loro a dire che «Conviene Fare Pubblicità»; cioè, dire alla gente in modo prepotente che deve «Farlo Ora», quando non ha affatto bisogno di farlo.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
II A MISUNDERSTANDING ABOUT METHOD
Before I go any further with this sketch, I find I must pause upon a parenthesis touching the nature of my task, without which the rest of it may be misunderstood. As a matter of fact, without pretending to any official or commercial experience, I am here doing a great deal more than has ever been asked of most of the mere men of letters (if I may call myself for the moment a man of letters) when they confidently conducted social movements or setup social ideals. I will promise that, by the end of these notes, the reader shall know a great deal more about how men might set about making a Distributive State than the readers of Carlyle ever knew about how they should set about finding a Hero King or a Real Superior. I think we can explain how to make a small shop or a small farm a common feature of our society better than Matthew Arnold explained how to make the State the organ of Our Best Self. I think the farm will be marked on some sort of rude map more clearly than the Earthly Paradise on the navigation chart of William Morris; and I think that in comparison with his News from Nowhere this might fairly be called News from Somewhere. Rousseau and Ruskin were often much more vague and visionary than I am; though Rousseau was even more rigid in abstractions, and Ruskin was sometimes very much excited about particular details. I need not say that I am not comparing myself to these great men; I am only pointing out that even from these, whose minds dominated so much wider a field, and whose position as publicists was much more respected and responsible, nothing was as a matter of fact asked beyond the general principles we are accused of giving. I am merely pointing out that the task has fallen to a very minor poet when these very major prophets were not required to carry out and complete the fulfilment of their own prophecies. It would seem that our fathers did not think it quite so futile to have a clear vision of the goal with or without a detailed map of the road; or to be able to describe a scandal without going on to describe a substitute. Anyhow, for whatever reason, it is quite certain that if I really were great enough to deserve the reproaches of the utilitarians, if I really were as merely idealistic or imaginative as they make me out, if I really did confine myself to describing a direction without exactly measuring a road, to pointing towards home or heaven and telling men to use their own good sense in getting there—if this were really all that I could do, it would be all that men immeasurably greater than I am were ever expected to do; from Plato and Isaiah to Emerson and Tolstoy.
But it is not all that I can do; even though those who did not do it did so much more. I can do something else as well; but I can only do it if it be understood what I am doing. At the same time I am well aware that, in explaining the improvement of so elaborate a society, a man may often find it very difficult to explain exactly what he is doing, until it is done. I have considered and rejected half a dozen ways of approaching the problem, by different roads that all lead to the same truth. I had thought of beginning with the simple example of the peasant; and then I knew that a hundred correspondents would leap upon me, accusing me of trying to turn all of them into peasants. I thought of beginning with describing a decent Distributive State in being, with all its balance of different things; just as the Socialists describe their Utopia in being, with its concentration in one thing. Then I knew a hundred correspondents would call me Utopian; and say it was obvious my scheme could not work, because I could only describe it when it was working. But what they would really mean by my being Utopian, would be this: that until that scheme was working, there was no work to be done. I have finally decided to approach the social solution in this fashion: to point out first that the monopolist momentum is not irresistible; that even here and now much could be done to modify it, much by anybody, almost everything by everybody. Then I would maintain that on the removal of that particular plutocratic pressure, the appetite and appreciation of natural property would revive, like any other natural thing. Then, I say, it will be worth while to propound to people thus returning to sanity, however sporadically, a sane society that could balance property and control machinery. With the description of that ultimate society, with its laws and limitations, I would conclude.
Now that may or may not be a good arrangement or order of ideas; but it is an intelligible one; and I submit with all humility that I have a right to arrange my explanations in that order, and no critic has a right to complain that I do not disarrange them in order to answer questions out of their order. I am willing to write him a whole Encyclopaedia of Distributism if he has the patience to read it; but he must have the patience to read it. It is unreasonable for him to complain that I have not dealt adequately with Zoology, State Provision For, under the letter B; or described the honourable social status of the Guild of the Xylographers while I am still dealing alphabetically with the Guild of Architects. I am willing to be as much of a bore as Euclid; but the critic must not complain that the forty-eighth proposition of the second book is not a part of the Pons Asinorum. The ancient Guild of Bridge-Builders will have to build many such bridges.
Now from comments that have come my way, I gather that the suggestions I have already made may not altogether explain their own place and purpose in this scheme. I am merely pointing out that monopoly is not omnipotent even now and here; and that anybody could think, on the spur of the moment, of many ways in which its final triumph can be delayed and perhaps defeated. Suppose a monopolist who is my mortal enemy endeavours to ruin me by preventing me from selling eggs to my neighbours, I can tell him I shall live on my own turnips in my own kitchen-garden. I do not mean to tie myself to turnips; or swear never to touch my own potatoes or beans. I mean the turnips as an example; something to throw at him. Suppose the wicked millionaire in question comes and grins over my garden wall and says, “I perceive by your starved and emaciated appearance that you are in immediate need of a few shillings; but you can’t possibly get them,” I may possibly be stung into retorting, “Yes, I can. I could sell my first edition of Martin Chuzzlewit.” I do not necessarily mean that I see myself already in a pauper’s grave unless I can sell Martin Chuzzlewit; I do not mean that I have nothing else to suggest except selling Martin Chuzzlewit; I do not mean to brag like any common politician that I have nailed my colours to the Martin Chuzzlewit policy. I mean to tell the offensive pessimist that I am not at the end of my resources; that I can sell a book or even, if the case grows desperate, write a book. I could do a great many things before I came to definitely anti-social action like robbing a bank or (worse still) working in a bank. I could do a great many things of a great many kinds, and I give an example at the start to suggest that there are many more of them, not that there are no more of them. There are a great many things of a great many kinds in my house, besides the copy of a Martin Chuzzlewit. Not many of them are of great value except to me; but some of them are of some value to anybody. For the whole point of a home is that it is a hotch-potch. And mine, at any rate, rises to that austere domestic ideal. The whole point of one’s own house is that it is not only a number of totally different things, which are nevertheless one thing, but it is one in which we still value even the things that we forget. If a man has burnt my house to a heap of ashes, I am none the less justly indignant with him for having burnt everything, because I cannot at first even remember everything he has burnt. And as it is with the household gods, so it is with the whole of that household religion, or what remains of it, to offer resistance to the destructive discipline of industrial capitalism. In a simpler society, I should rush out of the ruins, calling for help on the Commune or the King, and crying out, “Haro! a robber has burnt my house.” I might, of course, rush down the street crying in one passionate breath, “Haro! a robber has burnt my front door of seasoned oak with the usual fittings, fourteen window frames, nine curtains, five and a half carpets, 753 books, of which four were editions de luxe, one portrait of my great-grandmother,” and so on through all the items; but something would be lost of the fierce and simple feudal cry. And in the same way I could have begun this outline with an inventory of all the alterations I should like to see in the laws, with the object of establishing some economic justice in England. But I doubt whether the reader would have had any better idea of what I was ultimately driving at; and it would not have been the approach by which I propose at present to drive. I shall have occasion later to go into some slight detail about these things; but the cases I give are merely illustrations of my first general thesis: that we are not even at the moment doing everything that could be done to resist the rush of monopoly; and that when people talk as if nothing could now be done, that statement is false at the start; and that all sorts of answers to it will immediately occur to the mind.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
II UN EQUIVOCO SUL METODO
Prima di procedere oltre con questo abbozzo, trovo che devo indugiare su una parentesi che tocca la natura del mio compito, senza la quale il resto potrebbe essere frainteso. In verità, senza pretendere ad alcuna esperienza ufficiale o commerciale, sto qui facendo assai più di quanto sia mai stato chiesto alla maggior parte dei semplici uomini di lettere (se posso chiamarmi per un momento uomo di lettere) quando essi conducevano con fiducia movimenti sociali o istituivano ideali sociali. Prometto che, alla fine di queste note, il lettore saprà assai di più su come gli uomini potrebbero mettersi a costruire uno Stato Distributivo di quanto i lettori di Carlyle abbiano mai saputo su come dovrebbero mettersi a trovare un Eroe-Re o un Vero Superiore. Penso di poter spiegare come fare di un piccolo negozio o di una piccola fattoria un tratto comune della nostra società meglio di quanto Matthew Arnold spiegò come fare dello Stato l’organo del nostro Miglior Sé. Penso che la fattoria sarà segnata su una qualche rozza mappa più chiaramente del Paradiso Terrestre sulla carta di navigazione di William Morris; e penso che, in confronto alla sua News from Nowhere, questa potrebbe a buon diritto chiamarsi News from Somewhere. Rousseau e Ruskin erano spesso assai più vaghi e visionari di me; benché Rousseau fosse ancora più rigido nelle astrazioni, e Ruskin talora assai eccitato riguardo a particolari dettagli. Non ho bisogno di dire che non mi paragono a questi grandi uomini; sto solo rilevando che perfino da costoro, le cui menti dominavano un campo tanto più vasto, e la cui posizione di pubblicisti era assai più rispettata e responsabile, nulla fu in verità chiesto al di là dei principi generali che ci si accusa di dare. Sto meramente rilevando che il compito è toccato a un poeta assai minore quando questi profeti assai maggiori non erano tenuti a portare a compimento e a completare l’adempimento delle proprie profezie. Parrebbe che i nostri padri non ritenessero così futile avere una chiara visione della meta con o senza una mappa dettagliata della strada; o poter descrivere uno scandalo senza procedere a descrivere un sostituto. Comunque, per qualunque ragione, è del tutto certo che se io fossi davvero abbastanza grande da meritare i rimproveri degli utilitaristi, se io fossi davvero tanto meramente idealistico o immaginifico quanto essi mi dipingono, se davvero mi limitassi a descrivere una direzione senza misurare esattamente una strada, a indicare verso casa o verso il cielo e a dire agli uomini di usare il proprio buon senso per arrivarci — se questo fosse davvero tutto ciò che io potessi fare, sarebbe tutto ciò che uomini incommensurabilmente più grandi di me furono mai attesi di fare; da Platone e Isaia a Emerson e Tolstoj.
Ma non è tutto ciò che io posso fare; anche se coloro che non lo fecero fecero tanto di più. Posso fare anche qualcos’altro altrettanto bene; ma posso farlo solo se si comprende ciò che sto facendo. Al tempo stesso sono ben consapevole che, nello spiegare il miglioramento di una società tanto elaborata, un uomo può spesso trovare assai difficile spiegare esattamente cosa stia facendo, finché non è fatto. Ho considerato e respinto una mezza dozzina di modi di affrontare il problema, per diverse strade che conducono tutte alla stessa verità. Avevo pensato di cominciare con il semplice esempio del contadino; e poi seppi che un centinaio di corrispondenti mi sarebbero balzati addosso, accusandomi di tentare di trasformarli tutti in contadini. Pensai di cominciare con il descrivere un decente Stato Distributivo in atto, con tutto il suo equilibrio di cose diverse; proprio come i Socialisti descrivono la loro Utopia in atto, con la sua concentrazione in una cosa sola. Poi seppi che un centinaio di corrispondenti mi avrebbe chiamato utopico; e detto che era ovvio che il mio schema non potesse funzionare, perché potevo descriverlo solo quando funzionava. Ma ciò che essi intenderebbero davvero col mio essere utopico, sarebbe questo: che finché quello schema non funzionava, non c’era lavoro da fare. Ho infine deciso di affrontare la soluzione sociale in questa maniera: rilevare anzitutto che lo slancio monopolistico non è irresistibile; che perfino qui e ora molto potrebbe essere fatto per modificarlo, molto da chiunque, quasi tutto da tutti. Poi sosterrei che, alla rimozione di quella particolare pressione plutocratica, l’appetito e l’apprezzamento della proprietà naturale rivivrebbero, come qualsiasi altra cosa naturale. Poi, dico, varrà la pena di proporre alla gente che così ritorna alla ragione, per quanto sporadicamente, una società sana che possa bilanciare la proprietà e controllare il macchinario. Con la descrizione di quella società ultima, con le sue leggi e le sue limitazioni, concluderei.
Ora, ciò può essere o non essere una buona disposizione o un buon ordine di idee; ma è un ordine intelligibile; e sostengo con tutta umiltà di avere il diritto di disporre le mie spiegazioni in quell’ordine, e nessun critico ha il diritto di lamentarsi che io non le scomponga per rispondere a domande fuori dal loro ordine. Sono disposto a scrivergli un’intera Enciclopedia del Distributismo se ha la pazienza di leggerla; ma deve avere la pazienza di leggerla. È irragionevole da parte sua lamentarsi che io non ho trattato adeguatamente la Zoologia, Provvidenza Statale della, alla lettera B; o descritto l’onorevole condizione sociale della Gilda degli Xilografi mentre sto ancora trattando alfabeticamente della Gilda degli Architetti. Sono disposto a essere tanto noioso quanto Euclide; ma il critico non deve lamentarsi che la quarantottesima proposizione del secondo libro non sia parte del Pons Asinorum. L’antica Gilda dei Costruttori di Ponti dovrà costruire molti di tali ponti.
Ora, dai commenti che mi sono giunti, deduco che i suggerimenti che ho già dato potrebbero non spiegare del tutto il loro posto e scopo in questo schema. Sto meramente rilevando che il monopolio non è onnipotente neppure ora e qui; e che chiunque potrebbe pensare, sul momento, a molti modi in cui il suo trionfo finale possa essere ritardato e forse sconfitto. Supponiamo che un monopolista che è mio nemico mortale si adoperi per rovinarmi impedendomi di vendere uova ai miei vicini: posso dirgli che vivrò delle mie rape nel mio orto. Non intendo legarmi alle rape; né giurare di non toccare mai le mie patate o i miei fagioli. Intendo le rape come esempio; qualcosa da gettargli contro. Supponiamo che il malvagio milionario in questione venga e ghigni oltre il muro del mio orto e dica: «M’avvedo dal vostro aspetto affamato ed emaciato che avete immediato bisogno di qualche scellino; ma non potete assolutamente averli», potrei forse essere punto al segno da ribattere: «Sì che posso. Potrei vendere la mia prima edizione di Martin Chuzzlewit». Non intendo necessariamente che io mi veda già in una fossa da pezzente a meno che non possa vendere Martin Chuzzlewit; non intendo che non abbia null’altro da suggerire tranne vendere Martin Chuzzlewit; non intendo vantarmi come un qualsiasi comune politico di aver inchiodato i miei colori alla politica del Martin Chuzzlewit. Intendo dire all’offensivo pessimista che non sono alla fine delle mie risorse; che posso vendere un libro o perfino, se il caso si fa disperato, scrivere un libro. Potrei fare moltissime cose prima di giungere a un’azione decisamente antisociale come rapinare una banca o (peggio ancora) lavorare in una banca. Potrei fare moltissime cose di molte specie, e do un esempio all’inizio per suggerire che ce ne sono molte di più, non che non ce ne sono altre. Ci sono moltissime cose di molte specie nella mia casa, oltre alla copia di un Martin Chuzzlewit. Non molte di esse sono di gran valore se non per me; ma alcune di esse sono di un certo valore per chiunque. Poiché tutto il senso di una casa è che è un guazzabuglio. E la mia, per lo meno, si eleva a quell’austero ideale domestico. Tutto il senso della propria casa è che essa non è solo un numero di cose totalmente diverse, che sono nondimeno una cosa sola, ma è una in cui apprezziamo ancora perfino le cose che dimentichiamo. Se un uomo ha bruciato la mia casa riducendola a un mucchio di cenere, non sono per questo meno giustamente indignato con lui per aver bruciato ogni cosa, perché non riesco lì per lì neppure a ricordare ogni cosa che ha bruciato. E come è con gli dèi domestici, così è con l’intera religione domestica, o con ciò che ne rimane, l’offrire resistenza alla disciplina distruttiva del capitalismo industriale. In una società più semplice, mi precipiterei fuori dalle rovine, invocando aiuto al Comune o al Re, e gridando: «Aiuto! un ladro ha bruciato la mia casa». Potrei, naturalmente, precipitarmi per la strada gridando in un solo appassionato respiro: «Aiuto! un ladro ha bruciato la mia porta d’ingresso di rovere stagionato con le solite guarniture, quattordici telai di finestra, nove tende, cinque tappeti e mezzo, 753 libri, di cui quattro erano edizioni de luxe, un ritratto della mia bisnonna», e così via attraverso tutte le voci; ma qualcosa andrebbe perduto del fiero e semplice grido feudale. E allo stesso modo avrei potuto cominciare questo abbozzo con un inventario di tutte le modifiche che vorrei vedere nelle leggi, con l’obiettivo di stabilire una qualche giustizia economica in Inghilterra. Ma dubito che il lettore avrebbe avuto un’idea migliore di ciò a cui in ultima analisi miravo; e non sarebbe stato l’approccio con cui mi propongo al presente di procedere. Avrò occasione più avanti di entrare in qualche piccolo dettaglio su queste cose; ma i casi che do sono meramente illustrazioni della mia prima tesi generale: che noi non stiamo neppure al momento facendo tutto ciò che potrebbe essere fatto per resistere alla corsa del monopolio; e che quando la gente parla come se nulla potesse ormai essere fatto, quell’affermazione è falsa in partenza; e che ogni sorta di risposte ad essa verranno immediatamente alla mente.
Capitalism is breaking up; and in one sense we do not pretend to be sorry it is breaking up. Indeed, we might put our own point pretty correctly by saying that we would help it to break up; but we do not want it merely to break down. But the first fact to realize is precisely that; that it is a choice between its breaking up and its breaking down. It is a choice between its being voluntarily resolved into its real component parts, each taking back its own, and its merely collapsing on our heads in a crash or confusion of all its component parts, which some call communism and some call chaos. The former is the one thing all sensible people should try to procure. The latter is the one thing that all sensible people should try to prevent. That is why they are often classed together.
I have mainly confined myself to answering what I have always found to be the first question, “What are we to do now?” To that I answer, “What we must do now is to stop the other people from doing what they are doing now.” The initiative is with the enemy. It is he who is already doing things, and will have done them long before we can begin to do anything, since he has the money, the machinery, the rather mechanical majority, and other things which we have first to gain and then to use. He has nearly completed a monopolist conquest, but not quite; and he can still be hampered and halted. The world has woken up very late; but that is not our fault. That is the fault of all the fools who told us for twenty years that there could never be any Trusts; and are now telling us, equally wisely, that there can never be anything else.
There are other things I ask the reader to bear in mind. The first is that this outline is only an outline, though one that can hardly avoid some curves and loops. I do not profess to dispose of all the obstacles that might arise in this question, because so many of them would seem to many to be quite a different question. I will give one example of what I mean. What would the critical reader have thought, if at the very beginning of this sketch I had gone off into a long disputation about the Law of Libel? Yet, if I were strictly practical, I should find that one of the most practical obstacles. It is the present ridiculous position that monopoly is not resisted as a social force but can still be resented as a legal imputation. If you try to stop a man cornering milk, the first thing that happens will be a smashing libel action for calling it a corner. It is manifestly mere common sense that if the thing is not a sin it is not a slander. As things stand, there is no punishment for the man who does it; but there is a punishment for the man who discovers it. I do not deal here (though I am quite prepared to deal elsewhere) with all these detailed difficulties which a society as now constituted would raise against such a society as we want to constitute. If it were constituted on the principles I suggest, those details would be dealt with on those principles as they arose. For instance, it would put an end to the nonsense whereby men, who are more powerful than emperors, pretend to be private tradesmen suffering from private malice; it will assert that those who are in practice public men must be criticized as potential public evils. It would destroy the absurdity by which an “important case” is tried by a “special jury”; or, in other words, that any serious issue between rich and poor is tried by the rich. But the reader will see that I cannot here rule out all the ten thousand things that might trip us up; I must assume that a people ready to take the larger risks would also take the smaller ones.
Now this outline is an outline; in other words, it is a design, and anybody who thinks we can have practical things without theoretical designs can go and quarrel with the nearest engineer or architect for drawing thin lines on thin paper. But there is another and more special sense in which my suggestion is an outline; in the sense that it is deliberately drawn as a large limitation within which there are many varieties. I have long been acquainted, and not a little amused, with the sort of practical man who will certainly say that I generalize because there is no practical plan. The truth is that I generalize because there are so many practical plans. I myself know four or five schemes that have been drawn up, more or less drastically, for the diffusion of capital. The most cautious, from a capitalist standpoint, is the gradual extension of profit-sharing. A more stringently democratic form of the same thing is the management of every business (if it cannot be a small business) by a guild or group clubbing their contributions and dividing their results. Some Distributists dislike the idea of the workman having shares only where he has work; they think he would be more independent if his little capital were invested elsewhere; but they all agree that he ought to have the capital to invest. Others continue to call themselves Distributists because they would give every citizen a dividend out of much larger national systems of production. I deliberately draw out my general principles so as to cover as many as possible of these alternative business schemes. But I object to being told that I am covering so many because I know there are none. If I tell a man he is too luxurious and extravagant, and that he ought to economize in something, I am not bound to give him a list of his luxuries. The point is that he will be all the better for cutting down any of his luxuries. And my point is that modern society would be all the better for cutting up property by any of these processes. This does not mean that I have not my own favourite form; personally I prefer the second type of division given in the above list of examples. But my main business is to point out that any reversal of the rush to concentrate property will be an improvement on the present state of things. If I tell a man his house is burning down in Putney, he may thank me even if I do not give him a list of all the vehicles which go to Putney, with the numbers of all the taxicabs and the time-table of all the trams. It is enough that I know there are a great many vehicles for him to choose from, before he is reduced to the proverbial adventure of going to Putney on a pig. It is enough that any one of those vehicles is on the whole less uncomfortable than a house on fire or even a heap of ashes. I admit I might be called unpractical if impenetrable forests and destructive floods lay between here and Putney; it might then be as merely idealistic to praise Putney as to praise Paradise. But I do not admit that I am unpractical because I know there are half a dozen practical ways which are more practical than the present state of things. But it does not follow, in fact, that I do not know how to get to Putney. Here, for instance, are half a dozen things which would help the process of Distributism, apart from those on which I shall have occasion to touch as points of principle. Not all Distributists would agree with all of them; but all would agree that they are in the direction of Distributism. (1) The taxation of contracts so as to discourage the sale of small property to big proprietors and encourage the break-up of big property among small proprietors. (2) Something like the Napoleonic testamentary law and the destruction of primogeniture. (3) The establishment of free law for the poor, so that small property could always be defended against great. (4) The deliberate protection of certain experiments in small property, if necessary by tariffs and even local tariffs. (5) Subsidies to foster the starting of such experiments. (6) A league of voluntary dedication, and any number of other things of the same kind. But I have inserted this chapter here in order to explain that this is a sketch of the first principles of Distributism and not of the last details, about which even Distributists might dispute. In such a statement, examples are given as examples, and not as exact and exhaustive lists of all the cases covered by the rule. If this elementary principle of exposition be not understood I must be content to be called an unpractical person by that sort of practical man. And indeed in his sense there is something in his accusation. Whether or no I am a practical man, I am not what is called a practical politician, which means a professional politician. I can claim no part in the glory of having brought our country to its present promising and hopeful condition. Harder heads than mine have established the present prosperity of coal. Men of action, of a more rugged energy, have brought us to the comfortable condition of living on our capital. I have had no part in the great industrial revolution which has increased the beauties of nature and reconciled the classes of society; nor must the too enthusiastic reader think of thanking me for this more enlightened England, in which the employee is living on a dole from the State and the employer on an overdraft at the Bank.
Il Capitalismo si sta sfaldando; e in un certo senso non fingiamo di essere dolenti che si stia sfaldando. Anzi, potremmo esporre il nostro punto in modo abbastanza corretto dicendo che vorremmo aiutarlo a sfaldarsi; ma non vogliamo che semplicemente crolli. Ma il primo fatto da capire è precisamente questo: che è una scelta tra il suo sfaldarsi e il suo crollare. È una scelta tra il suo essere volontariamente risolto nelle sue reali parti componenti, ciascuna che si riprende la propria, e il suo semplice collassarci sulla testa in uno schianto o in una confusione di tutte le sue parti componenti, che alcuni chiamano comunismo e alcuni caos. Il primo è l’unica cosa che tutte le persone sensate dovrebbero cercare di procurare. Il secondo è l’unica cosa che tutte le persone sensate dovrebbero cercare di prevenire. Ecco perché sono spesso accomunati.
Mi sono principalmente limitato a rispondere a quella che ho sempre trovato essere la prima domanda: «Che dobbiamo fare ora?». A questo rispondo: «Ciò che dobbiamo fare ora è impedire agli altri di fare ciò che stanno facendo ora». L’iniziativa è del nemico. È lui che sta già facendo cose, e le avrà fatte molto prima che noi possiamo cominciare a fare alcunché, poiché ha il denaro, il macchinario, la maggioranza piuttosto meccanica, e altre cose che noi dobbiamo prima conquistare e poi usare. Ha quasi completato una conquista monopolistica, ma non del tutto; e può ancora essere ostacolato e arrestato. Il mondo si è svegliato assai tardi; ma non è colpa nostra. È colpa di tutti gli sciocchi che ci dissero per vent’anni che non ci sarebbero mai potuti essere Trust; e che ora ci dicono, con pari saggezza, che non ci potrà mai essere nient’altro.
Ci sono altre cose che chiedo al lettore di tenere a mente. La prima è che questo abbozzo è soltanto un abbozzo, benché uno che difficilmente può evitare qualche curva e qualche cappio. Non pretendo di sbrigare tutti gli ostacoli che potrebbero sorgere in questa questione, perché tanti di essi parrebbero a molti tutt’altra questione. Darò un esempio di ciò che intendo. Che cosa avrebbe pensato il lettore critico, se al principio stesso di questo abbozzo mi fossi lanciato in una lunga disputa sulla Legge sulla Diffamazione? Eppure, se fossi rigorosamente pratico, troverei che è uno degli ostacoli più pratici. È la presente ridicola situazione in cui il monopolio non è avversato come forza sociale ma può ancora essere risentito come imputazione legale. Se cercate di impedire a un uomo di accaparrare il latte, la prima cosa che accadrà sarà una schiacciante azione per diffamazione per averlo chiamato accaparramento. È manifestamente puro buon senso che se la cosa non è un peccato non è una calunnia. Per come stanno le cose, non c’è punizione per l’uomo che lo fa; ma c’è una punizione per l’uomo che lo scopre. Non tratto qui (benché sia del tutto pronto a trattarne altrove) tutte queste dettagliate difficoltà che una società come ora costituita solleverebbe contro una società quale noi vogliamo costituire. Se essa fosse costituita sui principi che suggerisco, quei dettagli sarebbero trattati su quei principi man mano che sorgessero. Per esempio, porrebbe fine all’assurdità per cui uomini, che sono più potenti degli imperatori, fingono di essere privati commercianti sofferenti di privata malizia; affermerà che coloro che sono in pratica uomini pubblici devono essere criticati come potenziali mali pubblici. Distruggerebbe l’assurdità per cui un «caso importante» è giudicato da una «giuria speciale»; o, in altre parole, che qualsiasi questione seria tra ricchi e poveri è giudicata dai ricchi. Ma il lettore vedrà che non posso qui escludere tutte le diecimila cose che potrebbero farci inciampare; devo presumere che un popolo pronto a correre i rischi maggiori correrebbe anche quelli minori.
Ora questo abbozzo è un abbozzo; in altre parole, è un disegno, e chiunque pensi che possiamo avere cose pratiche senza disegni teorici può andare a litigare con il più vicino ingegnere o architetto per aver tracciato linee sottili su carta sottile. Ma c’è un altro e più speciale senso in cui il mio suggerimento è un abbozzo; nel senso che è deliberatamente tracciato come una vasta limitazione entro la quale ci sono molte varietà. Sono da tempo conoscente, e non poco divertito, di quella sorta di uomo pratico che dirà certamente che io generalizzo perché non c’è un piano pratico. La verità è che io generalizzo perché ci sono tanti piani pratici. Io stesso conosco quattro o cinque schemi che sono stati redatti, più o meno drasticamente, per la diffusione del capitale. Il più cauto, da un punto di vista capitalista, è la graduale estensione della compartecipazione agli utili. Una forma più rigorosamente democratica della stessa cosa è la gestione di ogni impresa (se non può essere una piccola impresa) da parte di una gilda o di un gruppo che mette in comune i propri contributi e divide i propri risultati. Alcuni Distributisti non amano l’idea che l’operaio abbia azioni solo dove ha lavoro; pensano che sarebbe più indipendente se il suo piccolo capitale fosse investito altrove; ma tutti concordano che egli dovrebbe avere il capitale da investire. Altri continuano a chiamarsi Distributisti perché darebbero a ogni cittadino un dividendo tratto da sistemi di produzione nazionali assai più grandi. Traccio deliberatamente i miei principi generali così da coprire quanti più possibile di questi schemi imprenditoriali alternativi. Ma mi oppongo a che mi si dica che ne copro tanti perché so che non ce n’è alcuno. Se dico a un uomo che è troppo lussuoso e prodigo, e che dovrebbe economizzare in qualcosa, non sono tenuto a dargli una lista dei suoi lussi. Il punto è che egli starà tanto meglio a tagliare uno qualsiasi dei suoi lussi. E il mio punto è che la società moderna starebbe tanto meglio a spartire la proprietà con uno qualsiasi di questi processi. Ciò non significa che io non abbia una mia forma prediletta; personalmente preferisco il secondo tipo di divisione dato nella suddetta lista di esempi. Ma il mio compito principale è rilevare che qualsiasi inversione della corsa a concentrare la proprietà sarà un miglioramento sull’attuale stato di cose. Se dico a un uomo che la sua casa sta bruciando a Putney, egli può ringraziarmi anche se non gli do una lista di tutti i veicoli che vanno a Putney, con i numeri di tutti i taxi e l’orario di tutti i tram. Basta che io sappia che ci sono moltissimi veicoli tra cui egli può scegliere, prima di essere ridotto alla proverbiale avventura di andare a Putney su un maiale. Basta che uno qualsiasi di quei veicoli sia nel complesso meno scomodo di una casa in fiamme o perfino di un mucchio di cenere. Ammetto che potrei essere detto impratico se foreste impenetrabili e alluvioni distruttive giacessero tra qui e Putney; potrebbe allora essere tanto meramente idealistico lodare Putney quanto lodare il Paradiso. Ma non ammetto di essere impratico perché so che ci sono una mezza dozzina di vie pratiche che sono più pratiche dell’attuale stato di cose. Ma non ne consegue, in realtà, che io non sappia come arrivare a Putney. Ecco, per esempio, una mezza dozzina di cose che aiuterebbero il processo del Distributismo, a parte quelle che avrò occasione di toccare come punti di principio. Non tutti i Distributisti sarebbero d’accordo con tutte; ma tutti concorderebbero che sono nella direzione del Distributismo. (1) La tassazione dei contratti così da scoraggiare la vendita di piccola proprietà ai grandi proprietari e da incoraggiare lo smembramento della grande proprietà tra i piccoli proprietari. (2) Qualcosa come la legge testamentaria napoleonica e la distruzione della primogenitura. (3) L’istituzione di una giustizia gratuita per i poveri, così che la piccola proprietà possa sempre essere difesa contro la grande. (4) La deliberata protezione di certi esperimenti di piccola proprietà, se necessario mediante tariffe e perfino tariffe locali. (5) Sussidi per favorire l’avvio di tali esperimenti. (6) Una lega di dedizione volontaria, e un numero qualsiasi di altre cose dello stesso genere. Ma ho inserito qui questo capitolo per spiegare che questo è un abbozzo dei primi principi del Distributismo e non degli ultimi dettagli, su cui perfino i Distributisti potrebbero disputare. In una tale esposizione, gli esempi sono dati come esempi, e non come liste esatte ed esaustive di tutti i casi coperti dalla regola. Se questo elementare principio di esposizione non è compreso, dovrò accontentarmi di essere chiamato persona impratica da quella sorta di uomo pratico. E invero nel suo senso c’è qualcosa nella sua accusa. Che io sia o no un uomo pratico, non sono ciò che si chiama un politico pratico, il che significa un politico di professione. Non posso rivendicare alcuna parte nella gloria di aver portato il nostro paese alla sua presente promettente e speranzosa condizione. Teste più dure della mia hanno stabilito la presente prosperità del carbone. Uomini d’azione, di più rude energia, ci hanno condotto alla comoda condizione di vivere del nostro capitale. Non ho avuto alcuna parte nella grande rivoluzione industriale che ha accresciuto le bellezze della natura e riconciliato le classi della società; né il troppo entusiasta lettore deve pensare di ringraziarmi per questa più illuminata Inghilterra, in cui l’impiegato vive di un sussidio dallo Stato e il datore di lavoro di uno scoperto in Banca.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
III A CASE IN POINT
It is as natural to our commercial critics to argue in a circle as to travel on the Inner Circle. It is not mere stupidity, but it is mere habit; and it is not easy either to break into or to escape from that iron ring. When we say things can be done, we commonly mean either that they could be done by the mass of men, or else by the ruler of the State. I gave an example of something that could be done quite easily by the mass; and here I will give an example of something that could be done quite easily by the ruler. But we must be prepared for our critics beginning to argue in a circle and saying that the present populace will never agree or the present ruler act in that way. But this complaint is a confusion. We are answering people who call our ideal impossible in itself. If you do not want it, of course, you will not try to get it; but do not say that because you do not want it, it follows that you could not get it if you did want it. A thing does not become intrinsically impossible merely by a mob not trying to obtain it; nor does a thing cease to be practical politics because no politician is practical enough to do it.
I will start with a small and familiar example. In order to ensure that our huge proletariat should have a holiday, we have a law obliging all employers to shut their shops for half a day once a week. Given the proletarian principle, it is a healthy and necessary thing for a proletarian state; just as the saturnalia is a healthy and necessary thing for a slave state. Given this provision for the proletariat, a practical person will naturally say: “It has other advantages, too; it will be a chance for anybody who chooses to do his own dirty work; for the man who can manage without servants.” That degraded being who actually knows how to do things himself, will have a look in at last. That isolated crank, who can really work for his own living, may possibly have a chance to live. A man does not need to be a Distributist to say this; it is the ordinary and obvious thing that anybody would say. The man who has servants must cease to work his servants. Of course, the man who has no servants to work cannot cease to work them. But the law is actually so constructed that it forces this man also to give a holiday to the servants he has not got. He proclaims a saturnalia that never happens to a crowd of phantom slaves that have never been there. Now there is not a rudiment of reason about this arrangement. In every possible sense, from the immediate material to the abstract and mathematical sense, it is quite mad. We live in days of dangerous division of interests between the employer and the employed. Therefore, even when the two are not divided, but actually united in one person, we must divide them again into two parties. We coerce a man into giving himself something he does not want, because somebody else who does not exist might want it. We warn him that he had better receive a deputation from himself, or he might go on strike against himself. Perhaps he might even become a Bolshevist, and throw a bomb at himself; in which case he would have no other course left to his stern sense of law and order but to read the Riot Act and shoot himself. They call us unpractical; but we have not yet produced such an academic fantasy as this. They sometimes suggest that our regret for the disappearance of the yeoman or the apprentice is a mere matter of sentiment. Sentimental! We have not quite sunk to such sentimentalism as to be sorry for apprentices who never existed at all. We have not quite reached that richness of romantic emotion that we are capable of weeping more copiously for an imaginary grocer’s assistant than for a real grocer. We are not quite so maudlin yet as to see double when we look into our favourite little shop; or to set the little shopkeeper fighting with his own shadow. Let us leave these hard-headed and practical men of business shedding tears over the sorrows of a non-existent office boy, and proceed upon our own wild and erratic path, that at least happens to pass across the land of the living.
Now if so small a change as that were made to-morrow, it would make a difference: a considerable and increasing difference. And if any rash apologist of Big Business tells me that a little thing like that could make very little difference, let him beware. For he is doing the one thing which such apologists commonly avoid above all things: he is contradicting his masters. Among the thousand things of interest, which are lost in the million things of no interest, in the newspaper reports of Parliament and public affairs, there really was one delightful little comedy dealing with this point. Some man of normal sense and popular instincts, who had strayed into Parliament by some mistake or other, actually pointed out this plain fact: that there was no need to protect the proletariat where there was no proletariat to protect; and that the lonely shopkeeper might, therefore, remain in his lonely shop. And the Minister in charge of the matter actually replied, with a ghastly innocence, that it was impossible; for it would be unfair to the big shops. Tears evidently flow freely in such circles, as they did from the rising politician, Lord Lundy; and in this case it was the mere thought of the possible sufferings of the millionaires that moved him. There rose before his imagination Mr. Selfridge in his agony, and the groans of Mr. Woolworth, of the Woolworth Tower, thrilled through the kind hearts to which the cry of the sorrowing rich will never come in vain. But whatever we may think of the sensibility needed to regard the big store-owners as objects of sympathy, at any rate it disposes at a stroke of all the fashionable fatalism that sees something inevitable in their success. It is absurd to tell us that our attack is bound to fail; and then that there would be something quite unscrupulous in its so immediately succeeding. Apparently Big Business must be accepted because it is invulnerable, and spared because it is vulnerable. This big absurd bubble can never conceivably be burst; and it is simply cruel that a little pin-prick of competition can burst it.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
III UN CASO ESEMPLARE
È tanto naturale ai nostri critici commerciali ragionare in circolo quanto viaggiare sull’Inner Circle. Non è mera stupidità, ma mera abitudine; e non è facile né penetrare né sfuggire quell’anello di ferro. Quando diciamo che le cose si possono fare, di solito intendiamo o che potrebbero essere fatte dalla massa degli uomini, oppure dal governante dello Stato. Ho dato un esempio di qualcosa che potrebbe essere fatto assai facilmente dalla massa; e qui darò un esempio di qualcosa che potrebbe essere fatto assai facilmente dal governante. Ma dobbiamo essere preparati a che i nostri critici comincino a ragionare in circolo e a dire che l’attuale popolazione non acconsentirà mai o che l’attuale governante non agirà mai in tal modo. Ma questa obiezione è una confusione. Stiamo rispondendo a persone che dicono che il nostro ideale è impossibile in sé. Se non lo volete, certo, non cercherete di ottenerlo; ma non dite che, poiché non lo volete, ne consegua che non potreste ottenerlo se lo voleste. Una cosa non diventa intrinsecamente impossibile solo perché una folla non cerca di ottenerla; né una cosa cessa di essere politica praticabile perché nessun politico è abbastanza pratico da farla.
Comincerò con un esempio piccolo e familiare. Per assicurare che il nostro enorme proletariato abbia una giornata di riposo, abbiamo una legge che obbliga tutti i datori di lavoro a chiudere i loro negozi per mezza giornata una volta la settimana. Dato il principio proletario, è cosa sana e necessaria per uno stato proletario; proprio come i saturnali sono cosa sana e necessaria per uno stato schiavista. Data questa provvidenza per il proletariato, una persona pratica dirà naturalmente: «Ha anche altri vantaggi; sarà un’occasione per chiunque scelga di fare da sé il proprio lavoro sporco; per l’uomo che sa cavarsela senza servitori». Quell’essere degradato che davvero sa fare le cose da sé avrà finalmente la sua occasione. Quello svitato isolato, che sa davvero lavorare per guadagnarsi da vivere, potrà forse avere una possibilità di vivere. Non occorre essere un distributista per dire questo; è la cosa ordinaria e ovvia che chiunque direbbe. L’uomo che ha servitori deve smettere di far lavorare i suoi servitori. Certo, l’uomo che non ha servitori da far lavorare non può smettere di farli lavorare. Ma la legge è congegnata in modo tale da costringere anche costui a concedere una giornata di riposo ai servitori che non ha. Egli proclama dei saturnali che non avvengono mai per una folla di fantomatici schiavi che non ci sono mai stati. Ora, non c’è un rudimento di ragione in questa disposizione. In ogni senso possibile, dall’immediato materiale al senso astratto e matematico, è del tutto folle. Viviamo in giorni di pericolosa divisione d’interessi tra il datore di lavoro e il lavoratore. Perciò, anche quando i due non sono divisi, ma anzi uniti in una sola persona, dobbiamo dividerli di nuovo in due parti. Costringiamo un uomo a darsi qualcosa che non vuole, perché qualcun altro che non esiste potrebbe volerlo. Lo avvertiamo che farebbe meglio a ricevere una delegazione da se stesso, o potrebbe mettersi in sciopero contro se stesso. Forse potrebbe persino diventare bolscevico, e lanciare una bomba contro se stesso; nel qual caso non gli resterebbe altra via, per il suo severo senso della legge e dell’ordine, che leggere il Riot Act e spararsi. Ci chiamano poco pratici; ma noi non abbiamo ancora prodotto una fantasia accademica come questa. Talvolta suggeriscono che il nostro rimpianto per la scomparsa del piccolo proprietario terriero o dell’apprendista sia mera questione di sentimento. Sentimentale! Non siamo ancora sprofondati in un sentimentalismo tale da rammaricarci per apprendisti che non sono mai esistiti affatto. Non abbiamo ancora raggiunto quella ricchezza di emozione romantica per cui saremmo capaci di piangere più copiosamente per un immaginario garzone di droghiere che per un droghiere reale. Non siamo ancora così sdolcinati da vedere doppio quando guardiamo nel nostro amato negozietto; o da mettere il piccolo bottegaio a combattere con la propria ombra. Lasciamo questi pratici uomini d’affari dalla testa dura a versare lacrime sui dolori di un inesistente fattorino di bottega, e proseguiamo sul nostro cammino selvaggio ed erratico, che almeno per caso attraversa la terra dei vivi.
Ora, se un cambiamento anche così piccolo venisse fatto domani, farebbe una differenza: una differenza considerevole e crescente. E se qualche avventato apologeta dei Grandi Affari mi dice che una piccola cosa come quella potrebbe fare pochissima differenza, che stia in guardia. Perché sta facendo l’unica cosa che tali apologeti comunemente evitano sopra ogni altra: sta contraddicendo i suoi padroni. Tra le mille cose d’interesse, che si perdono nel milione di cose prive d’interesse, nei resoconti giornalistici del Parlamento e degli affari pubblici, ci fu davvero una deliziosa piccola commedia che trattava questo punto. Un uomo di senso normale e d’istinti popolari, che era finito in Parlamento per qualche errore o altro, fece davvero notare questo semplice fatto: che non c’era bisogno di proteggere il proletariato dove non c’era proletariato da proteggere; e che il solitario bottegaio poteva, dunque, restare nella sua solitaria bottega. E il Ministro incaricato della faccenda replicò davvero, con una spettrale innocenza, che era impossibile; perché sarebbe stato ingiusto verso i grandi negozi. Le lacrime scorrono evidentemente con facilità in tali ambienti, come scorrevano dal politico emergente, Lord Lundy; e in questo caso fu il semplice pensiero delle possibili sofferenze dei milionari a commuoverlo. Sorse dinanzi alla sua immaginazione il signor Selfridge nella sua agonia, e i gemiti del signor Woolworth, della Woolworth Tower, fremettero attraverso i cuori gentili ai quali il grido dei ricchi dolenti non giungerà mai invano. Ma qualunque cosa possiamo pensare della sensibilità necessaria per considerare i grandi proprietari di magazzini come oggetti di compassione, in ogni caso ciò liquida in un colpo tutto il fatalismo alla moda che vede qualcosa d’inevitabile nel loro successo. È assurdo dirci che il nostro attacco è destinato a fallire; e poi che ci sarebbe qualcosa di del tutto senza scrupoli nel suo riuscire così immediatamente. A quanto pare i Grandi Affari devono essere accettati perché sono invulnerabili, e risparmiati perché sono vulnerabili. Questa grande assurda bolla non può mai concepibilmente essere fatta scoppiare; ed è semplicemente crudele che una piccola puntura di spillo della concorrenza possa farla scoppiare.
I do not know whether the big shops are quite so weak and wobbly as their champion said. But whatever the immediate effect on the big shops, I am sure there would be an immediate effect on the little shops. I am sure that if they could trade on the general holiday, it would not only mean that there would be more trade for them, but that there would be more of them trading. It might mean at last a large class of little shopkeepers; and that is exactly the sort of thing that makes all the political difference, as it does in the case of a large class of little farmers. It is not in the merely mechanical sense a matter of numbers. It is a matter of the presence and pressure of a particular social type. It is not a question merely of how many noses are counted; but in the more real sense whether the noses count. If there were anything that could be called a class of peasants, or a class of small shopkeepers, they would make their presence felt in legislation, even if it were what is called class legislation. And the very existence of that third class would be the end of what is called the class war; in so far as its theory divides all men into employers and employed. I do not mean, of course, that this little legal alteration is the only one I have to propose; I mention it first because it is the most obvious. But I mention it also because it illustrates very clearly what I mean by the two stages: the nature of the negative and positive reform. If little shops began to gain custom and big shops began to lose it, it would mean two things, both indeed preliminary but both practical. It would mean that the mere centripetal rush was slowed down, if not stopped, and might at last change to a centrifugal movement. And it would mean that there were a number of new citizens in the State to whom all the ordinary Socialist or servile arguments were inapplicable. Now when you have got your considerable sprinkling of small proprietors, of men with the psychology and philosophy of small property, then you can begin to talk to them about something more like a just general settlement upon their own lines; something more like a land fit for Christians to live in. You can make them understand, as you cannot make plutocrats or proletarians understand, why the machine must not exist save as the servant of the man, why the things we produce ourselves are precious like our own children, and why we can pay too dearly for the possession of luxury by the loss of liberty. If bodies of men only begin to be detached from the servile settlements, they will begin to form the body of our public opinion. Now there are a large number of other advantages that could be given to the small man, which can be considered in their place. In all of them I presuppose a deliberate policy of favouring the small man. But in the primary example here given we can hardly even say that there is any question of favour. You make a law that slave-owners shall free their slaves for a day: the man who has no slaves is outside the thing entirely; he does not come under it in law, because he does not come into it in logic. He has been deliberately dragged into it; not in order that all slaves shall be free for a day, but in order that all free men shall be slaves for a lifetime. But while some of the expedients are only common justice to small property, and others are deliberate protection of small property, the point at the moment is that it will be worth while at the beginning to create small property though it were only on a small scale. English citizens and yeomen would once more exist; and wherever they exist they count. There are many other ways, which can be briefly described, by which the break-up of property can be encouraged on the legal and legislative side. I shall deal with some of them later, and especially with the real responsibility which Government might reasonably assume in a financial and economic condition which is becoming quite ludicrous. From the standpoint of any sane person, in any other society, the present problem of capitalist concentration is not only a question of law but of criminal law, not to mention criminal lunacy.
Of that monstrous megalomania of the big shops, with their blatant advertisements and stupid standardization, something is said elsewhere. But it may be well to add, in the matter of the small shops, that when once they exist they generally have an organization of their own which is much more self-respecting and much less vulgar. This voluntary organization, as every one knows, is called a Guild; and it is perfectly capable of doing everything that really needs to be done in the way of holidays and popular festivals. Twenty barbers would be quite capable of arranging with each other not to compete with each other on a particular festival or in a particular fashion, It is amusing to note that the same people who say that a Guild is a dead medieval thing that would never work are generally grumbling against the power of a Guild as a living modern thing where it is actually working. In the case of the Guild of the Doctors, for instance, it is made a matter of reproach in the newspapers, that the confederation in question refuses to “make medical discoveries accessible to the general public.” When we consider the wild and unbalanced nonsense that is made accessible to the general public by the public press, perhaps we have some reason to doubt whether our souls and bodies are not at least as safe in the hands of a Guild as they are likely to be in the hands of a Trust. For the moment the main point is that small shops can be governed even if they are not bossed by the Government. Horrible as this may seem to the democratic idealists of the day, they can be governed by themselves.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
IV THE TYRANNY OF TRUSTS
We have most of us met in literature, and even in life, a certain sort of old gentleman; he is very often represented by an old clergyman. He is the sort of man who has a horror of Socialists without any very definite idea of what they are. He is the man of whom men say that he means well; by which they mean that he means nothing. But this view is a little unjust to this social type. He is really something more than well-meaning; we might even go so far as to say that he would probably be right-thinking, if he ever thought. His principles would probably be sound enough if they were really applied; it is his practical ignorance that prevents him from knowing the world to which they are applicable. He might really be right, only he has no notion of what is wrong. Those who have sat under this old gentleman know that he is in the habit of softening his stern repudiation of the mysterious Socialists by saying that, of course, it is a Christian duty to use our wealth well, to remember that property is a trust committed to us by Providence for the good of others as well as ourselves, and even (unless the old gentleman is old enough to be a Modernist) that it is just possible that we may some day be asked a question or two about the abuse of such a trust. Now all this is perfectly true, so far as it goes, but it happens to illustrate in a rather curious way the queer and even uncanny innocence of the old gentleman. The very phrase that he uses, when he says that property is a trust committed to us by Providence, is a phrase which takes on, when it is uttered to the world around him, the character of an awful and appalling pun. His pathetic little sentence returns in a hundred howling echoes, repeating it again and again like the laughter of a hundred fiends in hell: “Property is a Trust.”
Non so se i grandi negozi siano proprio così deboli e traballanti come diceva il loro campione. Ma qualunque sia l’effetto immediato sui grandi negozi, sono certo che ci sarebbe un effetto immediato sui piccoli negozi. Sono certo che, se potessero commerciare nel giorno festivo generale, ciò non solo significherebbe che ci sarebbe più commercio per loro, ma che ce ne sarebbero di più a commerciare. Potrebbe significare finalmente una vasta classe di piccoli bottegai; ed è esattamente il genere di cosa che fa tutta la differenza politica, come avviene nel caso di una vasta classe di piccoli agricoltori. Non è, in senso meramente meccanico, questione di numeri. È questione della presenza e della pressione di un particolare tipo sociale. Non è questione soltanto di quanti nasi si contino; ma, in senso più reale, se i nasi contino. Se ci fosse qualcosa che si potesse chiamare una classe di contadini, o una classe di piccoli bottegai, essi farebbero sentire la loro presenza nella legislazione, anche se fosse quella che si chiama legislazione di classe. E la stessa esistenza di quella terza classe segnerebbe la fine di ciò che si chiama la lotta di classe; nella misura in cui la sua teoria divide tutti gli uomini in datori di lavoro e lavoratori. Non intendo, s’intende, che questa piccola modifica legale sia l’unica che ho da proporre; la menziono per prima perché è la più ovvia. Ma la menziono anche perché illustra assai chiaramente ciò che intendo con le due fasi: la natura della riforma negativa e positiva. Se i piccoli negozi cominciassero a guadagnare clientela e i grandi negozi a perderla, ciò significherebbe due cose, entrambe invero preliminari ma entrambe pratiche. Significherebbe che la mera corsa centripeta è rallentata, se non arrestata, e potrebbe infine mutarsi in movimento centrifugo. E significherebbe che ci sarebbe un certo numero di nuovi cittadini nello Stato ai quali tutti gli ordinari argomenti socialisti o servili sarebbero inapplicabili. Ora, quando avrete ottenuto la vostra considerevole spruzzata di piccoli proprietari, di uomini con la psicologia e la filosofia della piccola proprietà, allora potrete cominciare a parlar loro di qualcosa di più simile a un giusto assetto generale secondo le loro proprie linee; qualcosa di più simile a una terra adatta a esservi abitata da cristiani. Potrete far loro comprendere, come non potete far comprendere ai plutocrati o ai proletari, perché la macchina non debba esistere se non come serva dell’uomo, perché le cose che produciamo noi stessi siano preziose come i nostri stessi figli, e perché possiamo pagare troppo caro il possesso del lusso con la perdita della libertà. Se corpi di uomini cominciano soltanto a distaccarsi dagli insediamenti servili, cominceranno a formare il corpo della nostra opinione pubblica. Ora, c’è un gran numero di altri vantaggi che potrebbero essere concessi al piccolo uomo, che possono essere considerati a suo luogo. In tutti essi presuppongo una deliberata politica di favore verso il piccolo uomo. Ma nell’esempio primario qui dato non possiamo quasi nemmeno dire che vi sia questione alcuna di favore. Fate una legge secondo cui gli schiavisti debbano liberare i loro schiavi per un giorno: l’uomo che non ha schiavi è del tutto fuori dalla faccenda; non vi ricade in legge, perché non vi rientra in logica. Egli vi è stato deliberatamente trascinato; non affinché tutti gli schiavi siano liberi per un giorno, ma affinché tutti gli uomini liberi siano schiavi per una vita. Ma mentre alcuni degli espedienti sono soltanto comune giustizia verso la piccola proprietà, e altri sono deliberata protezione della piccola proprietà, il punto al momento è che varrà la pena, all’inizio, di creare piccola proprietà anche solo su piccola scala. Cittadini inglesi e piccoli proprietari terrieri esisterebbero di nuovo; e ovunque esistano, contano. Ci sono molti altri modi, che si possono descrivere brevemente, coi quali il frazionamento della proprietà può essere incoraggiato sul versante legale e legislativo. Ne tratterò alcuni più avanti, e specialmente la reale responsabilità che il Governo potrebbe ragionevolmente assumersi in una condizione finanziaria ed economica che sta diventando del tutto ridicola. Dal punto di vista di qualsiasi persona sana di mente, in qualsiasi altra società, l’attuale problema della concentrazione capitalista non è soltanto questione di legge ma di legge penale, per non dire di follia criminale.
Di quella mostruosa megalomania dei grandi negozi, con le loro sfacciate réclame e la loro stupida standardizzazione, si dice qualcosa altrove. Ma può esser bene aggiungere, in materia di piccoli negozi, che, una volta che esistono, essi hanno generalmente un’organizzazione propria che è assai più rispettosa di sé e assai meno volgare. Questa organizzazione volontaria, come tutti sanno, si chiama Corporazione; ed è perfettamente capace di fare tutto ciò che davvero occorre fare in fatto di giornate festive e feste popolari. Venti barbieri sarebbero perfettamente capaci di accordarsi tra loro per non farsi concorrenza in una particolare festività o in una particolare foggia. È divertente notare che le stesse persone che dicono che una Corporazione è una cosa medievale morta che non funzionerebbe mai brontolano generalmente contro il potere di una Corporazione come cosa moderna e viva là dove essa effettivamente funziona. Nel caso della Corporazione dei Medici, per esempio, si fa un rimprovero nei giornali del fatto che la confederazione in questione rifiuti di «rendere le scoperte mediche accessibili al pubblico generale». Quando consideriamo le sfrenate e squilibrate sciocchezze rese accessibili al pubblico generale dalla stampa pubblica, forse abbiamo qualche ragione di dubitare se le nostre anime e i nostri corpi non siano almeno tanto al sicuro nelle mani di una Corporazione quanto probabilmente lo sono nelle mani di un Trust. Per il momento il punto principale è che i piccoli negozi possono essere governati anche se non sono comandati dal Governo. Per orribile che ciò possa sembrare agli idealisti democratici dei nostri giorni, essi possono essere governati da se stessi.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
IV LA TIRANNIA DEI TRUST
La maggior parte di noi ha incontrato, nella letteratura e persino nella vita, un certo tipo di vecchio signore; è assai spesso rappresentato da un vecchio ecclesiastico. È il tipo d’uomo che ha orrore dei socialisti senza avere alcuna idea molto precisa di ciò che essi siano. È l’uomo del quale si dice che vuole il bene; con che si intende che non vuole nulla. Ma questa opinione è un po’ ingiusta verso questo tipo sociale. Egli è davvero qualcosa di più di un ben intenzionato; potremmo persino spingerci a dire che probabilmente penserebbe rettamente, se mai pensasse. I suoi princìpi sarebbero probabilmente abbastanza sani se fossero davvero applicati; è la sua ignoranza pratica che gli impedisce di conoscere il mondo cui essi sono applicabili. Potrebbe davvero aver ragione, solo che non ha nozione di ciò che è sbagliato. Coloro che hanno seguito le prediche di questo vecchio signore sanno che egli è solito attenuare la sua severa ripulsa dei misteriosi socialisti dicendo che, s’intende, è dovere cristiano usar bene la nostra ricchezza, ricordare che la proprietà è un deposito affidatoci dalla Provvidenza per il bene degli altri, come pure per noi stessi, e persino (a meno che il vecchio signore non sia abbastanza vecchio da essere un modernista) che è appena possibile che un giorno ci venga rivolta una domanda o due sull’abuso di tale deposito. Ora, tutto questo è perfettamente vero, per quanto arriva, ma dà il caso che illustri in modo piuttosto curioso la strana e persino inquietante innocenza del vecchio signore. La stessa frase che egli usa, quando dice che la proprietà è un deposito affidatoci dalla Provvidenza, è una frase che assume, quando è pronunciata al mondo intorno a lui, il carattere di un terribile e spaventoso gioco di parole. La sua patetica frasetta ritorna in cento echi urlanti, ripetendola ancora e ancora come la risata di cento demoni all’inferno: «La proprietà è un Trust».
Now I could not more conveniently sum up what I meant by this first section than by taking this type of the dear old conservative clergyman, and considering the curious way in which he has been first caught napping, and then as it were knocked on the head. The first thing we have had to explain to him is expressed in that horrible pun about the Trust. While he has been crying out against imaginary robbers, whom he calls Socialists, he has been caught and carried away bodily by real robbers, whom he still could not even imagine. For the gangs of gamblers who make the great combines are really gangs of robbers, in the sense that they have far less feeling than anybody else for that individual responsibility for individual gifts of God which the old gentleman very rightly calls a Christian duty. While he has been weaving words in the air about irrelevant ideals, he has been caught in a net woven out of the very opposite words and notions: impersonal, irresponsible, irreligious. The financial forces that surround him are further away than anything else from the domestic idea of ownership with which, to do him justice, he himself began. So that when he still bleats faintly, “Property is a trust,” we shall reply firmly, “A trust is not property.”
And now I come to the really extraordinary thing about the old gentleman. I mean that I come to the queerest fact about the conventional or conservative type in modern English society. And that is the fact that the same society, which began by saying there was no such danger to avoid, now says that the danger cannot possibly be avoided. Our whole capitalist community has taken one huge stride from the extreme of optimism to the extreme of pessimism. They began by saying that there could not be Trusts in this country. They have ended by saying that there cannot be anything else except Trusts in this age. And in the course of calling the same thing impossible on Monday and inevitable on Tuesday, they have saved the life of the great gambler or robber twice over; first by calling him a fabulous monster, and second by calling him an almighty fate. Twelve years ago, when I talked of Trusts, people said: “There are no Trusts in England.” Now, when I say it, the same people say: “But how do you propose that England should escape from the Trusts?” They talk as if the Trusts had always been a part of the British Constitution, not to mention the Solar System. In short, the pun and parable with which I began this article have exactly and ironically come true. The poor old clergyman is now really driven to talk as if a Trust with a big T were something that had been bestowed on him by Providence. He is driven to abandon all that he originally meant by his own curious sort of Christian individualism, and hastily reconcile himself to something that is more like a sort of plutocratic collectivism. He is beginning, in a rather bewildered way, to understand that he must now say that monopoly and not merely private property is a part of the nature of things. The net had been thrown over him while he slept, because he never thought of such a thing as a net; because he would have denied the very possibility of anybody weaving such a net. But now the poor old gentleman has to begin to talk as if he had been born in the net. Perhaps, as I say, he has had a knock on the head; perhaps, as his enemies say, he was always just a little weak in the head. But, anyhow, now that his head is in the noose, or the net, he will often start preaching to us about the impossibility of escaping from nets and nooses that are woven or spun upon the wheel of the fates. In a word, I wish to point out that the old gentleman was much too heedless about getting into the net and is much too hopeless about getting out of it.
In short, I would sum up my general suggestions so far by saying that the chief danger to be avoided now, and the first danger to be considered now, is the danger of supposing the capitalist conquest more complete than it is. If I may use the terms of the Penny Catechism about the two sins against hope, the peril now is no longer the peril of presumption but rather of despair. It is not mere impudence like that of those who told us, without winking an eyelid, that there were no Trusts in England. It is rather mere impotence like that of those who tell us that England must soon be swallowed up in an earthquake called America. Now this sort of surrender to modern monopoly is not only ignoble, it is also panic-stricken and premature. It is not true that we can do nothing. What I have written so far has been directed to showing the doubtful and the terrified that it is not true that we can do nothing. Even now there is something that can be done, and done at once; though the things so to be done may appear to be of different kinds and even of degrees of effectiveness. Even if we only save a shop in our own street or stop a conspiracy in our own trade, or get a Bill to punish such conspiracies pressed by our own member, we may come in the nick of time and make all the difference.
To vary the metaphor to a military one, what has happened is that the monopolists have attempted an encircling movement. But the encircling movement is not yet complete. Unless we do something it will be complete; but it is not true to say that we can do nothing to prevent it being completed. We are in favour of striking out, of making sorties or sallies, of trying to pierce certain points in the line (far enough apart and chosen for their weakness), of breaking through the gap in the uncompleted circle. Most people around us are for surrender to the surprise; precisely because it was to them so complete a surprise. Yesterday they denied that the enemy could encircle. The day before yesterday they denied that the enemy could exist. They are paralysed as by a prodigy. But just as we never agreed that the thing was impossible, so we do not now agree that it is irresistible. Action ought to have been taken long ago; but action can still be taken now. That is why it is worth while to dwell on the diverse expedients already given as examples. A chain is as strong as its weakest link; a battleline is as strong as its weakest man; an encircling movement is as strong as its weakest point, the point at which the circle may still be broken. Thus, to begin with, if anybody asks me in this matter, “What am I to do now?” I answer, “Do anything, however small, that will prevent the completion of the work of capitalist combination. Do anything that will even delay that completion. Save one shop out of a hundred shops. Save one croft out of a hundred crofts. Keep open one door out of a hundred doors; for so long as one door is open, we are not in prison. Throw up one barricade in their way, and you will soon see whether it is the way the world is going. Put one spoke in their wheel, and you will soon see whether it is the wheel of fate.” For it is of the essence of their enormous and unnatural effort that a small failure is as big as a big failure. The modern commercial combine has a great many points in common with a big balloon. It is swollen and yet it is swollen with levity; it climbs and yet it drifts; above all, it is full of gas, and generally of poison gas. But the resemblance most relevant here is that the smallest prick will shrivel the biggest balloon. If this tendency of our time received anything like a reasonably definite check, I believe the whole tendency would soon begin to weaken in its preposterous prestige. Until monopoly is monopolist it is nothing. Until the combine can combine everything, it is nothing. Ahab has not his kingdom so long as Naboth has his vineyard. Haman will not be happy in the palace while Mordecai is sitting in the gate. A hundred tales of human history are there to show that tendencies can be turned back, and that one stumbling-block can be the turning-point. The sands of time are simply dotted with single stakes that have thus marked the turn of the tide. The first step towards ultimately winning is to make sure that the enemy does not win, if it be only that he does not win everywhere. Then, when we have halted his rush, and perhaps fought it to a standstill, we may begin a general counter-attack. The nature of that counter-attack I shall next proceed to consider. In other words, I will try to explain to the old clergyman caught in the net (whose sufferings are ever before my eyes) what it will no doubt comfort him to know: that he was wrong from the first in thinking there could be no net; that he is wrong now in thinking there is no escape from the net; and that he will never know how wrong he was till he finds he has a net of his own, and is once more a fisher of men.
Ora, non potrei riassumere più convenientemente ciò che intendevo con questa prima sezione se non prendendo questo tipo del caro vecchio ecclesiastico conservatore, e considerando il modo curioso in cui egli è stato dapprima colto alla sprovvista, e poi, per così dire, colpito alla testa. La prima cosa che abbiamo dovuto spiegargli è espressa in quell’orribile gioco di parole sul Trust. Mentre andava gridando contro immaginari ladri, che chiama socialisti, è stato afferrato e portato via di peso da ladri reali, che egli tuttora non riusciva nemmeno a immaginare. Poiché le bande di giocatori d’azzardo che formano i grandi cartelli sono davvero bande di ladri, nel senso che hanno assai meno sentimento di chiunque altro per quella responsabilità individuale verso i doni individuali di Dio che il vecchio signore assai giustamente chiama dovere cristiano. Mentre andava tessendo parole nell’aria intorno a ideali irrilevanti, è stato preso in una rete tessuta con le parole e le nozioni del tutto opposte: impersonali, irresponsabili, irreligiose. Le forze finanziarie che lo circondano sono più lontane di qualsiasi altra cosa dall’idea domestica della proprietà con cui, a rendergli giustizia, egli stesso aveva cominciato. Sicché, quando ancora bela debolmente: «La proprietà è un deposito», noi risponderemo fermamente: «Un deposito non è proprietà».
E ora giungo alla cosa davvero straordinaria riguardo al vecchio signore. Intendo dire che giungo al fatto più strano riguardo al tipo convenzionale o conservatore nella moderna società inglese. E cioè il fatto che la stessa società, che cominciò col dire che non c’era alcun pericolo simile da evitare, ora dice che il pericolo non può assolutamente essere evitato. La nostra intera comunità capitalista ha fatto un unico enorme balzo dall’estremo dell’ottimismo all’estremo del pessimismo. Cominciarono col dire che non potevano esserci Trust in questo paese. Hanno finito col dire che non può esserci nient’altro che Trust in questa epoca. E nel corso del chiamare la stessa cosa impossibile il lunedì e inevitabile il martedì, hanno salvato la vita del grande giocatore d’azzardo o ladro per ben due volte; prima chiamandolo un favoloso mostro, e poi chiamandolo un fato onnipotente. Dodici anni fa, quando parlavo di Trust, la gente diceva: «Non ci sono Trust in Inghilterra». Ora, quando lo dico, le stesse persone dicono: «Ma come proponete che l’Inghilterra sfugga ai Trust?». Parlano come se i Trust fossero sempre stati parte della Costituzione britannica, per non dire del Sistema Solare. In breve, il gioco di parole e la parabola con cui ho cominciato questo articolo si sono avverati esattamente e ironicamente. Il povero vecchio ecclesiastico è ora davvero costretto a parlare come se un Trust con la T maiuscola fosse qualcosa che gli fosse stato conferito dalla Provvidenza. È costretto ad abbandonare tutto ciò che originariamente intendeva col suo curioso genere di individualismo cristiano, e a riconciliarsi in fretta con qualcosa che è più simile a una sorta di collettivismo plutocratico. Comincia, in modo piuttosto sconcertato, a capire che deve ora dire che il monopolio, e non la mera proprietà privata, è parte della natura delle cose. La rete gli era stata gettata addosso mentre dormiva, perché non aveva mai pensato a una cosa come una rete; perché avrebbe negato la possibilità stessa che qualcuno tessesse una tale rete. Ma ora il povero vecchio signore deve cominciare a parlare come se fosse nato nella rete. Forse, come dico, ha avuto un colpo alla testa; forse, come dicono i suoi nemici, è stato sempre un po’ debole di testa. Ma, comunque sia, ora che la sua testa è nel cappio, o nella rete, egli si metterà spesso a predicarci sull’impossibilità di sfuggire a reti e cappi che sono tessuti o filati sulla ruota dei fati. In una parola, desidero far notare che il vecchio signore fu assai troppo incurante nell’entrare nella rete ed è assai troppo disperato riguardo all’uscirne.
In breve, riassumerei i miei suggerimenti generali fin qui dicendo che il pericolo principale da evitare ora, e il primo pericolo da considerare ora, è il pericolo di supporre la conquista capitalista più completa di quanto sia. Se posso usare i termini del Penny Catechism circa i due peccati contro la speranza, il pericolo ora non è più il pericolo della presunzione ma piuttosto della disperazione. Non è mera sfrontatezza come quella di coloro che ci dicevano, senza batter ciglio, che non c’erano Trust in Inghilterra. È piuttosto mera impotenza come quella di coloro che ci dicono che l’Inghilterra sarà presto inghiottita in un terremoto chiamato America. Ora, questo genere di resa al monopolio moderno non è soltanto ignobile, è anche in preda al panico e prematuro. Non è vero che non possiamo far nulla. Ciò che ho scritto finora è stato diretto a mostrare ai dubbiosi e ai terrorizzati che non è vero che non possiamo far nulla. Anche ora c’è qualcosa che può essere fatto, e fatto subito; benché le cose così da farsi possano apparire di generi diversi e persino di gradi diversi di efficacia. Anche se salviamo soltanto una bottega nella nostra strada o fermiamo una cospirazione nel nostro commercio, o facciamo premere dal nostro deputato una legge per punire tali cospirazioni, possiamo arrivare giusto in tempo e fare tutta la differenza.
Per variare la metafora in una militare, ciò che è accaduto è che i monopolisti hanno tentato un movimento di accerchiamento. Ma il movimento di accerchiamento non è ancora completo. A meno che non facciamo qualcosa, sarà completo; ma non è vero dire che non possiamo far nulla per impedire che sia completato. Noi siamo favorevoli a sferrare colpi, a fare sortite o incursioni, a tentare di perforare certi punti della linea (abbastanza distanti tra loro e scelti per la loro debolezza), a sfondare attraverso la breccia nel cerchio incompleto. La maggior parte della gente intorno a noi è per la resa alla sorpresa; proprio perché per loro fu una sorpresa così completa. Ieri negavano che il nemico potesse accerchiare. L’altro ieri negavano che il nemico potesse esistere. Sono paralizzati come da un prodigio. Ma proprio come non abbiamo mai convenuto che la cosa fosse impossibile, così ora non conveniamo che sia irresistibile. L’azione avrebbe dovuto essere intrapresa molto tempo fa; ma l’azione può essere intrapresa ancora ora. Ecco perché vale la pena soffermarsi sui diversi espedienti già dati come esempi. Una catena è forte quanto il suo anello più debole; una linea di battaglia è forte quanto il suo uomo più debole; un movimento di accerchiamento è forte quanto il suo punto più debole, il punto in cui il cerchio può ancora essere spezzato. Così, per cominciare, se qualcuno mi chiede in questa faccenda: «Che cosa devo fare ora?», io rispondo: «Fa’ qualsiasi cosa, per quanto piccola, che impedisca il completamento dell’opera della combinazione capitalista. Fa’ qualsiasi cosa che anche solo ritardi quel completamento. Salva una bottega su cento botteghe. Salva un podere su cento poderi. Tieni aperta una porta su cento porte; poiché finché una porta è aperta, non siamo in prigione. Erigi una barricata sul loro cammino, e vedrai presto se è la direzione in cui va il mondo. Metti un raggio nella loro ruota, e vedrai presto se è la ruota del fato». Poiché è dell’essenza del loro enorme e innaturale sforzo che un piccolo fallimento sia grande quanto un grande fallimento. Il moderno cartello commerciale ha moltissimi punti in comune con un grande pallone aerostatico. È gonfio eppure è gonfio di leggerezza; sale eppure va alla deriva; soprattutto, è pieno di gas, e generalmente di gas velenoso. Ma la somiglianza più pertinente qui è che la più piccola puntura raggrinzirà il più grande pallone. Se questa tendenza del nostro tempo ricevesse qualcosa come un freno ragionevolmente definito, credo che l’intera tendenza comincerebbe presto a indebolirsi nel suo assurdo prestigio. Finché il monopolio non è monopolista, non è nulla. Finché il cartello non può combinare ogni cosa, non è nulla. Acab non ha il suo regno finché Nabot ha la sua vigna. Aman non sarà felice nel palazzo finché Mardocheo siede alla porta. Cento racconti della storia umana sono lì a mostrare che le tendenze possono essere invertite, e che un solo ostacolo può essere il punto di svolta. Le sabbie del tempo sono semplicemente costellate di singoli paletti che hanno così segnato il volgere della marea. Il primo passo verso la vittoria finale è assicurarsi che il nemico non vinca, non fosse altro che non vinca dovunque. Poi, quando avremo arrestato la sua corsa, e forse l’avremo combattuta fino a fermarla, potremo cominciare un contrattacco generale. La natura di quel contrattacco procederò a considerarla in seguito. In altre parole, cercherò di spiegare al vecchio ecclesiastico preso nella rete (le cui sofferenze sono sempre davanti ai miei occhi) ciò che senza dubbio lo conforterà sapere: che aveva torto fin dal principio nel pensare che non potesse esserci alcuna rete; che ha torto ora nel pensare che non ci sia via d’uscita dalla rete; e che non saprà mai quanto avesse torto finché non scoprirà di avere una rete propria, e di essere ancora una volta un pescatore di uomini.
I began by enunciating the paradox that one way of supporting small shops would be to support them. Everybody could do it, but nobody can imagine it being done. In one sense nothing is so simple, and in another nothing is so hard. I went on to point out that without any sweeping change at all, the mere modification of existing laws would probably call thousands of little shops into life and activity. I may have occasion to return to the little shops at greater length; but for the moment I am only running rapidly through certain separate examples, to show that the citadel of plutocracy could even now be attacked from many different sides. It could be met by a concerted effort in the open field of competition. It could be checked by the creation or even correction of a large number of little laws. Thirdly, it could be attacked by the more sweeping operation of larger laws. But when we come to these, even at this stage, we also come into collision with larger questions.
The common sense of Christendom, for ages on end, has assumed that it was as possible to punish cornering as to punish coining. Yet to most readers to-day there seems a sort of vital contradiction, echoed in the verbal contradiction of saying, “Put not your trust in Trusts.” Yet to our fathers this would not seem even so much of a paradox as saying, “Put not your trust in princes,” but rather like saying, “Put not your trust in pirates.” But in applying this to modern conditions, we are checked first by a very modern sophistry.
When we say that a corner should be treated as a conspiracy, we are always told that the conspiracy is too elaborate to be unravelled. In other words, we are told that the conspirators are too conspiratorial to be caught. Now it is exactly at this point that my simple and childlike confidence in the business expert entirely breaks down. My attitude, a moment ago trustful and confiding, becomes disrespectful and frivolous. I am willing to agree that I do not know much about the details of business, but not that nobody could possibly ever come to know anything about them. I am willing to believe that there are people in the world who like to feel that they depend for the bread of life on one particular bounder, who probably began by making large profits on short weight. I am willing to believe that there are people so strangely constituted that they like to see a great nation held up by a small gang, more lawless than brigands but not so brave. In short, I am willing to admit that there may be people who trust in Trusts. I admit it with tears, like those of the benevolent captain in the Bab Ballads who said:
“It’s human nature p’raps; if so, Oh, isn’t human nature low?”
I myself doubt whether it is quite so low as that; but I admit the possibility of this utter lowness; I admit it with weeping and lamentation. But when they tell me it would be impossible to find out whether a man is making a Trust or not—that is quite another thing. My demeanour alters. My spirits revive. When I am told that if cornering were a crime nobody could be convicted of that crime— then I laugh; nay, I jeer.
A murder is usually committed, we may infer, when one gentleman takes a dislike to the appearance of another gentleman in Piccadilly Circus at eleven o’clock in the morning; and steps up to the object of his distaste and dexterously cuts his throat. He then walks across to the kind policeman who is regulating the traffic, and draws his attention to the presence of the corpse on the pavement, consulting him about how to dispose of the encumbrance. That is apparently how these people expect financial crimes to be done, in order to be discovered. Sometimes indeed they are done almost as brazenly, in communities where they can safely be discovered. But the theory of legal impotence looks very extraordinary when we consider the sort of things that the police do discover. Look at the sort of murders they discover. An utterly ordinary and obscure man in some hole-and-corner house or tenement among ten thousand like it, washes his hands in a sink in a back scullery; the operation taking two minutes. The police can discover that, but they could not possibly discover the meeting of men or the sending of messages that turn the whole commercial world upside down. They can track a man that nobody has ever heard of to a place where nobody knew he was going, to do something that he took every possible precaution that nobody should see. But they cannot keep a watch on a man that everybody has heard of, to see whether he communicates with another man that everybody has heard of, in order to do something that nearly everybody knows he is trying all his life to do. They can tell us all about the movements of a man whose own wife or partner or landlady does not profess to know his movements; but they cannot tell when a great combination covering half the earth is on the move. Are the police really so foolish as this; or are they at once so foolish and so wise? Or if the police were as helpless as Sherlock Holmes thought them, what about Sherlock Holmes? What about the ardent amateur detective about whom all of us have read and some of us (alas!) have written. Is there no inspired sleuth to succeed where all the police have failed; and prove conclusively from a greasy spot on the tablecloth that Mr. Rockefeller is interested in oil? Is there no keen-faced man to infer from the late Lord Leverhulme buying up a crowd of soap-businesses that he was interested in soap? I feel inclined to write a new series of detective stories myself, about the discovery of these obscure and cryptic things. They would describe Sherlock Holmes with his monstrous magnifying-glass poring over a paper and making out one of the headlines letter by letter. They would show us Watson standing in amazement at the discovery of the Bank of England. My stories would bear the traditional sort of titles, such as “The Secret of the Skysign” and “The Mystery of the Megaphone” and “The Adventure of the Unnoticed Hoarding.”
Ho cominciato enunciando il paradosso che un modo di sostenere i piccoli negozi sarebbe sostenerli. Chiunque potrebbe farlo, ma nessuno riesce a immaginarlo fatto. In un senso nulla è così semplice, e in un altro nulla è così difficile. Ho proseguito facendo notare che, senza alcun cambiamento radicale, la mera modifica delle leggi esistenti chiamerebbe probabilmente migliaia di piccoli negozi alla vita e all’attività. Potrò aver occasione di tornare ai piccoli negozi più a lungo; ma per il momento sto solo passando rapidamente in rassegna certi esempi separati, per mostrare che la cittadella della plutocrazia potrebbe anche ora essere attaccata da molti lati diversi. Potrebbe essere affrontata con uno sforzo concertato nel campo aperto della concorrenza. Potrebbe essere frenata con la creazione o persino la correzione di un gran numero di piccole leggi. In terzo luogo, potrebbe essere attaccata con l’operazione più radicale di leggi più ampie. Ma quando veniamo a queste, anche a questo stadio, veniamo pure a collisione con questioni più ampie.
Il buon senso della Cristianità, per secoli e secoli, ha dato per scontato che fosse tanto possibile punire l’accaparramento quanto punire la falsificazione della moneta. Eppure alla maggior parte dei lettori d’oggi pare esservi una sorta di contraddizione vitale, echeggiata nella contraddizione verbale del dire: «Non riporre la tua fiducia nei Trust». Eppure per i nostri padri questo non sarebbe parso nemmeno tanto un paradosso quanto il dire: «Non riporre la tua fiducia nei prìncipi», ma piuttosto come il dire: «Non riporre la tua fiducia nei pirati». Ma nell’applicare ciò alle condizioni moderne, siamo frenati anzitutto da un sofisma assai moderno.
Quando diciamo che un accaparramento dovrebbe essere trattato come una cospirazione, ci si dice sempre che la cospirazione è troppo elaborata per essere districata. In altre parole, ci si dice che i cospiratori sono troppo cospiratori per essere presi. Ora, è esattamente a questo punto che la mia semplice e infantile fiducia nell’esperto d’affari crolla del tutto. Il mio atteggiamento, un momento fa fiducioso e confidente, diventa irrispettoso e frivolo. Sono disposto ad ammettere di non saperne molto dei dettagli degli affari, ma non che nessuno possa mai giungere a saperne alcunché. Sono disposto a credere che ci siano persone al mondo a cui piace sentire di dipendere, per il pane della vita, da un particolare mascalzone, che probabilmente cominciò facendo lauti profitti sul peso scarso. Sono disposto a credere che ci siano persone così stranamente costituite a cui piace vedere una grande nazione tenuta in scacco da una piccola banda, più fuorilegge dei briganti ma non altrettanto coraggiosa. In breve, sono disposto ad ammettere che possano esserci persone che ripongono fiducia nei Trust. Lo ammetto con lacrime, come quelle del benevolo capitano nelle Bab Ballads che disse:
«È natura umana, forse; se è così, oh, non è forse bassa la natura umana?»
Io stesso dubito che sia proprio così bassa; ma ammetto la possibilità di questa estrema bassezza; l’ammetto con pianto e lamento. Ma quando mi dicono che sarebbe impossibile scoprire se un uomo sta formando un Trust o no — questa è tutt’altra cosa. Il mio contegno muta. Il mio spirito si ravviva. Quando mi si dice che, se l’accaparramento fosse un reato, nessuno potrebbe esserne condannato — allora rido; anzi, sghignazzo.
Un omicidio viene di solito commesso, possiamo dedurre, quando un gentiluomo prende in antipatia l’aspetto di un altro gentiluomo in Piccadilly Circus alle ore undici del mattino; e si avvicina all’oggetto della sua avversione e destramente gli taglia la gola. Attraversa poi la strada verso il gentile poliziotto che regola il traffico, e ne richiama l’attenzione sulla presenza del cadavere sul marciapiede, consultandolo su come sbarazzarsi dell’ingombro. Ecco, a quanto pare, come costoro si aspettano che i crimini finanziari siano compiuti, perché siano scoperti. Talvolta, in effetti, sono compiuti quasi altrettanto sfacciatamente, in comunità dove possono essere scoperti senza rischio. Ma la teoria dell’impotenza legale appare assai straordinaria quando consideriamo il genere di cose che la polizia scopre davvero. Guardate il genere di omicidi che scopre. Un uomo del tutto ordinario e oscuro, in qualche sperduta casa o casamento tra diecimila simili, si lava le mani in un acquaio in un retrocucina; operazione che dura due minuti. La polizia sa scoprire questo, ma non potrebbe in alcun modo scoprire l’incontro di uomini o l’invio di messaggi che mettono l’intero mondo commerciale sottosopra. Sanno rintracciare un uomo di cui nessuno ha mai sentito parlare fino a un luogo dove nessuno sapeva che stesse andando, per fare qualcosa che egli ha preso ogni possibile precauzione perché nessuno vedesse. Ma non sanno tenere d’occhio un uomo di cui tutti hanno sentito parlare, per vedere se comunica con un altro uomo di cui tutti hanno sentito parlare, allo scopo di fare qualcosa che quasi tutti sanno che egli cerca per tutta la vita di fare. Sanno dirci tutto sugli spostamenti di un uomo la cui stessa moglie o socio o padrona di casa non pretende di conoscerne gli spostamenti; ma non sanno dire quando una grande combinazione che copre metà della terra è in movimento. È davvero così sciocca la polizia; o è al tempo stesso così sciocca e così saggia? O se la polizia fosse tanto impotente quanto la riteneva Sherlock Holmes, che dire di Sherlock Holmes? Che dire dell’ardente detective dilettante di cui tutti noi abbiamo letto e alcuni di noi (ahimè!) hanno scritto? Non c’è alcun ispirato segugio che riesca là dove tutta la polizia ha fallito; e provi conclusivamente, da una macchia unta sulla tovaglia, che il signor Rockefeller ha interessi nel petrolio? Non c’è alcun uomo dal volto acuto che deduca, dal defunto Lord Leverhulme che compra in blocco una moltitudine di aziende di sapone, che egli aveva interessi nel sapone? Mi sento incline a scrivere io stesso una nuova serie di storie di detective, sulla scoperta di queste oscure e criptiche cose. Descriverebbero Sherlock Holmes con la sua mostruosa lente d’ingrandimento chino su un giornale, decifrando uno dei titoli lettera per lettera. Ci mostrerebbero Watson che sta a bocca aperta per la scoperta della Banca d’Inghilterra. Le mie storie porterebbero il tradizionale tipo di titoli, come «Il segreto dell’insegna luminosa» e «Il mistero del megafono» e «L’avventura del cartellone inosservato».
What these people really mean is that they cannot imagine cornering being treated like coining. They cannot imagine attempted forestalling, or, indeed, any activity of the rich, coming into the realm of the criminal law at all. It would give them a shock to think of such men subjected to such tests. I will give one obvious example. The science of finger-prints is perpetually paraded before us by the criminologists when they merely want to glorify their not very glorious science. Finger-prints would prove as easily whether a millionaire had used a pen as whether a housebreaker had used a jemmy. They might show as clearly that a financier had used a telephone as that a burglar had used a ladder. But if we began to talk about taking the finger-prints of financiers, everybody would think it was a joke. And so it is: a very grim joke. The laughter that leaps up spontaneously at the suggestion is itself a proof that nobody takes seriously, or thinks of taking seriously, the idea of rich men and poor being equal before the law.
That is the reason why we do not treat Trust magnates and monopolists as they would be treated under the old laws of popular justice. And that is the reason why I take their case at this stage, and in this section of my remarks, along with such apparently light and superficial things as transferring custom from one shop to another. It is because in both cases it is a question wholly and solely of moral will; and not in the least, in any sense, a question of economic law. In other words, it is a lie to say that we cannot make a law to imprison monopolists, or pillory monopolists, or hang monopolists if we choose, as our fathers did before us. And in the same sense it is a lie to say that we cannot help buying the best advertised goods or going to the biggest shop or falling in, in our general social habits, with the general social trend. We could help it in a hundred ways; from the very simple one of walking out of a shop to the more ceremonial one of hanging a man on a gallows. If we mean that we do not want to help it, that may be very true, and even in some cases very right. But arresting a forestaller is as easy as falling off a log or walking out of a shop. Putting the log-roller in prison is no more impossible than walking out of the shop is impossible; and it is highly desirable for the health of this discussion that we should realize the fact from the first. Practically about half of the recognized expedients by which a big business is now made have been marked down as a crime in some community of the past; and could be so marked in a community of the future. I can only refer to them here in the most cursory fashion. One of them is the process against which the statesmen of the most respectable party rave day and night so long as they can pretend that it is only done by foreigners. It is called Dumping. There is a policy of deliberately selling at a loss to destroy another man’s market. Another is: a process against which the same statesmen of the same party actually have attempted to legislate, so long as it was confined to moneylenders. Unfortunately, however, it is not by any means confined to moneylenders. It is the trick of tying a poorer man up in a tangle of all sorts of obligations that he cannot ultimately discharge, except by selling his shop or business. It is done in one form by giving to the desperate things on the instalment plan or on long credit. All these conspiracies I would have tried as we try a conspiracy to overthrow the State or to shoot the King. We do not expect the man to write the King a post-card, telling him he is to be shot, or to give warning in the newspapers of the Day of Revolution. Such plots have always been judged in the only way in which they can be judged: by the use of common sense as to the existence of a purpose and the apparent existence of a plan. But we shall never have a real civic sense until it is once more felt that the plot of three citizens against one citizen is a crime, as well as the plot of one citizen against three. In other words, private property ought to be protected against private crime, just as public order is protected against private judgment. But private property ought to be protected against much bigger things than burglars and pick-pockets. It needs protection against the plots of a whole plutocracy. It needs defence against the rich, who are now generally the rulers who ought to defend it. It may not be difficult to explain why they do not defend it. But anyhow, in all these cases, the difficulty is in imagining people wanting to do it; not in imagining people doing it. By all means let people say that they do not think the ideal of the Distributive State is worth the risk or even worth the trouble. But do not let them say that no human being in the past has ever taken any risk; or that no children of Adam are capable of taking any trouble. If they chose to take half as much risk to achieve justice as they have already taken to achieve degradation, if they toiled half as laboriously to make anything beautiful as they toiled to make everything ugly, if they had served their God as they have served their Pork King and their Petrol King, the success of our whole Distributive democracy would stare at the world like one of their flaming sky-signs and scrape the sky like one of their crazy towers.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Ciò che questa gente intende davvero è che non riesce a immaginare l’accaparramento trattato come la falsificazione della moneta. Non riesce a immaginare la tentata incetta, o, invero, alcuna attività dei ricchi, entrare affatto nel regno della legge penale. Darebbe loro uno shock pensare a uomini simili sottoposti a simili prove. Darò un esempio ovvio. La scienza delle impronte digitali ci è perpetuamente ostentata dai criminologi quando vogliono soltanto glorificare la loro non troppo gloriosa scienza. Le impronte digitali proverebbero tanto facilmente se un milionario abbia usato una penna quanto se uno scassinatore abbia usato un piede di porco. Potrebbero mostrare tanto chiaramente che un finanziere ha usato un telefono quanto che un ladro ha usato una scala. Ma se cominciassimo a parlare di prendere le impronte digitali dei finanzieri, tutti penserebbero che fosse uno scherzo. E lo è: uno scherzo assai amaro. La risata che scaturisce spontanea a tale suggerimento è essa stessa una prova che nessuno prende sul serio, né pensa di prendere sul serio, l’idea che ricchi e poveri siano uguali davanti alla legge.
Ecco la ragione per cui non trattiamo i magnati dei Trust e i monopolisti come sarebbero trattati sotto le antiche leggi della giustizia popolare. Ed ecco la ragione per cui prendo il loro caso a questo stadio, e in questa sezione delle mie osservazioni, insieme a cose apparentemente così lievi e superficiali come il trasferire la clientela da un negozio a un altro. È perché in entrambi i casi si tratta interamente e unicamente di volontà morale; e per nulla, in alcun senso, di legge economica. In altre parole, è una menzogna dire che non possiamo fare una legge per imprigionare i monopolisti, o mettere alla gogna i monopolisti, o impiccare i monopolisti se lo scegliamo, come fecero i nostri padri prima di noi. E nello stesso senso è una menzogna dire che non possiamo fare a meno di comprare le merci più pubblicizzate o di andare al negozio più grande o di adeguarci, nelle nostre generali abitudini sociali, alla generale tendenza sociale. Potremmo farne a meno in cento modi; dal più semplice, che è uscire da un negozio, al più cerimonioso, che è impiccare un uomo a una forca. Se intendiamo che non vogliamo farne a meno, ciò può esser verissimo, e persino in certi casi giustissimo. Ma arrestare un accaparratore è facile come cadere da un tronco o uscire da un negozio. Mettere in prigione l’incettatore non è più impossibile di quanto sia impossibile uscire dal negozio; ed è altamente desiderabile, per la salute di questa discussione, che ce ne rendiamo conto fin dal principio. Praticamente circa la metà degli espedienti riconosciuti coi quali oggi si costruisce un grande affare sono stati bollati come reato in qualche comunità del passato; e potrebbero esser così bollati in una comunità del futuro. Posso qui riferirmi ad essi soltanto nel modo più sommario. Uno di essi è il processo contro cui gli statisti del partito più rispettabile inveiscono giorno e notte fintanto che possono fingere che sia compiuto solo da stranieri. Si chiama Dumping. È una politica del vendere deliberatamente in perdita per distruggere il mercato di un altro uomo. Un altro è: un processo contro cui gli stessi statisti dello stesso partito hanno effettivamente tentato di legiferare, fintanto che era limitato agli usurai. Purtroppo, però, non è affatto limitato agli usurai. È il trucco di irretire un uomo più povero in un groviglio di ogni sorta di obbligazioni che egli non può in ultimo estinguere, se non vendendo il suo negozio o la sua attività. Si fa in una forma dando ai disperati le cose a rate o a lungo credito. Tutte queste cospirazioni le processerei come processiamo una cospirazione per rovesciare lo Stato o per uccidere il Re. Non ci aspettiamo che l’uomo scriva al Re una cartolina, dicendogli che sarà ucciso, o che dia avviso nei giornali del Giorno della Rivoluzione. Tali trame sono sempre state giudicate nell’unico modo in cui possono essere giudicate: mediante l’uso del buon senso quanto all’esistenza di uno scopo e all’apparente esistenza di un piano. Ma non avremo mai un vero senso civico finché non si senta di nuovo che la trama di tre cittadini contro un cittadino è un reato, così come la trama di un cittadino contro tre. In altre parole, la proprietà privata dovrebbe essere protetta contro il crimine privato, proprio come l’ordine pubblico è protetto contro il giudizio privato. Ma la proprietà privata dovrebbe essere protetta contro cose assai più grandi degli scassinatori e dei borseggiatori. Ha bisogno di protezione contro le trame di un’intera plutocrazia. Ha bisogno di difesa contro i ricchi, che ora sono generalmente i governanti che dovrebbero difenderla. Può non esser difficile spiegare perché non la difendano. Ma comunque, in tutti questi casi, la difficoltà sta nell’immaginare gente che voglia farlo; non nell’immaginare gente che lo faccia. Si dica pure che non si ritiene che l’ideale dello Stato Distributivo valga il rischio o persino valga la pena. Ma non si dica che nessun essere umano in passato abbia mai corso alcun rischio; o che nessun figlio di Adamo sia capace di prendersi alcuna briga. Se scegliessero di correre metà del rischio per conseguire la giustizia di quanto ne hanno già corso per conseguire la degradazione, se faticassero la metà per fare qualcosa di bello di quanto hanno faticato per fare ogni cosa brutta, se avessero servito il loro Dio come hanno servito il loro Re del Maiale e il loro Re del Petrolio, il successo della nostra intera democrazia Distributiva balenerebbe agli occhi del mondo come una delle loro fiammeggianti insegne luminose e graffierebbe il cielo come una delle loro folli torri.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
III SOME ASPECTS OF THE LAND
- The Simple Truth
- Vows and Volunteers
- The Real Life on the Land
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
III ALCUNI ASPETTI DELLA TERRA
- La semplice Verità
- Voti e volontari
- La vera vita sulla terra
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
I THE SIMPLE TRUTH
All of us, or at least all those of my generation, heard in our youth an anecdote about George Stephenson, the discoverer of the Locomotive Steam-Engine. It was said that some miserable rustic raised the objection that it would be very awkward if a cow strayed on the railway line, whereupon the inventor replied, “It would be very awkward for the cow.” It is supremely characteristic of his age and school that it never seemed to occur to anybody that it might be rather awkward for the rustic who owned the cow.
Long before we heard that anecdote, however, we had probably heard another and more exciting anecdote called “Jack and the Beanstalk.” That story begins with the strange and startling words, “There once was a poor woman who had a cow.” It would be a wild paradox in modern England to imagine that a poor woman could have a cow; but things seem to have been different in ruder and more superstitious ages. Anyhow, she evidently would not have had a cow long in the sympathetic atmosphere of Stephenson and his steam-engine. The train went forward, the cow was killed in due course; and the state of mind of the old woman was described as the Depression of Agriculture. But everybody was so happy in travelling in trains and making it awkward for cows that nobody noticed that other difficulties remained. When wars or revolutions cut us off from cows, the industrialists discovered that milk does not come originally from cans. On this fact some of us have founded the idea that the cow (and even the miserable rustic) have a use in society, and have been prepared to concede her as much as three acres. But it will be well at this stage to repeat that we do not propose that every acre should be covered with cows; and do not propose to eliminate townspeople as they would eliminate rustics. On many minor points we might have to compromise with conditions, especially at first. But even my ideal, if ever I found it at last, would be what some call a compromise. Only I think it more accurate to call it a balance. For I do not think that the sun compromises with the rain when together they make a garden; or that the rose that grows there is a compromise between green and red. But I mean that even my Utopia would contain different things of different types holding on different tenures: that as in a medieval state there were some peasants, some monasteries, some common land, some private land, some town guilds, and so on, so in my modern state there would be some things nationalized, some machines owned corporately, some guilds sharing common profits, and so on, as well as many absolute individual owners, where such individual owners are most possible. But with these latter it is well to begin, because they are meant to give, and nearly always do give, the standard and tone of the society.
Among the things we have heard a thousand times is the statement that the English are a slow people, a cautious people, a conservative people, and so on. When we have heard a thing as many times as that, we generally either accept it as a truism, or suddenly see that it is quite untrue. And in this case it is quite untrue. The real peculiarity of England is that it is the only country on earth that has not got a conservative class. There are a large number, possibly a majority, of people who call themselves conservative. But the more they are examined, the less conservative they will appear. The commercial class that is in a special sense capitalist is in its nature the very opposite of conservative. By its own profession, it proclaims that it is perpetually using new methods and seeking for new markets. To some of us there seems to be something exceedingly stale about all that novelty. But that is because of the type of mind that is inventing, not because it does not mean to invent. From the biggest financier floating a company to the smallest tout peddling a sewing-machine, the same ideal prevails. It must always be a new company, especially after what has generally happened to the old company. And the sewing-machine must always be a new sort of sewing-machine, even if it is the sort that does not sew. But while this is obvious of the mere capitalist, it is equally true of the pure oligarch. Whatever else an aristocracy is, an aristocracy is never conservative. By its very nature it goes by fashion rather than by tradition. Men living a life of leisure and luxury are always eager for new things; we might fairly say they would be fools if they weren’t. And the English aristocrats are by no means fools. They can proudly claim to have played a great part in every stage of the intellectual progress that has brought us to our present ruin.
The first fact about establishing an English peasantry is that it is establishing, for the first time for many centuries, a traditional class. The absence of such a class will be found to be a very terrible fact, if the tug really becomes between Bolshevism and the historic ideal of property. But the converse is equally true and much more comforting. This difference in the quality means that the change will begin to be effective merely by quantity. I mean that we have not been concerned so much with the strength or weakness of a peasantry, as with presence or absence of a peasantry. As the society has suffered from its mere absence, so the society will begin to change by its mere presence. It will be a somewhat different England in which the peasant has to be considered at all. It will begin to alter the look of things, even when politicians think about peasants as often as they do about doctors. They have been known even to think about soldiers.
The primary case for the peasant is of a stark and almost savage simplicity. A man in England might live on the land, if he did not have rent to pay to the landlord and wages to pay to the labourer. He would therefore be better off, even on a small scale, if he were his own landlord and his own labourer. But there are obviously certain further considerations, and to my mind certain common misconceptions, to which the following notes refer roughly in their order. In the first place, of course, it is one thing to say that this is desirable, and another that it is desired. And in the first place, as will be seen, I do not deny that if it is to be desired, it can hardly be as a mere indulgence is desired; there will undoubtedly be required a certain spirit of effort and sacrifice for the sake of an acute national necessity, if we are to ask any landlord to do without rent or any farmer to do without assistance. But at least there really is a crisis and a necessity; to such an extent that the squire would often be only remitting a debt which he has already written off as a bad debt, and the employer only sacrificing the service of men who are already on strike. Still, we shall need the virtues that belong to a crisis; and it will be well to make the fact clear. Next, while there is all the difference between the desirable and the desired, I would point out that even now this normal life is more desired than many suppose. It is perhaps subconsciously desired; but I think it worth while to throw out a few suggestions that may bring it to the surface. Lastly, there is a misconception about what is meant by “living on the land”—and I have added some suggestions about how much more desirable it is than many suppose.
I LA SEMPLICE VERITÀ
Tutti noi, o almeno tutti quelli della mia generazione, udimmo in gioventù un aneddoto su George Stephenson, lo scopritore della locomotiva a vapore. Si diceva che qualche misero campagnolo sollevasse l’obiezione che sarebbe stato assai fastidioso se una mucca si fosse smarrita sui binari della ferrovia, al che l’inventore replicò: «Sarebbe assai fastidioso per la mucca». È supremamente caratteristico della sua epoca e della sua scuola che non sia mai parso venire in mente a nessuno che potesse essere piuttosto fastidioso per il campagnolo cui apparteneva la mucca.
Molto prima di udire quell’aneddoto, tuttavia, avevamo probabilmente udito un altro e più eccitante aneddoto chiamato «Jack e il fagiolo magico». Quella storia comincia con le strane e sorprendenti parole: «C’era una volta una povera donna che aveva una mucca». Sarebbe un selvaggio paradosso, nell’Inghilterra moderna, immaginare che una povera donna potesse avere una mucca; ma le cose sembrano essere state diverse in età più rozze e più superstiziose. Comunque, evidentemente non avrebbe conservato a lungo una mucca nella comprensiva atmosfera di Stephenson e della sua locomotiva a vapore. Il treno andò avanti, la mucca fu uccisa a suo tempo; e lo stato d’animo della vecchia donna fu descritto come la Depressione dell’Agricoltura. Ma tutti erano così felici di viaggiare in treno e di rendere le cose fastidiose per le mucche che nessuno si accorse che altre difficoltà rimanevano. Quando guerre o rivoluzioni ci tagliarono fuori dalle mucche, gli industriali scoprirono che il latte non proviene in origine dai bidoni. Su questo fatto alcuni di noi hanno fondato l’idea che la mucca (e persino il misero campagnolo) abbia un’utilità nella società, e sono stati disposti a concederle fino a tre acri. Ma sarà bene a questo punto ripetere che non proponiamo che ogni acro sia coperto di mucche; e non proponiamo di eliminare i cittadini come essi eliminerebbero i campagnoli. Su molti punti minori potremmo dover scendere a compromessi con le condizioni, specialmente all’inizio. Ma persino il mio ideale, se mai lo trovassi alla fine, sarebbe ciò che alcuni chiamano un compromesso. Solo che ritengo più esatto chiamarlo un equilibrio. Poiché non penso che il sole scenda a compromesso con la pioggia quando insieme fanno un giardino; o che la rosa che vi cresce sia un compromesso tra il verde e il rosso. Ma intendo che persino la mia Utopia conterrebbe cose diverse di tipi diversi tenute con titoli diversi: che, come in uno stato medievale c’erano alcuni contadini, alcuni monasteri, alcune terre comuni, alcune terre private, alcune corporazioni cittadine, e così via, così nel mio stato moderno ci sarebbero alcune cose nazionalizzate, alcune macchine possedute in forma corporativa, alcune corporazioni che dividono profitti comuni, e così via, come pure molti proprietari individuali assoluti, là dove tali proprietari individuali sono più possibili. Ma con questi ultimi è bene cominciare, perché sono destinati a dare, e quasi sempre danno, il modello e il tono della società.
Tra le cose che abbiamo udito mille volte c’è l’affermazione che gli inglesi siano un popolo lento, un popolo cauto, un popolo conservatore, e così via. Quando abbiamo udito una cosa tante volte quante quella, generalmente o la accettiamo come un truismo, o improvvisamente vediamo che è del tutto falsa. E in questo caso è del tutto falsa. La vera peculiarità dell’Inghilterra è che è l’unico paese sulla terra che non ha una classe conservatrice. C’è un gran numero, forse una maggioranza, di persone che si dicono conservatrici. Ma quanto più le si esamina, tanto meno conservatrici appariranno. La classe commerciale che è in senso speciale capitalista è per sua natura il vero opposto del conservatore. Per sua stessa professione, proclama che sta perpetuamente usando nuovi metodi e cercando nuovi mercati. Ad alcuni di noi pare esservi qualcosa di estremamente stantìo in tutta quella novità. Ma ciò è dovuto al tipo di mente che inventa, non al fatto che non intenda inventare. Dal più grande finanziere che lancia una società al più piccolo piazzista che smercia una macchina da cucire, prevale lo stesso ideale. Deve sempre essere una nuova società, specialmente dopo ciò che è generalmente accaduto alla vecchia società. E la macchina da cucire deve sempre essere un nuovo tipo di macchina da cucire, anche se è del tipo che non cuce. Ma se ciò è ovvio del mero capitalista, è ugualmente vero del puro oligarca. Qualunque altra cosa sia un’aristocrazia, un’aristocrazia non è mai conservatrice. Per sua stessa natura essa va per moda piuttosto che per tradizione. Gli uomini che conducono una vita d’ozio e di lusso sono sempre avidi di cose nuove; potremmo ben dire che sarebbero sciocchi se non lo fossero. E gli aristocratici inglesi non sono affatto sciocchi. Possono orgogliosamente vantarsi di aver recitato una gran parte in ogni stadio del progresso intellettuale che ci ha condotti alla nostra presente rovina.
Il primo fatto riguardo all’istituzione di un contadinato inglese è che si tratta di istituire, per la prima volta da molti secoli, una classe tradizionale. L’assenza di una tale classe si rivelerà un fatto assai terribile, se la contesa diventerà davvero tra il bolscevismo e l’ideale storico della proprietà. Ma il converso è ugualmente vero e assai più consolante. Questa differenza nella qualità significa che il mutamento comincerà a essere efficace già per mera quantità. Intendo dire che non ci siamo occupati tanto della forza o della debolezza di un contadinato, quanto della presenza o dell’assenza di un contadinato. Come la società ha sofferto per la sua mera assenza, così la società comincerà a mutare per la sua mera presenza. Sarà un’Inghilterra alquanto diversa quella in cui il contadino debba essere per nulla considerato. Comincerà ad alterare l’aspetto delle cose, anche quando i politici penseranno ai contadini tanto spesso quanto pensano ai medici. È noto che essi hanno persino pensato ai soldati.
L’argomento primario a favore del contadino è di una semplicità cruda e quasi selvaggia. Un uomo in Inghilterra potrebbe vivere della terra, se non dovesse pagare l’affitto al proprietario terriero e i salari al lavoratore. Egli starebbe dunque meglio, anche su piccola scala, se fosse il proprietario terriero di se stesso e il lavoratore di se stesso. Ma vi sono ovviamente certe ulteriori considerazioni, e a mio avviso certi comuni fraintendimenti, cui le note seguenti si riferiscono grossolanamente nel loro ordine. In primo luogo, s’intende, una cosa è dire che ciò è desiderabile, e un’altra che è desiderato. E in primo luogo, come si vedrà, non nego che, se dev’essere desiderato, difficilmente possa esserlo come si desidera una mera indulgenza; occorrerà indubbiamente un certo spirito di sforzo e di sacrificio per amore di un’acuta necessità nazionale, se dobbiamo chiedere a qualsiasi proprietario terriero di fare a meno dell’affitto o a qualsiasi agricoltore di fare a meno d’aiuto. Ma almeno c’è davvero una crisi e una necessità; a tal punto che lo squire spesso non farebbe che condonare un debito che ha già cancellato come debito inesigibile, e il datore di lavoro non farebbe che sacrificare il servizio di uomini che sono già in sciopero. Tuttavia, avremo bisogno delle virtù che appartengono a una crisi; e sarà bene rendere il fatto chiaro. Poi, mentre c’è tutta la differenza tra il desiderabile e il desiderato, vorrei far notare che anche ora questa vita normale è più desiderata di quanto molti suppongano. È forse desiderata inconsciamente; ma penso valga la pena di buttar là qualche suggerimento che possa portarla in superficie. Infine, c’è un fraintendimento su ciò che s’intende per «vivere della terra» — e ho aggiunto alcuni suggerimenti su quanto ciò sia più desiderabile di quanto molti suppongano.
I shall consider these separate aspects of agricultural distributism more or less in the order in which I have just noted them; but here in the preliminary note I am concerned only with the primary fact. If we could create a peasantry we could create a conservative populace; and he would be a bold man who should undertake to tell us how the present industrial deadlock in the great cities is to produce a conservative populace. I am well aware that many would call the conservatism by coarser names; and say that peasants are stupid and stick-in-the-mud and tied to dull and dreary existence. I know it is said that a man must find it monotonous to do the twenty things that are done on a farm, whereas, of course, he always finds it uproariously funny and festive to do one thing hour after hour and day after day in a factory. I know that the same people also make exactly the contrary comment; and say it is selfish and avaricious for the peasant to be so intensely interested in his own farm, instead of showing, like the proletarians of modern industrialism, a selfless and romantic loyalty to somebody else’s factory, and an ascetic self-sacrifice in making profits for somebody else. Giving each of these claims of modern capitalism their due weight, it is still permissible to say that in so far as the peasant proprietor is certainly tenacious of the peasant property, is concentrated on the interest or content with the dullness, as the case may be, he does, in fact, constitute a solid block of private property which can be counted on to resist Communism; which is not only more than can be said of the proletariat, but is very much more than any capitalists say of them. I do not believe that the proletariat is honeycombed with Bolshevism (if honey be an apt metaphor for that doctrine), but if there is any truth in the newspaper fears on that subject it would certainly seem that large properties cannot prevent the thing happening, whereas small properties can. But, as a matter of fact, all experience is against the assertion that peasants are dreary and degraded savages, crawling about on all fours and eating grass like the beasts of the field. All over the world, for instance, there are peasant dances; and the dances of peasants are like dances of kings and queens. The popular dance is much more stately and ceremonial and full of human dignity than is the aristocratic dance. In many a modern countryside the countryfolk may still be found on high festivals wearing caps like crowns and using gestures like a religious ritual, while the castle or chateau of the lords and ladies is already full of people waddling about like monkeys to the noises made by negroes. All over Europe peasants have produced the embroideries and the handicrafts which were discovered with delight by artists when they had long been neglected by aristocrats. These people are not conservative merely in a negative sense; though there is great value in that which is negative when it is also defensive. They are also conservative in a positive sense; they conserve customs that do not perish like fashions, and crafts less ephemeral than those artistic movements which so very soon cease to move. The Bolshevists, I believe, have invented something which they call Proletarian Art, upon what principle I cannot imagine; save that they seem to have a mysterious pride in calling themselves a proletariat when they claim to be no longer proletarian. I rather think it is merely the reluctance of the half-educated to relinquish the use of a long word. Anyhow, there never has been in this world any such thing as Proletarian Art. But there has most emphatically been such a thing as Peasant Art.
I suppose that what is really meant is Communist Art; and that phrase alone will reveal much. I suppose a truly communal art would consist in a hundred men hanging on to one huge paint-brush like a battering-ram, and steering it across some vast canvas with the curves and lurches and majestic hesitations that would express, in darkly outlined forms, the composite mind of the community. Peasants have produced art because they were communal but not communist. Custom and a corporate tradition gave unity to their art; but each man was a separate artist. It is that satisfaction of the creative instinct in the individual that makes the peasantry as a whole content and therefore conservative. A multitude of men are standing on their own feet, because they are standing on their own land. But in our country, alas, the landowners have been standing upon nothing, except what they have trampled underfoot.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Considererò questi diversi aspetti del distributismo agricolo più o meno nell’ordine in cui li ho appena elencati; ma qui, nella nota preliminare, mi preme solo il fatto primario. Se potessimo creare un contadinesimo potremmo creare una popolazione conservatrice; e sarebbe un uomo audace colui che si assumesse l’incarico di dirci come la presente situazione industriale nelle grandi città possa produrre una popolazione conservatrice. Sono ben consapevole che molti chiamerebbero il conservatorismo con nomi più volgari; e direbbero che i contadini sono stupidi, cocciuti e legati a un’esistenza noiosa e monotona. So che si dice che un uomo debba trovare monotono fare le venti cose che si fanno in una fattoria, mentre, naturalmente, trova sempre divertente e festoso fare la stessa cosa per ore e ore e giorno dopo giorno in fabbrica. So anche che le stesse persone fanno esattamente il commento opposto; e dicono che è egoistico e avaro da parte del contadino essere così intensamente interessato alla propria fattoria, invece di mostrare, come i proletari dell’industrialismo moderno, una lealtà disinteressata e romantica verso la fabbrica di qualcun altro, e un ascetico auto-sacrificio nel fare profitti per qualcun altro. Dando a ciascuna di queste pretese del capitalismo moderno il loro giusto peso, è comunque lecito dire che in quanto il proprietario contadino è certamente tenace della proprietà contadina, si concentra sull’interesse o è contento della noia, a seconda dei casi, costituisce di fatto un solido blocco di proprietà privata su cui si può fare affidamento per resistere al comunismo; il che non solo non si può dire del proletariato, ma è molto più di quanto qualsiasi capitalista dica di loro. Non credo che il proletariato sia infestato dal bolscevismo (se il miele è una metafora appropriata per quella dottrina), ma se c’è qualche verità nelle paure dei giornali su questo argomento, sembrerebbe certamente che le grandi proprietà non possano impedire che ciò accada, mentre le piccole proprietà possono. Ma, di fatto, tutta l’esperienza va contro l’affermazione che i contadini siano selvaggi tetri e degradati, che strisciano a quattro zampe e mangiano erba come gli animali del campo. In tutto il mondo, per esempio, ci sono danze contadine; e le danze dei contadini sono come le danze di re e regine. La danza popolare è molto più maestosa e cerimoniale e piena di dignità umana rispetto alla danza aristocratica. In molte campagne moderne si possono ancora trovare i contadini nei grandi festival con cappelli come corone e gesti come un rituale religioso, mentre il castello o lo château di signori e dame è già pieno di gente che si muove a caso come scimmie al suono dei rumori fatti da negri. In tutta Europa i contadini hanno prodotto gli ricami e le artigianalità che sono state scoperte con delizia dagli artisti quando erano stati a lungo trascurati dagli aristocratici. Questa gente non è conservatrice solo in senso negativo; sebbene ci sia grande valore in ciò che è negativo quando è anche difensivo. Sono anche conservatori in senso positivo; conservano usanze che non periscono come le mode, e mestieri meno effimeri di quei movimenti artistici che smettono così presto di muoversi. I bolscevichi, credo, hanno inventato qualcosa che chiamano Arte Proletaria, su quale principio non riesco a immaginare; se non che sembrano avere un misterioso orgoglio nel chiamarsi proletari quando pretendono di non essere più proletari. Penso piuttosto che sia solo la riluttanza dei mezzo istruiti ad abbandonare l’uso di una parola lunga. Comunque, in questo mondo non è mai esistita una cosa come l’Arte Proletaria. Ma c’è stata con grande enfasi una cosa come l’Arte Contadina.
Suppongo che ciò che si intende sia l’Arte Comunista; e questa parola da sola rivela molto. Suppongo che un’arte veramente comunitaria consisterebbe in cento uomini che si aggrappano a uno spazzolone enorme come una torre di assedio, e lo guidano su qualche vasta tela con curve, scossoni ed esitazioni maestose che esprimerebbero, in forme dai contorni oscuri, la mente composita della comunità. I contadini hanno prodotto arte perché erano comunitari ma non comunisti. La consuetudine e una tradizione collettiva davano unità alla loro arte; ma ogni uomo era un artista separato. È questa soddisfazione dell’istinto creativo nell’individuo che rende la contadina nel suo insieme contenta e quindi conservatrice. Una moltitudine di uomini sta in piedi sulle proprie gambe, perché stanno sulla loro terra. Ma nella nostra patria, ahimè, i proprietari terrieri non si sono mai appoggiati su nulla, se non su ciò che hanno calpestato sotto i piedi.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
II VOWS AND VOLUNTEERS
We have sometimes been asked why we do not admire advertisers quite so much as they admire themselves. One answer is that it is of their very nature to admire themselves. And it is of the very nature of our task that people must be taught to criticize themselves; or rather (preferably) to kick themselves. They talk about Truth in Advertising; but there cannot be any such thing in the sharp sense in which we need truth in politics. It is impossible to put in the cheery terms of “publicity” either the truth about how bad things are, or the truth about how hard it will be to cure them. No advertiser is so truthful as to say, “Do your best with our rotten old typewriter; we can’t get anything better just now.” But we have really got to say, “Do your best with your rotten old machine of production; don’t let it fall to pieces too suddenly.” We seldom see a gay and conspicuous hoarding inscribed, “You are in for a rough time if you use our new kitchen-range.” But we have really got to say to our friends, “You are in for a rough time if you start new farms on your own; but it is the right thing.” We cannot pretend to be offering merely comforts and conveniences. Whatever our ultimate view of labour-saving machinery, we cannot offer our ideal as a labour-saving machine. There is no more question of comfort than there is for a man in a fire, a battle, or a shipwreck. There is no way out of the danger except the dangerous way.
The sort of call that must be made on the modern English is the sort of call that is made before a great war or a great revolution. If the trumpet give an uncertain sound—but it must be unmistakably the sound of a trumpet. The megaphone of mere mercantile self-satisfaction is merely loud and not in the least clear. In its nature it is saying smooth things, even if it is roaring them; it is like one whispering soft nothings, even if its whisper is a horrible yell. How can advertisement bid men prepare themselves for a battle? How can publicity talk in the language of public spirit? It cannot say, “Buy land at Blinkington-on-Sea and prepare yourself for the battle with stones and thistles.” It cannot give a certain sound, like the old tocsin that rang for fire and flood, and tell the people of Puddleton that they are in danger of famine. To do men justice, no man did announce the needs of Kitchener’s Army like the comforts of the kitchen-range. We did not say to the recruits, “Spend your holiday at Mons.” We did not say, “Try our trenches; they are a treat.” We made some sort of attempt to appeal to better things. We have to make that appeal again; and in the face of worse things. It is this that is made so difficult by the whole tone of advertisement. For the next thing we have to consider is the need of independent individual action on a large scale. We want to make the need known, as the need for recruits was made known. Education was too commercial in origin, and has allowed itself to be largely swamped by commercial advertisement. It came too much from the town; and now it is nearly driven from the town. Education really meant the teaching of town things to country people who did not want to learn them. I suggest that education should now mean the teaching of country things to town people who do want to learn them. I quite admit it would be much better to begin at least with those who really want it. But I also maintain that there are really a great many people in town and country who do really want it.
Whether we look forward to an Agrarian Law or no, whether our notion of distribution is rigid or rough and ready, whether we believe in compensation or confiscation, whether we look for this law or that law, we ought not to sit down and wait for any law at all. While the grass grows the steed has got to show that he wants grass: the steed has got to explain that he is really a graminivorous quadruped. The fulfilment of parliamentary promises grows rather slower than grass; and if nothing is done before the completion of what is called a constitutional process, we shall be about as near to Distributism as a Labour politician is to Socialism. It seems to me first necessary to revive the medieval or moral method, and call for volunteers.
The English could do what the Irish did. They could make laws by obeying them. If we are, like the original Sinn Feiners, to anticipate legal change by social agreement, we want two sorts of volunteers, in order to make the experiment on the spot. We want to find out how many peasants there are, actual or potential, who would take over the responsibility of small farms, for the sake of self-sufficiency, of real property, and of saving England in a desperate hour. We want to know how many landlords there are who would now give or sell cheaply their land to be cut up into a number of such farms. Honestly, I think the landlord would have the best of the bargain. Or rather I think that the peasant would have the hardest and most heroic part of the bargain. Sometimes it would practically pay the landlord to chuck the land altogether, since he is paying out to something that does not pay him back. But in any case, everybody has got to realize that the situation is, in no cant phrases, one for heroic remedies. It is impossible to disguise that the man who gets the land, even more than the man who gives up the land, will have to be something of a hero. We shall be told that heroes do not grow on every hedgerow, that we cannot find enough to defend all our hedges. We raised three million heroes with the blast of a bugle but a few years ago; and the trumpet we hear to-day is in a more terrible sense the trump of doom.
We want a popular appeal for volunteers to save the land; exactly as volunteers in 1914 were wanted to save the country. But we do not want the appeal weakened by that weak-minded, that wearisome, that dismal and deplorable thing that the newspapers call Optimism. We are not asking babies to look pleasant while their photographs are taken; we are asking grown men to meet a crisis as grave as a great war. We are not asking people to cut a coupon out of a newspaper, but to carve a farm out of a trackless waste; and if it is to be successful, it must be faced in something of the stubborn spirit of the old fulfilment of a vow. St. Francis showed his followers the way to a greater happiness; but he did not tell them that a wandering and homeless life would mean Everything as Nice as Mother Makes It; nor did he advertise it on hoardings as a Home From Home. But we live in a time when it is harder for a free man to make a home than it was for a medieval ascetic to do without one.
II VOTI E VOLONTARI
Ci è stato talvolta chiesto perché non ammiriamo i pubblicitari tanto quanto essi ammirano se stessi. Una risposta è che è nella loro stessa natura ammirare se stessi. Ed è nella stessa natura del nostro compito che la gente debba imparare a criticare se stessa; o piuttosto (preferibilmente) a prendersi a calci. Parlano di Verità nella Pubblicità; ma non può esistere cosa simile nel senso netto in cui abbiamo bisogno della verità in politica. È impossibile mettere nei gai termini della «pubblicità» né la verità su quanto le cose vadano male, né la verità su quanto sarà difficile porvi rimedio. Nessun pubblicitario è tanto veritiero da dire: «Fate del vostro meglio con la nostra vecchia macchina da scrivere scassata; per ora non riusciamo a procurarci nulla di meglio». Ma noi dobbiamo davvero dire: «Fate del vostro meglio con la vostra vecchia macchina di produzione scassata; non lasciatela andare in pezzi troppo all’improvviso». Di rado vediamo un allegro e vistoso cartellone con su scritto: «Vi aspetta un brutto momento se usate il nostro nuovo fornello da cucina». Ma noi dobbiamo davvero dire ai nostri amici: «Vi aspetta un brutto momento se avviate nuove fattorie per conto vostro; ma è la cosa giusta». Non possiamo pretendere di offrire meramente comodità e agi. Qualunque sia la nostra ultima opinione sui macchinari che risparmiano fatica, non possiamo offrire il nostro ideale come una macchina che risparmia fatica. Non c’è più questione di comodità di quanta ve ne sia per un uomo in un incendio, in una battaglia o in un naufragio. Non c’è via d’uscita dal pericolo se non la via pericolosa.
Il genere d’appello che deve essere rivolto agli inglesi moderni è il genere d’appello che si fa prima di una grande guerra o di una grande rivoluzione. Se la tromba dà un suono incerto… ma deve essere inequivocabilmente il suono di una tromba. Il megafono della mera autocompiacenza mercantile è soltanto rumoroso e per nulla chiaro. Per sua natura esso dice cose soavi, anche se le rugge; è come chi sussurra dolci nulla, anche se il suo sussurro è un urlo orribile. Come può la pubblicità comandare agli uomini di prepararsi a una battaglia? Come può la réclame parlare il linguaggio dello spirito pubblico? Non può dire: «Comprate terra a Blinkington-on-Sea e preparatevi alla battaglia contro pietre e cardi». Non può dare un suono definito, come l’antica campana a martello che suonava per incendio e inondazione, e dire alla gente di Puddleton che è in pericolo di carestia. A rendere giustizia agli uomini, nessuno annunciò i bisogni dell’Esercito di Kitchener come le comodità del fornello da cucina. Non dicemmo alle reclute: «Passate la vostra vacanza a Mons». Non dicemmo: «Provate le nostre trincee; sono una delizia». Facemmo una sorta di tentativo d’appellarci a cose migliori. Dobbiamo fare quell’appello di nuovo; e di fronte a cose peggiori. È questo che è reso tanto difficile dall’intero tono della pubblicità. Poiché la cosa successiva che dobbiamo considerare è il bisogno di un’azione individuale indipendente su larga scala. Vogliamo far conoscere il bisogno, come fu fatto conoscere il bisogno di reclute. L’istruzione fu troppo commerciale nell’origine, e si è lasciata in gran parte sommergere dalla pubblicità commerciale. Venne troppo dalla città; e ora ne è quasi scacciata. L’istruzione significava davvero l’insegnamento di cose di città a gente di campagna che non voleva impararle. Suggerisco che l’istruzione dovrebbe ora significare l’insegnamento di cose di campagna a gente di città che desidera impararle. Ammetto senz’altro che sarebbe assai meglio cominciare almeno con quelli che davvero lo desiderano. Ma sostengo anche che c’è davvero un gran numero di persone in città e in campagna che davvero lo desiderano.
Che si guardi avanti a una Legge Agraria o no, che la nostra nozione di distribuzione sia rigida o approssimativa, che crediamo nell’indennizzo o nella confisca, che attendiamo questa legge o quella, non dovremmo sederci ad aspettare alcuna legge. Mentre l’erba cresce, il destriero deve mostrare che vuole l’erba: il destriero deve spiegare che è davvero un quadrupede erbivoro. L’adempimento delle promesse parlamentari cresce piuttosto più lento dell’erba; e se nulla si fa prima del completamento di ciò che si chiama un processo costituzionale, saremo circa tanto vicini al distributismo quanto un politico laburista lo è al socialismo. Mi pare anzitutto necessario ravvivare il metodo medievale o morale, e chiamare a raccolta i volontari.
Gli inglesi potrebbero fare ciò che fecero gli irlandesi. Potrebbero fare le leggi obbedendovi. Se dobbiamo, come i primi Sinn Feiner, anticipare il mutamento legale con l’accordo sociale, ci occorrono due sorte di volontari, per fare l’esperimento sul posto. Vogliamo scoprire quanti contadini vi siano, effettivi o potenziali, che si assumerebbero la responsabilità di piccole fattorie, per amore dell’autosufficienza, della proprietà reale, e del salvare l’Inghilterra in un’ora disperata. Vogliamo sapere quanti proprietari terrieri vi siano che ora donerebbero o venderebbero a buon mercato la loro terra per essere spezzettata in un certo numero di tali fattorie. Onestamente, penso che il proprietario terriero avrebbe la parte migliore dell’affare. O piuttosto penso che il contadino avrebbe la parte più dura e più eroica dell’affare. Talvolta converrebbe praticamente al proprietario terriero disfarsi del tutto della terra, poiché sta sborsando per qualcosa che non lo ripaga. Ma in ogni caso, tutti devono rendersi conto che la situazione è, senza frasi ipocrite, una situazione da rimedi eroici. È impossibile nascondere che l’uomo che ottiene la terra, ancor più dell’uomo che cede la terra, dovrà essere qualcosa di un eroe. Ci si dirà che gli eroi non crescono su ogni siepe, che non ne possiamo trovare abbastanza per difendere tutte le nostre siepi. Sollevammo tre milioni di eroi al suono di una tromba solo pochi anni fa; e la tromba che udiamo oggi è, in senso più terribile, la tromba del giudizio.
Vogliamo un appello popolare per volontari che salvino la terra; esattamente come nel 1914 si volevano volontari per salvare il paese. Ma non vogliamo l’appello indebolito da quella debole, tediosa, tetra e deplorevole cosa che i giornali chiamano Ottimismo. Non stiamo chiedendo a dei bimbi di far la faccia carina mentre si scattano le loro fotografie; stiamo chiedendo a uomini adulti di affrontare una crisi tanto grave quanto una grande guerra. Non stiamo chiedendo alla gente di ritagliare un tagliando da un giornale, ma di ritagliare una fattoria da un deserto senza sentieri; e se dev’essere coronata da successo, dev’essere affrontata con qualcosa del tenace spirito dell’antico adempimento di un voto. San Francesco mostrò ai suoi seguaci la via verso una felicità più grande; ma non disse loro che una vita errante e senza dimora avrebbe significato Tutto Bello Come Lo Fa la Mamma; né la reclamizzò sui cartelloni come una Casa Lontano da Casa. Ma viviamo in un tempo in cui è più difficile per un uomo libero farsi una casa di quanto lo fosse per un asceta medievale farne a meno.
The quarrel about the Limehouse slums was a working model of the problem— if we can talk of a working model of something that does not work, and something on which only a madman would model anything. The slum-dwellers actually and definitely say that they prefer their slums to the blocks of flats provided as a refuge from the slums. And they prefer them, it is stated, because the old homes had backyards in which they could pursue “their hobbies of bird-fancying and poultry-rearing.” When offered other opportunities on some scheme of allotment, they had the hideous depravity to say that they liked fences round their private yards. So awful and overwhelming is the Red torrent of Communism as it boils through the brains of the working classes.
Now, of course, it might conceivably be necessary, in some wild congestion and convulsion, for people’s houses to be piled on top of each other for ever, in the form of a tower of flats. And so it might be necessary for men to climb on other men’s shoulders in a flood or to get out of a chasm cloven by an earthquake. And it is logically conceivable, and even mathematically correct, that we might thin the crowds in the London streets, if we could thus arrange men vertically instead of horizontally. If there were only some expedient by which a man might walk about with another man standing above him, and another above that, and so on, it would save a great deal of jostling. Men are arranged like that in acrobatic performances; and a course of such acrobatics might be made compulsory in all the schools. It is a picture that pleases me very much, as a picture. I look forward (in spirit of art for art’s sake) to seeing such a living tower moving majestically down the Strand. I like to think of the time of true social organization, when all the clerks of Messrs. Boodle & Bunkham shall no longer come up in their present random and straggling fashion, each from his little suburban villa. They shall not even, as in the immediate and intermediary stage of the Servile State, march in a well-drilled column from the dormitory in one part of London, to the emporium in the other. No, a nobler vision has arisen before me into the very heights of heaven. A toppling pagoda of clerks, one balanced on the top of another, moves down the street, perhaps making acrobatic patterns in the air as it moves, to illustrate the perfect discipline of its social machinery. All that would be very impressive; and it really would, among other things, economize space. But if one of the men near the top of that swaying tower were to say that he hoped some day to be able to revisit the earth, I should sympathize with his sense of exile. If he were to say that it is natural to man to walk on the earth, I should find myself in agreement with his school of philosophy. If he were to say that it was very difficult to look after chickens in that acrobatic attitude and altitude, I should think his difficulty a real one. At first it might be retorted that bird-fancying would be even more appropriate to such an airy perch, but in practice those birds would be very fancy birds. Finally, if he said that keeping chickens that laid eggs was a worthy and valuable social work, much more worthy and valuable than serving Messrs. Boodle & Bunkham with the most perfect discipline and organization, I should agree with that sentiment most of all.
Now the whole of our modern problem is very difficult, and though in one way the agricultural part of it is much the simplest, in another way it is by no means the least difficult. But this Limehouse affair is a vivid example of how we make the difficulty more difficult. We are told again and again that the slum-dwellers of the big towns cannot merely be turned loose on the land, that they do not want to go on the land, that they have no tastes or turn of thought that could make them by any process into a people interested in the land, that they cannot be conceived as having any pleasures except town pleasures, or even any discontents except the Bolshevism of the towns. And then when a whole crowd of them want to keep chickens, we force them to live in flats. When a whole crowd of them want to have fences, we laugh and order them off into communal barracks. When a whole population wishes to insist on palings and enclosures and the traditions of private property, the authorities act as if they were suppressing a Red riot. When these very hopeless slum-dwellers do actually set all their hopes on a rural occupation, which they can still practise even in the slums, we tear them away from that occupation and call it improving their condition. You pick a man up who has his head in a hen-coop, forcibly set him on giant stilts a hundred feet high where he cannot reach the ground, and then say you have saved him from misery. And you add that a man like that can only live on stilts and would never be interested in hens.
Now the very first question that is always asked of those advocating our sort of agricultural reconstruction is this question, which is fundamental because it is psychological. Whatever else we may or may not need for a peasantry, we do certainly need peasants. In the present mixture and muddle of more or less urbanized civilization, have we even the first elements or the first possibilities? Have we peasants, or even potential peasants? Like all questions of this sort, it cannot be answered by statistics. Statistics are artificial even when they are not fictitious, for they always assume the very fact which a moral estimate must always deny; they assume that every man is one man. They are based on a sort of atomic theory that the individual is really individual, in the sense of indivisible. But when we are dealing professedly with the proportion of different loves or hates or hopes or hungers, this is so far from being a fact that can be assumed, it is the very first that must be denied. It is denied by all that deeper consideration which wise men used to call spiritual, but which fools were frightened out of calling spiritual, till they ventured to say it in Greek and call it psychical or psychological. In one sense the highest spirituality insists, of course, that one man is one. But in the sense here involved, the spiritual view has always been that one man was at least two, and the psychological view has shown some taste for turning him into half a dozen. It is no good, therefore, to discuss the number of peasants who are nothing else but peasants. Very probably there are none at all. It is no good asking how many complete and compact yeomen or yokels are waiting all ready in smock-frocks or blouses, their spades and hay-forks clutched in their hand, in the neighbourhood of Brompton or Brixton; waiting for us to give the signal to rush back to the land. If anybody is such a fool as to expect that sort of thing, the fool is not to be found in our small political party. When we are dealing with a matter of this kind, we are dealing with different elements in the same class, or even in the same man. We are dealing with elements which should be encouraged or educated or (if we must bring the word in somewhere) evolved. We have to consider whether there are any materials out of which to make peasants to make a peasantry, if we really choose to try. Nowhere in these notes have I suggested that there is the faintest possibility of it being done, if we do not choose to try.
La disputa sui bassifondi di Limehouse era un modello di lavoro del problema—se possiamo parlare di un modello di lavoro di qualcosa che non lavora, e di qualcosa su cui solo un pazzo modellerebbe alcunché. Gli abitanti dei bassifondi dicono in realtà e in modo definito che preferiscono i loro bassifondi ai caseggiati di appartamenti forniti come rifugio dai bassifondi. E li preferiscono, si afferma, perché le vecchie case avevano cortili sul retro in cui potevano coltivare «i loro passatempi dell’allevamento di uccelli e del pollame». Quando fu offerta loro un’altra opportunità con un qualche schema di lottizzazione, ebbero l’orrenda depravazione di dire che amavano gli steccati attorno ai loro cortili privati. Così terribile e travolgente è il Rosso torrente del Comunismo mentre ribolle attraverso i cervelli delle classi lavoratrici.
Ora, naturalmente, potrebbe forse essere necessario, in qualche selvaggia congestione e convulsione, che le case della gente fossero ammucchiate le une sopra le altre per sempre, sotto forma di una torre di appartamenti. E così potrebbe essere necessario che gli uomini si arrampichino sulle spalle di altri uomini in un’alluvione o per uscire da un abisso squarciato da un terremoto. Ed è logicamente concepibile, e persino matematicamente corretto, che potremmo diradare la folla nelle strade di Londra, se potessimo così disporre gli uomini verticalmente anziché orizzontalmente. Se solo ci fosse qualche espediente per cui un uomo potesse andare in giro con un altro uomo in piedi sopra di lui, e un altro sopra quello, e così via, ciò risparmierebbe una gran quantità di spintoni. Gli uomini sono disposti così negli spettacoli acrobatici; e un corso di simili acrobazie potrebbe essere reso obbligatorio in tutte le scuole. È un quadro che mi piace moltissimo, come quadro. Non vedo l’ora (nello spirito dell’arte per l’arte) di vedere una simile torre vivente muoversi maestosamente giù per lo Strand. Mi piace pensare al tempo della vera organizzazione sociale, quando tutti gli impiegati dei Signori Boodle & Bunkham non saliranno più nella loro presente maniera casuale e sparpagliata, ciascuno dalla sua piccola villetta di periferia. Non faranno nemmeno, come nell’immediata e intermedia fase dello Stato Servile, la marcia in una colonna ben addestrata dal dormitorio in una parte di Londra all’emporio nell’altra. No, una più nobile visione si è levata dinanzi a me fino alle vette stesse del cielo. Una vacillante pagoda di impiegati, uno bilanciato sulla cima di un altro, si muove giù per la strada, forse tracciando disegni acrobatici nell’aria mentre si muove, per illustrare la perfetta disciplina del suo macchinario sociale. Tutto ciò sarebbe assai impressionante; e davvero, tra le altre cose, risparmierebbe spazio. Ma se uno degli uomini vicino alla cima di quella torre oscillante dicesse di sperare un giorno di poter rivisitare la terra, io simpatizzerei col suo senso d’esilio. Se dicesse che è naturale per l’uomo camminare sulla terra, mi troverei d’accordo con la sua scuola di filosofia. Se dicesse che era assai difficile badare ai polli in quell’atteggiamento e a quell’altitudine acrobatici, riterrei la sua difficoltà una difficoltà reale. Dapprima si potrebbe ribattere che l’allevamento di uccelli sarebbe ancor più appropriato a un simile trespolo aereo, ma in pratica quegli uccelli sarebbero uccelli assai stravaganti. Infine, se dicesse che tenere galline che deponevano uova era un’opera sociale degna e preziosa, assai più degna e preziosa che servire i Signori Boodle & Bunkham con la più perfetta disciplina e organizzazione, sarei d’accordo con quel sentimento più che con ogni altro.
Ora l’intero nostro problema moderno è assai difficile, e sebbene per un verso la parte agricola di esso sia di gran lunga la più semplice, per un altro verso non è affatto la meno difficile. Ma questa faccenda di Limehouse è un vivido esempio di come rendiamo la difficoltà più difficile. Ci viene detto ancora e ancora che gli abitanti dei bassifondi delle grandi città non possono essere semplicemente lasciati liberi sulla terra, che non vogliono andare sulla terra, che non hanno gusti o inclinazioni di pensiero che potrebbero renderli con un qualsiasi processo un popolo interessato alla terra, che non possono essere concepiti come aventi altri piaceri se non i piaceri cittadini, o persino altri malcontenti se non il Bolscevismo delle città. E poi, quando un’intera folla di loro vuole tenere galline, li costringiamo a vivere in appartamenti. Quando un’intera folla di loro vuole avere steccati, ridiamo e li mandiamo via in caserme comunali. Quando un’intera popolazione desidera insistere su palizzate e recinti e sulle tradizioni della proprietà privata, le autorità agiscono come se stessero reprimendo una sommossa Rossa. Quando questi disperatissimi abitanti dei bassifondi ripongono davvero tutte le loro speranze in un’occupazione rurale, che possono ancora praticare persino nei bassifondi, li strappiamo da quell’occupazione e la chiamiamo un migliorare la loro condizione. Prendi un uomo che ha la testa in una stia di galline, mettilo con la forza su giganteschi trampoli alti trenta metri dove non può raggiungere il suolo, e poi di’ che lo hai salvato dalla miseria. E aggiungi che un uomo simile può vivere solo sui trampoli e non sarebbe mai interessato alle galline.
Ora la primissima domanda che viene sempre posta a coloro che sostengono il nostro tipo di ricostruzione agricola è questa domanda, che è fondamentale perché è psicologica. Qualunque altra cosa possiamo o non possiamo aver bisogno per un contadinato, abbiamo certamente bisogno di contadini. Nella presente mescolanza e nel presente disordine di una civiltà più o meno urbanizzata, abbiamo anche solo i primi elementi o le prime possibilità? Abbiamo contadini, o persino contadini potenziali? Come tutte le domande di questa sorta, non può essere risposta con le statistiche. Le statistiche sono artificiali anche quando non sono fittizie, poiché assumono sempre il fatto stesso che una stima morale deve sempre negare; assumono che ogni uomo sia un solo uomo. Sono basate su una sorta di teoria atomica per cui l’individuo è davvero individuale, nel senso di indivisibile. Ma quando abbiamo a che fare dichiaratamente con la proporzione di diversi amori o odi o speranze o fami, questo è così lontano dall’essere un fatto che possa essere assunto, che è la primissima cosa che deve essere negata. È negato da tutta quella più profonda considerazione che gli uomini saggi solevano chiamare spirituale, ma che gli sciocchi furono spaventati dal chiamare spirituale, finché non si arrischiarono a dirlo in greco e a chiamarlo psichico o psicologico. In un senso la più alta spiritualità insiste, naturalmente, sul fatto che un uomo è uno. Ma nel senso qui implicato, la visione spirituale ha sempre sostenuto che un uomo era almeno due, e la visione psicologica ha mostrato un certo gusto nel trasformarlo in una mezza dozzina. Non serve a nulla, dunque, discutere il numero di contadini che non sono nient’altro che contadini. Molto probabilmente non ce n’è affatto. Non serve a nulla chiedere quanti completi e compatti agricoltori o zoticoni stiano aspettando già pronti in camiciotti da lavoro o blusa, le loro vanghe e i loro forconi da fieno stretti in mano, nelle vicinanze di Brompton o Brixton; aspettando che noi diamo il segnale di precipitarsi indietro alla terra. Se qualcuno è tanto sciocco da aspettarsi quel genere di cosa, lo sciocco non si trova nel nostro piccolo partito politico. Quando abbiamo a che fare con una faccenda di questo tipo, abbiamo a che fare con elementi diversi nella stessa classe, o persino nello stesso uomo. Abbiamo a che fare con elementi che dovrebbero essere incoraggiati o educati o (se dobbiamo far entrare la parola da qualche parte) evoluti. Dobbiamo considerare se vi siano dei materiali con cui fare contadini per fare un contadinato, se davvero scegliamo di provarci. In nessun punto di queste note ho suggerito che vi sia la più flebile possibilità che ciò sia fatto, se non scegliamo di provarci.
Now, using words in this sensible sense, I should maintain that there is a very large element still in England that would like to return to this simpler sort of England. Some of them understand it better than others, some of them understand themselves better than others; some would be prepared for it as a revolution; some only cling to it very blindly as a tradition; some have never thought of it as anything but a hobby; some have never heard of it and feel it only as a want. But the number of people who would like to get out of the tangle of mere ramifications and communications in the town, and get back nearer to the roots of things, where things are made directly out of nature, I believe to be very large. It is probably not a majority, but I suspect that even now it is a very large minority. A man does not necessarily want this more than everything else at every moment of his life. No sane person expects any movement to consist entirely of such monomaniacs. But a good many people want it a good deal. I have formed that impression from experience, which is of all things the most difficult to reproduce in controversy. I guess it from the way in which numberless suburbans talk about their gardens. I guess it from the sort of things that they really envy in the rich; one of the most notable of which is merely empty space. I notice it in all the element that desires the country, even if it defaces the country. I notice it in the profound popular interest everywhere, especially in England, in the breeding or training of any kind of animal. And if I wanted a supreme, a symbolic, a triumphant example of all that I mean, I could find it in the case I have quoted of these men living in the most miserable slums of Limehouse, and reluctant to leave them because it would mean leaving behind a rabbit in a rabbit-hutch or a chicken in a hen-coop.
Now if we were really doing what I suggest, or if we really knew what we were doing, we should seize on these slum dwellers as if they were infant prodigies or (even more lucrative) monsters to be exhibited in a fair. We should see that such people have a natural genius for such things. We should encourage them in such things. We should educate them in such things. We should see in them the seed and living principle of a real spontaneous revival of the countryside. I repeat that it would be a matter of proportion and therefore of tact. But we should be on their side, being confident that they are on our side and on the side of the countryside. We should reconstruct our popular education so as to help these hobbies. We should think it worth while to teach people the things they are so eager to teach themselves. We should teach them; we might even, in a burst of Christian humility, occasionally allow them to teach us. What we do is to bundle them out of their houses, where they do these things with difficulty, and drag them shrieking to new and unfamiliar places where they cannot do them at all. This example alone would show how much we are really doing for the rural reconstruction of England.
Though much could be done by volunteers, and by a voluntary bargain between the man who really could do the work and the man who frequently cannot get the rent, there is nothing in our social philosophy that forbids the use of the State power where it can be used. And either by the State subsidy or some large voluntary fund, it seems to me that it would still be possible at least to give the other man something as good as the rent that he does not get. In other words, long before our Communists come to the controversial ethics of confiscation, it seems to me within the resources of civilization to enable Brown to buy from Smith what is now of very little value to Smith and might be of very great value to Brown. I know the current complaint against subsidy, and the general argument that applies equally to subscription; but I do think that a subsidy to restore agriculture would find more repayment in the future than a subsidy to patch up the position of coal; just as I think that in its turn more defensible than half a hundred salaries that we pay to a mob of nobodies for plaguing the poor with sham science and petty tyranny. But there are, as I have already hinted, other ways by which even the State could help in the matter. So long as we have State education, it seems a pity that it can never at any moment be determined by the needs of the State. If the immediate need of the State is to pay some attention to the existence of the earth, there really seems no reason why the eyes of the schoolmasters and schoolboys, staring at the stars, should not be turned in the direction of that planet. At present we have education, not indeed for angels, but rather for aviators. They do not even understand a man’s wish to remain tied to the ground. There is in their ideal an insanity that may be truly called unearthly.
Now I suggest such a peasantry of volunteers primarily as a nucleus, but I think it will be a nucleus of attraction. I think it will stand up not only as a rock but as a magnet. In other words, as soon as it is admitted that it can be done, it will become important when a number of other things can no longer be done. When trade is increasingly bad, this will be counted better even by those who count it a second best. When we speak of people leaving the countryside and flocking to the towns, we are not judging the case fairly. Something may be allowed for a social type that would always prefer cinemas and picture post cards even to property and liberty. But there is nothing conclusive in the fact that people prefer to go without property and liberty, with a cinema, to going without property and liberty without a cinema. Some people may like the town so much that they would rather be sweated in the town than free in the country. But nothing is proved by the mere fact that they would rather be sweated in the town than sweated in the country. I believe, therefore, that if we created even a considerable patch of peasantry, the patch would grow. People would fall back on it as they retired from the declining trades. At present the patch is not growing, because there is no patch to grow; people do not even believe in its existence, and can hardly believe in its extension.
So far, I merely propose to suggest that many peasants would now be ready to work alone on the land, though it would be a sacrifice; that many squires would be ready to let them have the land, though it would be a sacrifice; that the State (and for that matter any other patriotic corporation) could be called upon to help either or both in these actions, that it might not be an intolerable or impossible sacrifice. In all this I would remind the reader that I am only dealing with immediately practicable action and not with an ultimate or complete condition; but it seems to me that something of this sort might be set about almost at once. I shall next proceed to consider a misunderstanding about how a group of peasants could live on the land.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Ora, usando le parole in questo senso ragionevole, sosterrei che c’è un elemento assai vasto ancora in Inghilterra che vorrebbe tornare a questa più semplice sorta d’Inghilterra. Alcuni di loro la comprendono meglio di altri, alcuni di loro comprendono se stessi meglio di altri; alcuni sarebbero pronti a essa come a una rivoluzione; alcuni vi si aggrappano solo assai ciecamente come a una tradizione; alcuni non l’hanno mai pensata se non come un passatempo; alcuni non ne hanno mai sentito parlare e la sentono soltanto come una mancanza. Ma il numero di persone che vorrebbero uscire dall’intrico di mere ramificazioni e comunicazioni della città, e tornare più vicino alle radici delle cose, dove le cose sono fatte direttamente dalla natura, credo sia assai grande. Probabilmente non è una maggioranza, ma sospetto che persino ora sia una minoranza assai vasta. Un uomo non desidera necessariamente questo più di ogni altra cosa in ogni momento della sua vita. Nessuna persona sana di mente si aspetta che un qualsiasi movimento consista interamente di simili monomaniaci. Ma parecchia gente lo desidera assai. Ho formato quell’impressione dall’esperienza, che è di tutte le cose la più difficile da riprodurre in una controversia. La deduco dal modo in cui innumerevoli abitanti dei sobborghi parlano dei loro giardini. La deduco dal genere di cose che essi davvero invidiano nei ricchi; una delle più notevoli delle quali è semplicemente lo spazio vuoto. La noto in tutto l’elemento che desidera la campagna, anche se deturpa la campagna. La noto nel profondo interesse popolare dovunque, specialmente in Inghilterra, per l’allevamento o l’addestramento di qualsiasi tipo di animale. E se volessi un supremo, un simbolico, un trionfante esempio di tutto ciò che intendo, potrei trovarlo nel caso che ho citato di questi uomini che vivono nei più miserabili bassifondi di Limehouse, e riluttanti a lasciarli perché ciò significherebbe lasciarsi dietro un coniglio in una conigliera o una gallina in una stia.
Ora, se stessimo davvero facendo ciò che io suggerisco, o se davvero sapessimo ciò che stiamo facendo, ci getteremmo su questi abitanti dei bassifondi come se fossero fanciulli prodigio o (cosa persino più lucrativa) mostri da esibire in una fiera. Vedremmo che tali persone hanno un genio naturale per tali cose. Li incoraggeremmo in tali cose. Li educheremmo in tali cose. Vedremmo in loro il seme e il principio vivente di un reale, spontaneo risveglio della campagna. Ripeto che sarebbe una questione di proporzione e dunque di tatto. Ma saremmo dalla loro parte, fiduciosi che essi siano dalla nostra parte e dalla parte della campagna. Ricostruiremmo la nostra educazione popolare in modo da aiutare questi passatempi. Riterremmo che valga la pena insegnare alla gente le cose che essi sono così ansiosi di insegnare a se stessi. Insegneremmo loro; potremmo persino, in un impeto di cristiana umiltà, permettere loro occasionalmente di insegnare a noi. Ciò che facciamo è sbatterli fuori dalle loro case, dove fanno queste cose con difficoltà, e trascinarli strillanti verso luoghi nuovi e sconosciuti dove non possono farle affatto. Questo esempio soltanto mostrerebbe quanto stiamo davvero facendo per la ricostruzione rurale dell’Inghilterra.
Sebbene molto potrebbe essere fatto dai volontari, e da un accordo volontario tra l’uomo che davvero potrebbe fare il lavoro e l’uomo che spesso non riesce a ottenere l’affitto, non c’è nulla nella nostra filosofia sociale che vieti l’uso del potere dello Stato là dove esso può essere usato. E o mediante il sussidio dello Stato o mediante qualche vasto fondo volontario, mi sembra che sarebbe ancora possibile almeno dare all’altro uomo qualcosa di buono quanto l’affitto che egli non riceve. In altre parole, molto prima che i nostri Comunisti giungano alla controversa etica della confisca, mi sembra che rientri nelle risorse della civiltà permettere a Brown di comprare da Smith ciò che ora è di assai poco valore per Smith e potrebbe essere di assai gran valore per Brown. Conosco l’attuale lamentela contro il sussidio, e l’argomento generale che si applica ugualmente alla sottoscrizione; ma penso davvero che un sussidio per restaurare l’agricoltura troverebbe più ricompensa nel futuro di un sussidio per rattoppare la posizione del carbone; proprio come penso che quest’ultimo sia a sua volta più difendibile di mezzo centinaio di stipendi che paghiamo a una massa di nullità perché tormentino i poveri con falsa scienza e meschina tirannia. Ma vi sono, come ho già accennato, altri modi coi quali persino lo Stato potrebbe aiutare nella faccenda. Finché avremo l’istruzione statale, sembra un peccato che essa non possa mai in alcun momento essere determinata dai bisogni dello Stato. Se il bisogno immediato dello Stato è di prestare qualche attenzione all’esistenza della terra, non sembra davvero esservi alcuna ragione per cui gli occhi dei maestri e degli scolari, fissi sulle stelle, non debbano essere volti nella direzione di quel pianeta. Al presente abbiamo un’istruzione, non certo per angeli, ma piuttosto per aviatori. Non comprendono nemmeno il desiderio di un uomo di rimanere legato al suolo. C’è nel loro ideale una follia che può essere veramente chiamata ultraterrena.
Ora suggerisco un simile contadinato di volontari primariamente come un nucleo, ma penso che sarà un nucleo di attrazione. Penso che si ergerà non solo come una roccia ma come una calamita. In altre parole, non appena si ammetterà che ciò può essere fatto, esso diventerà importante quando un certo numero di altre cose non potranno più essere fatte. Quando il commercio sarà sempre più cattivo, questo sarà stimato migliore persino da coloro che lo stimano un ripiego. Quando parliamo di persone che lasciano la campagna e affluiscono alle città, non giudichiamo il caso in modo equo. Qualcosa può essere concesso a un tipo sociale che preferirebbe sempre i cinema e le cartoline illustrate persino alla proprietà e alla libertà. Ma non c’è nulla di conclusivo nel fatto che la gente preferisca fare a meno della proprietà e della libertà, con un cinema, che farne a meno senza un cinema. Alcune persone possono amare la città tanto da preferire di essere sfruttate nella città piuttosto che libere nella campagna. Ma nulla è provato dal mero fatto che preferirebbero essere sfruttate nella città piuttosto che sfruttate nella campagna. Credo, dunque, che se creassimo anche solo una considerevole chiazza di contadinato, la chiazza crescerebbe. La gente vi ripiegherebbe man mano che si ritira dai mestieri in declino. Al presente la chiazza non cresce, perché non c’è chiazza che cresca; la gente non crede nemmeno alla sua esistenza, e può a stento credere alla sua estensione.
Finora, mi propongo semplicemente di suggerire che molti contadini sarebbero ora pronti a lavorare da soli sulla terra, sebbene sarebbe un sacrificio; che molti proprietari terrieri sarebbero pronti a lasciar loro avere la terra, sebbene sarebbe un sacrificio; che lo Stato (e, per quel che vale, qualsiasi altra corporazione patriottica) potrebbe essere chiamato ad aiutare l’uno o entrambi in queste azioni, sì che potrebbe non essere un sacrificio intollerabile o impossibile. In tutto questo vorrei ricordare al lettore che sto trattando soltanto di un’azione immediatamente praticabile e non di una condizione ultima o completa; ma mi sembra che qualcosa di questo genere potrebbe essere avviato quasi subito. Procederò poi a considerare un malinteso su come un gruppo di contadini potrebbe vivere sulla terra.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
III THE REAL LIFE ON THE LAND
We offer one among many proposals for undoing the evil of capitalism, on the ground that ours is the only one that really is a proposal for undoing it. The others are all proposals for overdoing it. The natural thing to do with a wrong operation is to reverse it. The natural action, when property has fallen into fewer hands, is to restore it to more numerous hands. If twenty men are fishing in a river in such a crowd that their fishing-lines all get entangled into one, the normal operation is to disentangle them, and sort them out so that each fisherman has his own fishing-line. No doubt a collectivist philosopher standing on the bank might point out that the interwoven lines were now practically a net; and might be trailed along by a common effort so as to drag the river-bed. But apart from his scheme being doubtful in practice, it insults the intellectual instincts even in principle. It is not putting things right to take a doubtful advantage of their being wrong; and it does not even sound like a sane design to exaggerate an accident. Socialism is but the completion of the capitalist concentration; yet that concentration was itself effected blindly like a blunder. Now this naturalness, in the idea of undoing what was ill done would appeal, I think, to many natural people who feel the long-winded sociological schemes to be quite unnatural. For that reason I suggest in this section that many ordinary men, landlords and labourers, Tories and Radicals, would probably help us in this task, if it were separated from party politics and from the pride and pedantry of the intellectuals.
But there is another aspect in which the task is both more easy and more difficult. It is more easy because it need not be crushed by complexities of cosmopolitan trade. It is harder because it is a hard life to live apart from them. A Distributist for whose work (on a little paper defaced, alas, with my own initials) I have a very lively gratitude, once noted a truth often neglected. He said that living on the land was quite a different thing from living by carting things off it. He proved, far more lucidly than I could, how practical is the difference in economics. But I should like to add here a word about a corresponding distinction in ethics. For the former, it is obvious that most arguments about the inevitable failure of a man growing turnips in Sussex are arguments about his failing to sell them, not about his failing to eat them. Now as I have already explained, I do not propose to reduce all citizens to one type, and certainly not to one turnip-eater. In a greater or less degree, as circumstances dictated, there would doubtless be people selling turnips to other people; perhaps even the most ardent turnip-eater would probably sell some turnips to some people. But my meaning will not be clear if it be supposed that no more social simplification is needed than is implied in selling turnips out of a field instead of top-hats out of a shop. It seems to me that a great many people would be only too glad to live on the land, when they find the only alternative is to starve in the street. And it would surely modify the modern enormity of unemployment, if any large number of people were really living on the land, not merely in the sense of sleeping on the land but of feeding on the land. There will be many who maintain that this would mean a very dull life compared with the excitements of dying in a workhouse in Liverpool; just as there are many who insist that the average woman is made to drudge in the home, without asking whether the average man exults in having to drudge in the office. But passing over the fact that we may soon be faced with a problem at least as prosaic as a famine, I do not admit that such a life is necessarily or entirely prosaic. Rustic populations, largely self-supporting, seem to have amused themselves with a great many mythologies and dances and decorative arts; and I am not convinced that the turnip-eater always has a head like a turnip or that the top-hat always covers the brain of a philosopher. But if we look at the problem from the point of view of the community as a whole, we shall note other and not uninteresting things. A system based entirely on the division of labour is in one sense literally half-witted. That is, each performer of half of an operation does really use only half of his wits. It is not a question in the ordinary sense of intellect, and certainly not in the sense of intellectualism. But it is a question of integrity, in the strict sense of the word. The peasant does live, not merely a simple life, but a complete life. It may be very simple in its completeness, but the community is not complete without that completeness. The community is at present very defective because there is not in the core of it any such simple consciousness; any one man who represents the two parties to a contract. Unless there is, there is nowhere a full understanding of those terms: self-support, self-control, self-government. He is the only unanimous mob and the only universal man. He is the one half of the world which does know how the other half lives.
Many must have quoted the stately tag from Virgil which says, “Happy were he who could know the causes of things,” without remembering in what context it comes. Many have probably quoted it because the others have quoted it. Many, if left in ignorance to guess whence it comes, would probably guess wrong. Everybody knows that Virgil, like Homer, ventured to describe boldly enough the most secret councils of the gods. Everybody knows that Virgil, like Dante took his hero into Tartarus and the labyrinth of the last and lowest foundations of the universe. Every one knows that he dealt with the fall of Troy and the rise of Rome, with the laws of an empire fitted to rule all the children of men, with the ideals that should stand like stars before men committed to that awful stewardship. Yet it is in none of these connections, in none of these passages, that he makes the curious remark about human happiness consisting in a knowledge of causes. He says it, I fancy, in a pleasantly didactic poem about the rules for keeping bees. Anyhow, it is part of a series of elegant essays on country pursuits, in one sense, indeed, trivial, but in another sense almost technical. It is in the midst of these quiet and yet busy things that the great poet suddenly breaks out into the great passage, about the happy man whom neither kings nor mobs can cow; who, having beheld the root and reason of all things, can even hear under his feet, unshaken, the roar of the river of hell.
III LA VERA VITA SULLA TERRA
Offriamo una tra le molte proposte per disfare il male del capitalismo, sul presupposto che la nostra sia l’unica che davvero è una proposta per disfarlo. Le altre sono tutte proposte per esagerarlo. La cosa naturale da fare con un’operazione sbagliata è invertirla. L’azione naturale, quando la proprietà è caduta in poche mani, è restituirla a mani più numerose. Se venti uomini pescano in un fiume così assiepati che le loro lenze si aggrovigliano tutte in una sola, l’operazione normale è districarle, e separarle così che ciascun pescatore abbia la propria lenza. Senza dubbio un filosofo collettivista fermo sulla riva potrebbe far notare che le lenze intrecciate erano ormai praticamente una rete; e che potrebbero essere trascinate con uno sforzo comune così da dragare il letto del fiume. Ma, a parte il fatto che il suo schema è dubbio nella pratica, esso insulta gli istinti intellettuali persino in linea di principio. Non si mettono le cose a posto traendo un dubbio vantaggio dal loro essere sbagliate; e non suona nemmeno come un disegno sano esagerare un incidente. Il socialismo non è che il compimento della concentrazione capitalistica; eppure quella concentrazione fu essa stessa attuata ciecamente, come un errore. Ora questa naturalezza, nell’idea di disfare ciò che era stato mal fatto, farebbe presa, credo, su molte persone naturali che sentono come del tutto innaturali i prolissi schemi sociologici. Per questa ragione suggerisco in questa sezione che molti uomini comuni, proprietari terrieri e braccianti, Tory e Radicali, ci aiuterebbero probabilmente in questo compito, se esso fosse separato dalla politica di partito e dall’orgoglio e dalla pedanteria degli intellettuali.
Ma c’è un altro aspetto sotto il quale il compito è insieme più facile e più difficile. È più facile perché non deve essere schiacciato dalle complessità del commercio cosmopolita. È più difficile perché è una vita dura viverla lontano da esse. Un Distributista al cui lavoro (su un piccolo giornale deturpato, ahimè, dalle mie stesse iniziali) devo una gratitudine assai viva, notò una volta una verità spesso trascurata. Egli disse che vivere sulla terra era cosa del tutto diversa dal vivere trasportandone via le cose. Dimostrò, assai più lucidamente di quanto potrei io, quanto pratica sia la differenza in economia. Ma vorrei aggiungere qui una parola su una corrispondente distinzione nell’etica. Quanto alla prima, è ovvio che la maggior parte degli argomenti sull’inevitabile fallimento di un uomo che coltiva rape nel Sussex sono argomenti sul suo non riuscire a venderle, non sul suo non riuscire a mangiarle. Ora, come ho già spiegato, non mi propongo di ridurre tutti i cittadini a un solo tipo, e certamente non a un solo mangiatore di rape. In maggiore o minor grado, come dettano le circostanze, vi sarebbero senza dubbio persone che vendono rape ad altre persone; forse persino il più ardente mangiatore di rape venderebbe probabilmente qualche rapa a qualcuno. Ma il mio significato non sarà chiaro se si suppone che non occorra maggiore semplificazione sociale di quella implicata nel vendere rape da un campo invece che cilindri da un negozio. Mi pare che moltissime persone sarebbero fin troppo liete di vivere sulla terra, quando scoprissero che l’unica alternativa è morire di fame per strada. E modificherebbe certamente la moderna enormità della disoccupazione, se un gran numero di persone vivesse davvero sulla terra, non soltanto nel senso di dormire sulla terra ma di nutrirsi della terra. Vi saranno molti che sosterranno che ciò significherebbe una vita assai tediosa in confronto alle eccitazioni del morire in un ospizio dei poveri a Liverpool; proprio come vi sono molti che insistono che la donna media è fatta per sgobbare in casa, senza chiedersi se l’uomo medio esulti nel dover sgobbare in ufficio. Ma sorvolando sul fatto che potremmo presto trovarci di fronte a un problema prosaico almeno quanto una carestia, non ammetto che una simile vita sia necessariamente o interamente prosaica. Le popolazioni rustiche, in gran parte auto-sufficienti, sembrano essersi divertite con moltissime mitologie e danze e arti decorative; e non sono convinto che il mangiatore di rape abbia sempre una testa come una rapa, né che il cilindro copra sempre il cervello di un filosofo. Ma se guardiamo il problema dal punto di vista della comunità nel suo insieme, noteremo altre cose, e non prive di interesse. Un sistema fondato interamente sulla divisione del lavoro è, in un certo senso, letteralmente scervellato. Vale a dire, ciascun esecutore della metà di un’operazione usa davvero solo la metà del proprio cervello. Non è questione, nel senso ordinario, di intelletto, e certamente non nel senso dell’intellettualismo. Ma è questione di integrità, nel senso stretto della parola. Il contadino vive non semplicemente una vita semplice, ma una vita completa. Può essere assai semplice nella sua completezza, ma la comunità non è completa senza quella completezza. La comunità è al presente assai difettosa perché non vi è nel suo nucleo alcuna simile semplice consapevolezza; alcun singolo uomo che rappresenti entrambe le parti di un contratto. A meno che non vi sia, non vi è in nessun luogo una piena comprensione di quei termini: auto-sostentamento, auto-controllo, auto-governo. Egli è la sola folla unanime e il solo uomo universale. Egli è quella metà del mondo che sa davvero come vive l’altra metà.
Molti devono aver citato la solenne massima di Virgilio che dice: «Felice colui che potesse conoscere le cause delle cose», senza ricordare in quale contesto essa ricorra. Molti l’hanno probabilmente citata perché gli altri l’avevano citata. Molti, se lasciati nell’ignoranza a indovinare donde provenga, tirerebbero probabilmente a indovinare sbagliando. Tutti sanno che Virgilio, come Omero, osò descrivere abbastanza arditamente i più segreti consigli degli dèi. Tutti sanno che Virgilio, come Dante, condusse il suo eroe nel Tartaro e nel labirinto delle ultime e più basse fondamenta dell’universo. Ognuno sa che egli trattò della caduta di Troia e dell’ascesa di Roma, delle leggi di un impero atto a governare tutti i figli degli uomini, degli ideali che dovrebbero stare come stelle dinanzi agli uomini chiamati a quella tremenda amministrazione. Eppure non è in nessuna di queste connessioni, in nessuno di questi passi, che egli fa la curiosa osservazione sulla felicità umana consistente in una conoscenza delle cause. La dice, immagino, in un poemetto piacevolmente didattico sulle regole per allevare le api. Comunque, fa parte di una serie di eleganti saggi sulle occupazioni campestri, in un senso, invero, banali, ma in un altro senso quasi tecnici. È in mezzo a queste cose quiete e insieme operose che il grande poeta prorompe d’un tratto nel grande passo, sull’uomo felice che né re né folle possono intimorire; il quale, avendo contemplato la radice e la ragione di tutte le cose, può persino udire sotto i suoi piedi, imperturbato, il fragore del fiume dell’inferno.
And in saying this, the poet certainly proves once more the two great truths: that a poet is a prophet, and that a prophet is a practical man. Just as his longing for a deliverer of the nations was an unconscious prophecy of Christ, so his criticism of town and country is an unconscious prophecy of the decay that has come on the world through falling away from Christianity. Much may be said about the monstrosity of modern cities; it is easy to see and perhaps a little too easy to say. I have every sympathy with some wild-haired prophet who should lift up his voice in the streets to proclaim the Burden of Brompton in the manner of the Burden of Babylon. I will support (to the extent of sixpence, as Carlyle said) any old man with a beard who will wave his arms and call down fire from heaven upon Bayswater. I quite agree that lions will howl in the high places of Paddington; and I am entirely in favour of jackals and vultures rearing their young in the ruins of the Albert Hall. But in these cases, perhaps, the prophet is less explicit than the poet. He does not tell us exactly what is wrong with the town; but merely leaves it to our own delicate intuitions, to infer from the sudden appearance of wild unicorns trampling down our gardens, or a shower of flaming serpents shooting over our heads through the sky like a flight of arrows, or some such significant detail, that there probably is something wrong. But if we wish in another mood to know intellectually what it is that is wrong with the city, and why it seems to be driving on to dooms quite as unnatural and much more ugly, we shall certainly find it in that profound and piercing irrelevancy of the Latin line.
What is wrong with the man in the modern town is that he does not know the causes of things; and that is why, as the poet says, he can be too much dominated by despots and demagogues. He does not know where things come from; he is the type of the cultivated Cockney who said he liked milk out of a clean shop and not a dirty cow. The more elaborate is the town organization, the more elaborate even is the town education, the less is he the happy man of Virgil who knows the causes of things. The town civilization simply means the number of shops through which the milk does pass from the cow to the man; in other words, it means the number of opportunities of wasting the milk, of watering the milk, of poisoning the milk, and of swindling the man. If ever he protests against being poisoned or swindled, he will certainly be told that it is no good crying over spilt milk; or, in other words, that it is reactionary sentimentalism to attempt to undo what is done or to restore what is perished. But he does not protest very much, because he cannot; and he cannot because he does not know enough about the causes of things— about the primary forms of property and production, or the points where man is nearest to his natural origins.
So far the fundamental fact is clear enough; and by this time this side of the truth is even fairly familiar. A few people are still ignorant enough to talk about the ignorant peasant. But obviously in the essential sense it would be far truer to talk about the ignorant townsman. Even where the townsman is equally well employed, he is not in this sense equally well informed. Indeed, we should see this simple fact clearly enough, if it concerned almost anything except the essentials of our life. If a geologist were tapping with a geological hammer on the bricks of a half-built house, and telling the bricklayers what the clay was and where it came from, we might think him a nuisance; but we should probably think him a learned nuisance. We might prefer the workman’s hammer to the geologist’s hammer; but we should admit that there were some things in the geologist’s head that did not happen to be in the workman’s head. Yet the yokel, or young man from the country, really would know something about the origin of our breakfasts, as does the professor about the origin of our bricks. Should we see a grotesque medieval monster called a pig hung topsy-turvy from a butcher’s hook, like a huge bat from a branch, it will be the young man from the country who will soothe our fears and still our refined shrieks with some account of the harmless habits of this fabulous animal, and by tracing the strange and secret connection between it and the rashers on the breakfast table. If a thunderbolt or meteoric stone fell in front of us in the street, we might have more sympathy with the policeman who wanted to remove it from the thoroughfare than with the professor who wished to stand in the middle of the thoroughfare, lecturing on the constituent elements of the comet or nebula of which it was a flying fragment. But though the policeman might be justified in exclaiming (in the original Greek) “What are the Pleiades to me?” even he would admit that more information about the soil and strata of the Pleiades can be obtained from a professor than from a policeman. So if some strange and swollen monstrosity called a vegetable marrow surprises us like a thunderbolt, let us not imagine that it is so strange to the man who grows marrows as it is to us, merely because his field and work seem to be as far away as the Pleiades. Let us recognize that he is, after all, a specialist on these mysterious marrows and prehistoric pigs; and treat him like a learned man come from a foreign university. England is now such a long way off from London that its emissaries might at least be received with the respect due to distinguished visitors from China or the Cannibal Islands. But, anyhow, we need no longer talk of them as merely ignorant, in talking of the very thing of which we are ignorant ourselves. One man may think the peasant’s knowledge irrelevant, as another may think the professor’s irrelevant; but in both cases it is knowledge; for it is knowledge of the causes of things.
E dicendo ciò, il poeta prova certamente ancora una volta le due grandi verità: che un poeta è un profeta, e che un profeta è un uomo pratico. Proprio come il suo anelito a un liberatore delle nazioni fu un’inconscia profezia di Cristo, così la sua critica alla città e alla campagna è un’inconscia profezia della decadenza che è calata sul mondo con l’allontanarsi dal Cristianesimo. Molto si può dire sulla mostruosità delle città moderne; è facile vederlo e forse un po’ troppo facile dirlo. Ho ogni simpatia per qualche profeta dai capelli arruffati che levasse la voce per le strade a proclamare il Fardello di Brompton alla maniera del Fardello di Babilonia. Sosterrò (nella misura di sei pence, come diceva Carlyle) qualunque vecchio dalla barba che agiti le braccia e invochi il fuoco dal cielo su Bayswater. Convengo pienamente che i leoni ululeranno negli alti luoghi di Paddington; e sono interamente a favore degli sciacalli e degli avvoltoi che allevino i loro piccoli tra le rovine dell’Albert Hall. Ma in questi casi, forse, il profeta è meno esplicito del poeta. Egli non ci dice esattamente che cosa non va nella città; ma lo lascia semplicemente alle nostre delicate intuizioni, perché deduciamo dall’improvvisa apparizione di unicorni selvaggi che calpestano i nostri giardini, o da una pioggia di serpenti fiammeggianti che sfrecciano sopra le nostre teste nel cielo come un volo di frecce, o da qualche altro dettaglio significativo, che probabilmente qualcosa non va. Ma se desideriamo, in un altro stato d’animo, sapere intellettualmente che cosa sia che non va nella città, e perché essa sembri correre verso destini altrettanto innaturali e assai più brutti, lo troveremo certamente in quella profonda e penetrante irrilevanza del verso latino.
Ciò che non va nell’uomo della città moderna è che egli non conosce le cause delle cose; ed è per questo, come dice il poeta, che può essere troppo dominato da despoti e demagoghi. Egli non sa da dove vengano le cose; è il tipo del colto Cockney che diceva di preferire il latte da un negozio pulito piuttosto che da una vacca sporca. Quanto più elaborata è l’organizzazione della città, quanto più elaborata è persino l’istruzione cittadina, tanto meno egli è l’uomo felice di Virgilio che conosce le cause delle cose. La civiltà cittadina significa semplicemente il numero di negozi attraverso cui il latte passa dalla vacca all’uomo; in altre parole, significa il numero di occasioni di sprecare il latte, di annacquare il latte, di avvelenare il latte, e di truffare l’uomo. Se mai egli protesta di essere avvelenato o truffato, gli si dirà certamente che è inutile piangere sul latte versato; ovvero, in altre parole, che è sentimentalismo reazionario tentare di disfare ciò che è fatto o di restaurare ciò che è perito. Ma egli non protesta granché, perché non può; e non può perché non sa abbastanza sulle cause delle cose — sulle forme primarie della proprietà e della produzione, o sui punti in cui l’uomo è più vicino alle sue origini naturali.
Fin qui il fatto fondamentale è abbastanza chiaro; e ormai, a questo tempo, questo lato della verità è persino piuttosto familiare. Poche persone sono ancora tanto ignoranti da parlare del contadino ignorante. Ma ovviamente, nel senso essenziale, sarebbe assai più vero parlare del cittadino ignorante. Anche là dove il cittadino è ugualmente ben impiegato, non è, in questo senso, ugualmente ben informato. Invero, vedremmo questo semplice fatto abbastanza chiaramente, se esso riguardasse quasi qualsiasi cosa tranne gli essenziali della nostra vita. Se un geologo picchiettasse con un martello geologico sui mattoni di una casa a metà costruita, e dicesse ai muratori cos’era l’argilla e da dove veniva, potremmo giudicarlo una seccatura; ma probabilmente lo giudicheremmo una seccatura dotta. Potremmo preferire il martello dell’operaio al martello del geologo; ma dovremmo ammettere che c’erano alcune cose nella testa del geologo che non si trovavano nella testa dell’operaio. Eppure lo zotico, o giovane venuto dalla campagna, saprebbe davvero qualcosa sull’origine delle nostre colazioni, come il professore sa sull’origine dei nostri mattoni. Se vedessimo un grottesco mostro medievale chiamato maiale appeso a testa in giù al gancio di un macellaio, come un enorme pipistrello a un ramo, sarà il giovane venuto dalla campagna a placare i nostri timori e a zittire le nostre raffinate strida con qualche resoconto delle innocue abitudini di questo favoloso animale, e a tracciare la strana e segreta connessione tra esso e le fette di pancetta sulla tavola della colazione. Se un fulmine o una pietra meteorica cadesse dinanzi a noi per strada, potremmo avere più simpatia per il poliziotto che volesse rimuoverla dalla via che per il professore che volesse stare in mezzo alla via a tenere una lezione sugli elementi costituenti della cometa o della nebulosa di cui essa era un volante frammento. Ma per quanto il poliziotto potesse essere giustificato nell’esclamare (nell’originale greco) «Che cosa sono le Pleiadi per me?», persino lui ammetterebbe che maggiori informazioni sul suolo e sugli strati delle Pleiadi si possono ottenere da un professore piuttosto che da un poliziotto. Così, se una qualche strana e gonfia mostruosità chiamata zucca ci sorprende come un fulmine, non immaginiamo che essa sia tanto strana all’uomo che coltiva le zucche quanto lo è per noi, solo perché il suo campo e il suo lavoro sembrano lontani quanto le Pleiadi. Riconosciamo che egli è, dopo tutto, uno specialista di queste misteriose zucche e di questi preistorici maiali; e trattiamolo come un dotto venuto da un’università straniera. L’Inghilterra è ormai così lontana da Londra che i suoi emissari potrebbero almeno essere ricevuti con il rispetto dovuto ai visitatori illustri della Cina o delle Isole dei Cannibali. Ma, comunque, non abbiamo più bisogno di parlarne come di meri ignoranti, parlando della cosa stessa di cui siamo ignoranti noi. Un uomo può ritenere irrilevante la conoscenza del contadino, come un altro può ritenere irrilevante quella de il professore; ma in entrambi i casi è conoscenza; poiché è conoscenza delle cause delle cose.
Most of us realize in some sense that this is true; but many of us have not yet realized that the converse is also true. And it is that other truth, when we have understood it, that leads to the next necessary point about the full status of the peasant. And the point is this: that the peasant also will have but a partial experience if he grows things in the country solely in order to sell them to the town. Of course, it is only a joke to represent either the ignorance of town or country as being so grotesque as I have suggested for the sake of example. The townsman does not really think that milk is rained from the clouds or that rashers grow on trees, even when he is a little vague about vegetable marrows. He knows something about it; but not enough to make his advice of much value. The rustic does not really think that milk is used as whitewash or marrows as bolsters, even if he never actually sees them used. But if he is a mere producer and not a consumer of them, his position does become as partial as that of any Cockney clerk; nearly as narrow and even more servile. Given the wonderful romance of the vegetable marrow, it is a bad thing that the peasant should only know the beginning of the story, as it is a bad thing that the clerk should only know the end of it.
I insert here this general suggestion for a particular reason. Before we come to the practical expediency of the peasant who consumes what he produces (and the reason for thinking it, as Mr. Heseltine has urged, much more practicable than the method by which he only sells what he produces), I think it well to point out that this course, while it is more expedient, is not a mere surrender to expediency. It seems to me a very good thing, in theory as well as practice, that there should be a body of citizens primarily concerned in producing and consuming and not in exchanging. It seems to me a part of our ideal, and not merely a part of our compromise, that there should be in the community a sort of core not only of simplicity but of completeness. Exchange and variation can then be given their reasonable place; as they were in the old world of fairs and markets. But there would be somewhere in the centre of civilization a type that was truly independent; in the sense of producing and consuming within its own social circle. I do not say that such a complete human life stands for a complete humanity. I do not say that the State needs only the man who needs nothing from the State. But I do say that this man who supplies his own needs is very much needed. I say it largely because of his absence from modern civilization, that modern civilization has lost unity. It is nobody’s business to note the whole of a process, to see where things come from and where they go to. Nobody follows the whole winding course of the river of milk as it flows from the cow to the baby. Nobody who is in at the death of the pig is responsible for realizing that the proof of the pig is in the eating. Men throw marrows at other men like cannon balls; but they do not return to them like boomerangs. We need a social circle in which things constantly return to those that threw them; and men who know the end and the beginning and the rounding of our little life.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
La maggior parte di noi, in un certo senso, comprende che questo è vero; ma molti di noi non hanno ancora compreso che è vero anche il suo rovescio. Ed è proprio quell’altra verità, una volta afferrata, a condurci al punto successivo, necessario, riguardo alla piena condizione del contadino. E il punto è questo: che anche il contadino avrà un’esperienza soltanto parziale, se coltiva le cose in campagna al solo scopo di venderle alla città. Naturalmente, è soltanto uno scherzo rappresentare l’ignoranza della città o della campagna tanto grottesca quanto ho suggerito a titolo d’esempio. Il cittadino non crede davvero che il latte piova dalle nuvole o che le fette di pancetta crescano sugli alberi, per quanto abbia le idee un po’ confuse sulle zucche. Qualcosa ne sa; ma non abbastanza da rendere di gran valore il suo parere. Il campagnolo non crede davvero che il latte serva da calce o le zucche da guanciali, anche se non li vede mai usati così. Ma se egli è un mero produttore e non un consumatore di quelle cose, la sua posizione diventa parziale quanto quella di un qualsiasi scrivano londinese; quasi altrettanto angusta e persino più servile. Dato il meraviglioso romanzo della zucca, è cosa cattiva che il contadino conosca soltanto l’inizio della storia, così com’è cosa cattiva che lo scrivano ne conosca soltanto la fine.
Inserisco qui questa osservazione generale per una ragione particolare. Prima di venire alla convenienza pratica del contadino che consuma ciò che produce (e alla ragione per cui la si ritiene, come ha sostenuto il signor Heseltine, assai più praticabile del metodo per cui egli vende soltanto ciò che produce), ritengo bene far notare che questa via, pur essendo più conveniente, non è una mera resa alla convenienza. Mi pare cosa ottima, in teoria non meno che nella pratica, che vi sia un corpo di cittadini dediti anzitutto a produrre e a consumare, e non a scambiare. Mi pare parte del nostro ideale, e non semplicemente parte del nostro compromesso, che vi sia nella comunità una specie di nucleo non solo di semplicità, ma di completezza. Lo scambio e la varietà potranno allora avere il loro posto ragionevole, come l’avevano nel vecchio mondo delle fiere e dei mercati. Ma vi sarebbe da qualche parte, al centro della civiltà, un tipo umano davvero indipendente; nel senso di produrre e consumare entro la propria cerchia sociale. Non dico che una vita umana così completa rappresenti un’umanità completa. Non dico che lo Stato abbia bisogno soltanto dell’uomo che nulla chiede allo Stato. Ma dico che quest’uomo, che provvede da sé ai propri bisogni, è molto necessario. Lo dico in gran parte a causa della sua assenza dalla civiltà moderna, per cui la civiltà moderna ha perduto l’unità. Non è affare di nessuno osservare un processo nella sua interezza, vedere da dove vengono le cose e dove vanno. Nessuno segue l’intero corso tortuoso del fiume di latte che scorre dalla mucca al lattante. Nessuno che sia presente alla morte del maiale si sente responsabile di comprendere che la prova del maiale sta nel mangiarlo. Gli uomini si lanciano le zucche l’un l’altro come palle di cannone; ma esse non tornano loro come boomerang. Ci occorre una cerchia sociale in cui le cose tornino di continuo a chi le ha lanciate; e uomini che conoscano la fine e l’inizio e il compiersi della nostra piccola vita.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
IV SOME ASPECTS OF MACHINERY
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
IV ALCUNI ASPETTI DELLA MACCHINA
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
I THE WHEEL OF FATE
The evil we are seeking to destroy clings about in corners especially in the form of catch-phrases by which even the intelligent can easily be caught. One phrase, which we may hear from anybody at any moment, is the phrase that such and such a modern institution has “come to stay.” It is these half-metaphors that tend to make us all half-witted. What is precisely meant by the statement that the steam-engine or the wireless apparatus has come to stay? What is meant, for that matter, even by saying that the Eiffel Tower has come to stay? To begin with, we obviously do not mean what we mean when we use the words naturally; as in the expression, “Uncle Humphrey has come to stay.” That last sentence may be uttered in tones of joy, or of resignation, or even of despair; but not of despair in the sense that Uncle Humphrey is really a monument that can never be moved. Uncle Humphrey did come; and Uncle Humphrey will presumably at some time go; it is even possible (however painful it may be to imagine such domestic relations) that in the last resort he should be made to go. The fact that the figure breaks down, even apart from the reality it is supposed to represent, illustrates how loosely these catch-words are used. But when we say, “The Eiffel Tower has come to stay,” we are still more inaccurate. For, to begin with, the Eiffel Tower has not come at all. There was never a moment when the Eiffel Tower was seen striding towards Paris on its long iron legs across the plains of France, as the giant in the glorious nightmare of Rabelais came to tower over Paris and carry away the bells of Notre-Dame. The figure of Uncle Humphrey seen coming up the road may possibly strike as much terror as any walking tower or towering giant; and the question that may leap into every mind may be the question of whether he has come to stay. But whether or no he has come to stay he has certainly come. He has willed; he has propelled or precipitated his body in a certain direction; he has agitated his own legs; it is even possible (for we all know what Uncle Humphrey is like) that he has insisted on carrying his own portmanteau, to show the lazy young dogs what he can still do at seventy-three.
Now suppose that what had really happened was something like this; something like a weird story of Hawthorne or Poe. Suppose we ourselves had actually manufactured Uncle Humphrey; had put him together, piece by piece, like a mechanical doll. Suppose we had so ardently felt at the moment the need of an uncle in our home life that we had constructed him out of domestic materials, like a Guy for the fifth of November. Taking, it may be, a turnip from the kitchen-garden to represent his bald and venerable head; permitting the water-butt, as it were, to suggest the lines of his figure; stuffing a pair of trousers and attaching a pair of boots, we could produce a complete and convincing uncle of whom any family might be proud. Under those conditions, it might be graceful enough to say, in the merely social sense and as a sort of polite fiction, “Uncle Humphrey has come to stay.” But surely it would be very extraordinary if we afterwards found the dummy relative was nothing but a nuisance, or that his materials were needed for other purposes—surely it would be very extraordinary if we were then forbidden to take him to pieces again; if every effort in that direction were met with the resolute answer, “No, no; Uncle Humphrey has come to stay.” Surely we should be tempted to retort that Uncle Humphrey never came at all. Suppose all the turnips were wanted for the self-support of the peasant home. Suppose the water-butts were wanted; let us hope for the purpose of holding beer. Suppose the male members of the family refused any longer to lend their trousers to an entirely imaginary relative. Surely we should then see through the polite fiction that led us to talk as if the uncle had “come,” had come with an intention, had remained with a purpose, and all the rest. The thing we made did not come, and certainly did not come to do anything, either to stay or to depart.
Now no doubt most people even in the logical city of Paris would say that the Eiffel Tower has come to stay. And no doubt most people in the same city rather more than a hundred years before would have said that the Bastille had come to stay. But it did not stay; it left the neighbourhood quite abruptly. In plain words, the Bastille was something that man had made and, therefore, man could unmake. The Eiffel Tower is something that man has made and man could unmake; though perhaps we may think it practically probable that some time will elapse before man will have the good taste or good sense or even the common sanity to unmake it. But this one little phrase about the thing “coming” is alone enough to indicate something profoundly wrong about the very working of men’s minds on the subject. Obviously a man ought to be saying, “I have made an electric battery. Shall I smash it, or shall I make another?” Instead of that, he seems to be bewitched by a sort of magic and stand staring at the thing as if it were a seven-headed dragon; and he can only say, “The electric battery has come. Has it come to stay?”
Before we begin any talk of the practical problem of machinery, it is necessary to leave off thinking like machines. It is necessary to begin at the beginning and consider the end. Now we do not necessarily wish to destroy every sort of machinery. But we do desire to destroy a certain sort of mentality. And that is precisely the sort of mentality that begins by telling us that nobody can destroy machinery. Those who begin by saying that we cannot abolish the machine, that we must use the machine, are themselves refusing to use the mind.
I LA RUOTA DEL FATO
Il male che cerchiamo di distruggere si annida negli angoli, specialmente sotto forma di slogan da cui persino gli intelligenti possono facilmente lasciarsi catturare. Una frase, che possiamo udire da chiunque in qualunque momento, è quella secondo cui questa o quella moderna istituzione è «venuta per restare». Sono queste mezze metafore che tendono a renderci tutti mezzi scervellati. Che cosa si intende precisamente con l’affermazione che la macchina a vapore o l’apparato senza fili è venuta per restare? Che cosa si intende, se è per questo, persino dicendo che la Torre Eiffel è venuta per restare? Tanto per cominciare, ovviamente non intendiamo ciò che intendiamo quando usiamo le parole in modo naturale; come nell’espressione: «Lo zio Humphrey è venuto per restare». Quest’ultima frase può essere pronunciata in toni di gioia, o di rassegnazione, o persino di disperazione; ma non di disperazione nel senso che lo zio Humphrey sia davvero un monumento che non può mai essere mosso. Lo zio Humphrey è venuto; e lo zio Humphrey presumibilmente a un certo momento se ne andrà; è persino possibile (per quanto possa essere penoso immaginare simili relazioni domestiche) che, in ultima istanza, lo si debba costringere ad andarsene. Il fatto che la figura crolli, anche a prescindere dalla realtà che dovrebbe rappresentare, illustra con quanta approssimazione questi slogan siano usati. Ma quando diciamo: «La Torre Eiffel è venuta per restare», siamo ancora più inesatti. Poiché, tanto per cominciare, la Torre Eiffel non è venuta affatto. Non vi fu mai un momento in cui si vide la Torre Eiffel avanzare a grandi passi verso Parigi sulle sue lunghe gambe di ferro attraverso le pianure di Francia, come il gigante del glorioso incubo di Rabelais venne a torreggiare su Parigi e a portar via le campane di Notre-Dame. La figura dello zio Humphrey vista risalire la strada può forse incutere tanto terrore quanto una torre che cammina o un gigante torreggiante; e la domanda che può balzare in ogni mente può essere quella se egli sia venuto per restare. Ma che sia o no venuto per restare, egli è certamente venuto. Ha voluto; ha spinto o proiettato il proprio corpo in una certa direzione; ha agitato le proprie gambe; è persino possibile (poiché tutti sappiamo com’è fatto lo zio Humphrey) che abbia insistito nel portare da sé la propria valigia, per mostrare ai pigri giovani cagnacci ciò che sa ancora fare a settantatré anni.
Ora, supponiamo che ciò che era realmente accaduto fosse qualcosa di simile a questo; qualcosa come una strana storia di Hawthorne o di Poe. Supponiamo di aver realmente fabbricato noi stessi lo zio Humphrey; di averlo messo insieme, pezzo per pezzo, come una bambola meccanica. Supponiamo di aver sentito in quel momento con tale ardore il bisogno di uno zio nella nostra vita domestica da averlo costruito con materiali domestici, come un fantoccio per il cinque di novembre. Prendendo, poniamo, una rapa dall’orto a rappresentare la sua testa calva e veneranda; permettendo alla botte d’acqua, per così dire, di suggerire le linee della sua figura; imbottendo un paio di pantaloni e attaccandovi un paio di stivali, potremmo produrre uno zio completo e convincente di cui qualunque famiglia potrebbe andar fiera. In quelle condizioni, potrebbe essere abbastanza garbato dire, nel senso puramente sociale e come una sorta di cortese finzione: «Lo zio Humphrey è venuto per restare». Ma sarebbe certamente assai straordinario se poi scoprissimo che il parente fittizio non era altro che una seccatura, o che i suoi materiali servivano per altri scopi — sarebbe certamente assai straordinario se ci fosse allora proibito farlo di nuovo a pezzi; se ogni sforzo in quella direzione fosse accolto con la risoluta risposta: «No, no; lo zio Humphrey è venuto per restare». Saremmo certamente tentati di ribattere che lo zio Humphrey non è mai venuto affatto. Supponiamo che tutte le rape servissero per l’auto-sostentamento della casa contadina. Supponiamo che le botti d’acqua servissero; speriamo allo scopo di contenere birra. Supponiamo che i membri maschi della famiglia si rifiutassero di prestare ancora i loro pantaloni a un parente del tutto immaginario. Certamente vedremmo allora attraverso la cortese finzione che ci portava a parlare come se lo zio fosse «venuto», fosse venuto con un intento, fosse rimasto con un proposito, e tutto il resto. La cosa che avevamo fatto non venne, e certamente non venne per fare alcunché, né per restare né per partire.
Ora, senza dubbio la maggior parte della gente, persino nella logica città di Parigi, direbbe che la Torre Eiffel è venuta per restare. E senza dubbio la maggior parte della gente nella medesima città, poco più di cent’anni prima, avrebbe detto che la Bastiglia era venuta per restare. Ma essa non restò; lasciò il vicinato assai bruscamente. In parole povere, la Bastiglia era qualcosa che l’uomo aveva fatto e, pertanto, che l’uomo poteva disfare. La Torre Eiffel è qualcosa che l’uomo ha fatto e che l’uomo potrebbe disfare; benché forse possiamo ritenere praticamente probabile che passerà del tempo prima che l’uomo abbia il buon gusto o il buon senso o persino la comune sanità mentale di disfarla. Ma questa sola piccola frase sul fatto che la cosa «venga» basta da sola a indicare qualcosa di profondamente sbagliato nel funzionamento stesso della mente degli uomini su questo argomento. Ovviamente un uomo dovrebbe dire: «Ho fatto una pila elettrica. La distruggo, o ne faccio un’altra?». Invece di ciò, egli pare stregato da una sorta di magia e sta lì a fissare la cosa come se fosse un drago a sette teste; e sa solo dire: «La pila elettrica è venuta. È venuta per restare?».
Prima di intraprendere qualsiasi discorso sul problema pratico del macchinario, è necessario smettere di pensare come macchine. È necessario cominciare dal principio e considerare la fine. Ora, non desideriamo necessariamente distruggere ogni sorta di macchinario. Ma desideriamo distruggere una certa sorta di mentalità. Ed è precisamente quella sorta di mentalità che comincia col dirci che nessuno può distruggere il macchinario. Coloro che cominciano col dire che non possiamo abolire la macchina, che dobbiamo usare la macchina, stanno essi stessi rifiutando di usare la mente.
The aim of human polity is human happiness. For those holding certain beliefs it is conditioned by the hope of a larger happiness, which it must not imperil. But happiness, the making glad of the heart of man, is the secular test and the only realistic test. So far from this test, by the talisman of the heart, being merely sentimental, it is the only test that is in the least practical. There is no law of logic or nature or anything else forcing us to prefer anything else. There is no obligation on us to be richer, or busier, or more efficient, or more productive, or more progressive, or in any way worldlier or wealthier, if it does not make us happier. Mankind has as much right to scrap its machinery and live on the land, if it really likes it better, as any man has to sell his old bicycle and go for a walk, if he likes that better. It is obvious that the walk will be slower; but he has no duty to be fast. And if it can be shown that machinery has come into the world as a curse, there is no reason whatever for our respecting it because it is a marvellous and practical and productive curse. There is no reason why we should not leave all its powers unused, if we have really come to the conclusion that the powers do us harm. The mere fact that we shall be missing a number of interesting things would apply equally to any number of impossible things. Machinery may be a magnificent sight, but not so magnificent as a Great Fire of London; yet we resist that vision and avert our eyes from all that potential splendour. Machinery may not yet be at its best; and perhaps lions and tigers will never be at their best, will never make their most graceful leaps or show all their natural splendours, until we erect an amphitheatre and give them a few live people to eat. Yet that sight also is one which we forbid ourselves, with whatever austere self-denial. We give up so many glorious possibilities, in our stern and strenuous and self-sacrificing preference for having a tolerable time. Happiness, in a sense, is a hard taskmaster. It tells us not to get entangled with many things that are much more superficially attractive than machinery. But, anyhow, it is necessary to clear our minds at the start of any mere vague association or assumption to the effect that we must go by the quickest train or cannot help using the most productive instrument. Granted Mr. Penty’s thesis of the evil of machinery, as something like the evil of black magic, and there is nothing in the least unpractical about Mr. Penty’s proposal that it should simply stop. A process of invention would cease that might have gone further. But its relative imperfection would be nothing compared with the rudimentary state in which we have left such scientific instruments as the rack and the thumbscrew. Those rude implements of torture are clumsy compared with the finished products that modern knowledge of physiology and mechanics might have given us. Many a talented torturer is left in obscurity by the moral prejudices of modern society. Nay, his budding promise is now nipped even in childhood, when he attempts to develop his natural genius on the flies or the tail of the dog. Our own strong sentimental bias against torture represses his noble rage and freezes the genial current of his soul. But we reconcile ourselves to this; though it be undoubtedly the loss of a whole science for which many ingenious persons might have sought out many inventions. If we really conclude that machinery is hostile to happiness, then it is no more inevitable that all ploughing should be done by machinery than it is inevitable that a shop should do a roaring trade on Ludgate Hill by selling the instruments of Chinese tortures.
Let it be clearly understood that I note this only to make the primary problem clear; I am not now saying, nor perhaps should I ever say, that machinery has been proved to be practically poisonous in this degree. I am only stating, in answer to a hundred confused assumptions, the only ultimate aim and test. If we can make men happier, it does not matter if we make them poorer, it does not matter if we make them less productive, it does not matter if we make them less progressive, in the sense of merely changing their life without increasing their liking for it. We of this school of thought may or may not get what we want; but it is at least necessary that we should know what we are trying to get. And those who are called practical men never know what they are trying to get. If machinery does prevent happiness, then it is as futile to tell a man trying to make men happy that he is neglecting the talents of Arkwright, as to tell a man trying to make men humane that he is neglecting the tastes of Nero.
Now it is exactly those who have the clarity to imagine the instant annihilation of machines who will probably have too much common sense to annihilate them instantly. To go mad and smash machinery is a more or less healthy and human malady, as it was in the Luddites. But it was really owing to the ignorance of the Luddites, in a very different sense from that spoken of scornfully by the stupendous ignorance of the Industrial Economists. It was blind revolt as against some ancient and awful dragon, by men too ignorant to know how artificial and even temporary was that particular instrument, or where was the seat of the real tyrants who wielded it. The real answer to the mechanical problem for the present is of a different sort; and I will proceed to suggest it, having once made clear the only methods of judgment by which it can be judged. And having begun at the right end, which is the ultimate spiritual standard by which a man or a machine is to be valued, I will now begin at the other end; I might say at the wrong end; but it will be more respectful to our practical friends to call it the business end.
If I am asked what I should immediately do with a machine, I have no doubt about the sort of practical programme that could be a preliminary to a possible spiritual revolution of a much wider sort. In so far as the machine cannot be shared, I would have the ownership of it shared; that is, the direction of it shared and the profits of it shared. But when I say “shared” I mean it in the modern mercantile sense of the word “shares.” That is, I mean something divided and not merely something pooled. Our business friends bustle forward to tell us that all this is impossible; completely unconscious, apparently, that all this part of the business exists already. You cannot distribute a steam-engine, in the sense of giving one wheel to each shareholder to take home with him, clasped in his arms. But you not only can, but you already do distribute the ownership and profit of the steam-engine; and you distribute it in the form of private property. Only you do not distribute it enough, or to the right people, or to the people who really require it or could really do work for it. Now there are many schemes having this normal and general character; almost any one of which I should prefer to the concentration presented by capitalism or promised by communism. My own preference, on the whole, would be that any such necessary machine should be owned by a small local guild, on principles of profit-sharing, or rather profit-dividing: but of real profit-sharing and real profit-dividing, not to be confounded with capitalist patronage.
Touching the last point, it may be well to say in passing that what I say about the problem of profit-sharing is in that respect parallel to what I say also about the problem of emigration. The real difficulty of starting it in the right way is that it has so often been started in the wrong way; and especially in the wrong spirit. There is a certain amount of prejudice against profit-sharing, just as there is a certain amount of prejudice against emigration, in the industrial democracy of to-day. It is due in both cases to the type and especially the tone of the proposals. I entirely sympathize with the Trade Unionist who dislikes a certain sort of condescending capitalist concession; and the spirit which gives every man a place in the sun which turns out to be a place in Port Sunlight. Similarly, I quite sympathize with Mr. Kirkwood when he resented being lectured about emigration by Sir Alfred Mond, to the extent of saying, “The Scots will leave Scotland when the German Jews leave England.” But I think it would be possible to have a more genuinely egalitarian emigration, with a positive policy of self-government for the poor, to which Mr. Kirkwood might be kind; and I think that profit-sharing that began at the popular end, establishing first the property of a guild and not merely the caprice of an employer, would not contradict any true principle of Trades Unions. For the moment, however, I am only saying that something could be done with what lies nearest to us; quite apart from our general ideal about the position of machinery in an ideal social state. I understand what is meant by saying that the ideal in both cases depends upon the wrong ideals. But I do not understand what our critics mean by saying that it is impossible to divide the shares and profits in a machine among definite individuals. Any healthy man in any historical period would have thought it a project far more practicable than a Milk Trust.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Lo scopo della politica umana è la felicità umana. Per chi professa certe fedi, essa è condizionata dalla speranza di una felicità più grande, che non deve mettere a repentaglio. Ma la felicità, il rallegrare il cuore dell’uomo, è la prova secolare e l’unica prova realistica. Lungi dall’essere meramente sentimentale, questa prova, il talismano del cuore, è l’unica che sia minimamente pratica. Non c’è legge di logica né di natura né d’altro che ci costringa a preferire qualcos’altro. Non abbiamo alcun obbligo di essere più ricchi, più indaffarati, più efficienti, più produttivi, più progrediti, o in qualsiasi modo più mondani o più facoltosi, se ciò non ci rende più felici. L’umanità ha tutto il diritto di rottamare le sue macchine e vivere della terra, se davvero lo preferisce, quanto un uomo ha il diritto di vendere la sua vecchia bicicletta e andare a fare una passeggiata, se questo gli piace di più. È ovvio che la passeggiata sarà più lenta; ma egli non ha il dovere di essere veloce. E se si può dimostrare che le macchine sono venute al mondo come una maledizione, non c’è ragione alcuna di rispettarle solo perché sono una maledizione meravigliosa, pratica e produttiva. Non c’è ragione per cui non dovremmo lasciare inutilizzati tutti i loro poteri, se siamo davvero giunti alla conclusione che quei poteri ci fanno male. Il semplice fatto che ci perderemmo un certo numero di cose interessanti varrebbe egualmente per un numero qualsiasi di cose impossibili. Le macchine possono essere uno spettacolo magnifico, ma non tanto magnifico quanto un grande Incendio di Londra; eppure noi resistiamo a quella visione e distogliamo lo sguardo da tutto quello splendore potenziale. Le macchine forse non hanno ancora dato il meglio di sé; e forse i leoni e le tigri non daranno mai il loro meglio, non faranno mai i balzi più aggraziati né mostreranno tutti i loro splendori naturali, finché non erigeremo un anfiteatro e non daremo loro qualche persona viva da divorare. Eppure anche quello è uno spettacolo che ci proibiamo, con qualunque austera negazione di sé. Rinunciamo a tante gloriose possibilità, nella nostra severa e strenua preferenza, pronta a sacrificare sé stessi, per trascorrere un tempo tollerabile. La felicità, in un certo senso, è un padrone esigente. Ci dice di non impigliarci in molte cose assai più superficialmente attraenti delle macchine. Ma, in ogni caso, è necessario sgombrare la mente, fin da principio, da ogni vaga associazione o supposizione secondo cui dobbiamo prendere il treno più rapido o non possiamo fare a meno di usare lo strumento più produttivo. Concessa la tesi del signor Penty circa il male delle macchine, come qualcosa di simile al male della magia nera, non c’è nulla di minimamente impraticabile nella sua proposta che esse semplicemente si fermino. Cesserebbe un processo d’invenzione che avrebbe potuto spingersi oltre. Ma la sua relativa imperfezione sarebbe nulla in confronto allo stato rudimentale in cui abbiamo lasciato strumenti scientifici come il cavalletto e i morsetti per i pollici. Quei rozzi arnesi di tortura sono goffi rispetto ai prodotti raffinati che la moderna conoscenza della fisiologia e della meccanica avrebbe potuto darci. Più di un torturatore di talento resta nell’oscurità per i pregiudizi morali della società moderna. Anzi, la sua promessa in boccio è ormai recisa già nell’infanzia, quando tenta di sviluppare il suo genio naturale sulle mosche o sulla coda del cane. Il nostro forte pregiudizio sentimentale contro la tortura reprime la sua nobile furia e gela la geniale corrente della sua anima. Ma ci rassegniamo a questo; benché sia senza dubbio la perdita di un’intera scienza per la quale molte persone ingegnose avrebbero potuto escogitare molte invenzioni. Se davvero concludiamo che le macchine sono ostili alla felicità, allora non è più inevitabile che ogni aratura debba farsi a macchina di quanto sia inevitabile che una bottega faccia affari d’oro sulla collina di Ludgate vendendo strumenti di torture cinesi.
Sia chiaro che noto questo solo per rendere netto il problema primario; non sto ora affermando, né forse affermerò mai, che si sia dimostrato che le macchine siano praticamente velenose in questo grado. Sto solo enunciando, in risposta a cento assunzioni confuse, l’unico scopo e criterio ultimo. Se possiamo rendere gli uomini più felici, non importa se li rendiamo più poveri, non importa se li rendiamo meno produttivi, non importa se li rendiamo meno progrediti, nel senso di mutare semplicemente la loro vita senza accrescere il gusto che ne hanno. Noi di questa scuola di pensiero potremo o no ottenere ciò che vogliamo; ma è quanto meno necessario che sappiamo che cosa cerchiamo di ottenere. E coloro che vengono chiamati uomini pratici non sanno mai che cosa cerchino di ottenere. Se le macchine davvero impediscono la felicità, allora è tanto vano dire a chi cerca di rendere felici gli uomini che sta trascurando i talenti di Arkwright, quanto dire a chi cerca di rendere umani gli uomini che sta trascurando i gusti di Nerone.
Ora, proprio coloro che hanno la lucidità d’immaginare l’istantanea annientazione delle macchine avranno probabilmente troppo buon senso per annientarle all’istante. Impazzire e fracassare le macchine è una malattia più o meno sana e umana, come lo fu per i luddisti. Ma ciò era davvero dovuto all’ignoranza dei luddisti, in un senso assai diverso da quello di cui parla sprezzantemente la stupefacente ignoranza degli economisti industriali. Fu una cieca rivolta come contro qualche antico e terribile drago, da parte di uomini troppo ignoranti per sapere quanto fosse artificiale e persino temporaneo quel particolare strumento, o dove fosse la sede dei veri tiranni che lo brandivano. La vera risposta al problema meccanico, per il presente, è di tutt’altra natura; e mi accingo a suggerirla, avendo una volta chiarito gli unici metodi di giudizio con cui la si può giudicare. E avendo cominciato dal capo giusto, che è il criterio spirituale ultimo con cui va valutato un uomo o una macchina, comincerò ora dall’altro capo; potrei dire dal capo sbagliato; ma sarà più rispettoso verso i nostri amici pratici chiamarlo il capo degli affari.
Se mi si chiede che cosa farei immediatamente con una macchina, non ho alcun dubbio sul genere di programma pratico che potrebbe fare da preludio a una possibile rivoluzione spirituale di portata assai più ampia. Nella misura in cui la macchina non può essere condivisa, vorrei che ne fosse condivisa la proprietà; vale a dire, condivisa la direzione e condivisi i profitti. Ma quando dico «condivisa» lo intendo nel senso mercantile moderno della parola «azioni». Cioè intendo qualcosa di diviso e non semplicemente qualcosa di messo in comune. I nostri amici affaristi si affrettano a dirci che tutto ciò è impossibile; del tutto inconsapevoli, a quanto pare, che tutta questa parte degli affari esiste già. Non si può distribuire una macchina a vapore, nel senso di dare una ruota a ciascun azionista da portarsi a casa, stretta fra le braccia. Ma non solo si può, bensì già si distribuisce la proprietà e il profitto della macchina a vapore; e la si distribuisce sotto forma di proprietà privata. Solo che non la si distribuisce abbastanza, né alle persone giuste, né a chi davvero ne ha bisogno o potrebbe davvero lavorarci. Ora, ci sono molti progetti di questo carattere normale e generale; e quasi ognuno di essi lo preferirei alla concentrazione presentata dal capitalismo o promessa dal comunismo. La mia preferenza, nel complesso, sarebbe che ogni macchina necessaria di questo tipo fosse posseduta da una piccola gilda locale, secondo principi di compartecipazione agli utili, o piuttosto di ripartizione degli utili: ma di vera compartecipazione e vera ripartizione, da non confondere col patrocinio capitalistico.
Toccando l’ultimo punto, può essere bene dire di sfuggita che quanto affermo sul problema della compartecipazione agli utili è, a tal riguardo, parallelo a quanto dico anche sul problema dell’emigrazione. La vera difficoltà nell’avviarla nel modo giusto è che così spesso la si è avviata nel modo sbagliato; e specialmente nello spirito sbagliato. C’è una certa dose di pregiudizio contro la compartecipazione agli utili, proprio come c’è una certa dose di pregiudizio contro l’emigrazione, nella democrazia industriale di oggi. In entrambi i casi ciò è dovuto al tipo e specialmente al tono delle proposte. Simpatizzo pienamente col sindacalista che detesta una certa sorta di condiscendente concessione capitalistica; e lo spirito che dà a ogni uomo un posto al sole, il quale si rivela un posto a Port Sunlight. Allo stesso modo, comprendo benissimo il signor Kirkwood quando si risentì d’essere ammonito sull’emigrazione da Sir Alfred Mond, al punto di dire: «Gli scozzesi lasceranno la Scozia quando gli ebrei tedeschi lasceranno l’Inghilterra». Ma credo che sarebbe possibile un’emigrazione più genuinamente egualitaria, con una politica positiva di autogoverno per i poveri, verso la quale il signor Kirkwood potrebbe mostrarsi benevolo; e credo che una compartecipazione agli utili che cominciasse dal capo popolare, stabilendo prima la proprietà di una gilda e non semplicemente il capriccio di un datore di lavoro, non contraddirebbe alcun vero principio dei sindacati. Per il momento, tuttavia, dico soltanto che qualcosa si potrebbe fare con ciò che ci sta più vicino; del tutto a prescindere dal nostro ideale generale sulla posizione delle macchine in uno stato sociale ideale. Capisco che cosa si intenda dicendo che l’ideale, in entrambi i casi, dipende da ideali sbagliati. Ma non capisco che cosa intendano i nostri critici dicendo che è impossibile dividere le azioni e i profitti di una macchina fra individui ben definiti. Qualunque uomo sano, in qualsiasi periodo storico, l’avrebbe ritenuto un progetto assai più praticabile di un Trust del Latte.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
II THE ROMANCE OF MACHINERY
I have repeatedly asked the reader to remember that my general view of our potential future divides itself into two parts. First, there is the policy of reversing, or even merely of resisting, the modern tendency to monopoly or the concentration of capital. Let it be noted that this is a policy because it is a direction, if pursued in any degree. In one sense, indeed, he who is not with us is against us; because if that tendency is not resisted, it will prevail. But in another sense anyone who resists it at all is with us; even if he would not go so far in the reversal as we should. In trying to reverse the concentration at all, he is helping us to do what nobody has done yet. He will be setting himself against the trend of his age, or at least of recent ages. And a man can work in our direction, instead of the existing and contrary direction, even with the existing and perhaps contrary machinery. Even while we remain industrial, we can work towards industrial distribution and away from industrial monopoly. Even while we live in town houses, we can own town houses. Even while we are a nation of shopkeepers, we can try to own our shops. Even while we are the workshop of the world, we can try to own our tools. Even if our town is covered with advertisements, it can be covered with different advertisements. If the mark of our whole society is the trade-mark, it need not be the same trade-mark. In short, there is a perfectly tenable and practicable policy of resisting mercantile monopoly even in a mercantile state. And we say that a great many people ought to support us in that, who might not agree with our ultimate ideal of a state that should not be mercantile— or rather a state that should not be entirely mercantile. We cannot call on England as a nation of peasants, as France or Serbia is a nation of peasants. But we can call on England that has been a nation of shopkeepers to resist being turned into one big Yankee store.
That is why in beginning here the discussion of machinery I pointed out, first, that in the ultimate sense we are free to destroy machinery; and second, that in the immediate sense it is possible to divide the ownership of machinery. And I should say myself that even in a healthy state there would be some ownership of machinery to divide. But when we come to consider that larger test, we must say something about the definition of machinery, and even the ideal of machinery. Now I have a great deal of sympathy with what I may call the sentimental argument for machinery. Of all the critics who have rebuked us, the man I like best is the engineer who says: “But I do like machinery—just as you like mythology. Why should I have my toys taken away any more than you?” And of the various positions that I have to meet, I will begin with his. Now on a previous page I said I agreed with Mr. Penty that it would be a human right to abandon machinery altogether. I will add here that I do not agree with Mr. Penty in thinking machinery like magic— a mere malignant power or origin of evils. It seems to me quite as materialistic to be damned by a machine as saved by a machine. It seems to me quite as idolatrous to blaspheme it as to worship it. But even supposing that somebody, without worshipping it, is yet enjoying it imaginatively and in some sense mystically, the case as we state it still stands.
Nobody would be more really unsuitable to the machine age than a man who really admired machines. The modern system presupposes people who will take mechanism mechanically; not people who will take it mystically. An amusing story might be written about a poet who was really appreciative of the fairy-tales of science, and who found himself more of an obstacle in the scientific civilization than if he had delayed it by telling the fairy-tales of infancy. Suppose whenever he went to the telephone (bowing three times as he approached the shrine of the disembodied oracle and murmuring some appropriate form of words such as vox et praeterea nihil), he were to act as if he really valued the significance of the instrument. Suppose he were to fall into a trembling ecstasy on hearing from a distant exchange the voice of an unknown young woman in a remote town, were to linger upon the very real wonder of that momentary meeting in mid-air with a human spirit whom he would never see on earth, were to speculate on her life and personality, so real and yet so remote from his own, were to pause to ask a few personal questions about her, just sufficient to accentuate her human strangeness, were to ask whether she also had not some sense of this weird psychical tete-a-tete, created and dissolved in an instant, whether she also thought of those unthinkable leagues of valley and forest that lay between the moving mouth and the listening ear—suppose, in short, he were to say all this to the lady at the Exchange who was just about to put him on to 666 Upper Tooting. He would be really and truly expressing the sentiment, “Wonderful thing, the telephone!”; and, unlike the thousands who say it, he would actually mean it. He would be really and truly justifying the great scientific discoveries and doing honour to the great scientific inventors. He would indeed be the worthy son of a scientific age. And yet I fear that in a scientific age he would possibly be misunderstood, and even suffer from lack of sympathy. I fear that he would, in fact, be in practice an opponent of all that he desired to uphold. He would be a worse enemy of machinery than any Luddite smashing machines. He would obstruct the activities of the telephone exchange, by praising the beauties of the telephone, more than if he had sat down, like a more normal and traditional poet, to tell all those bustling business people about the beauties of a wayside flower.
It would of course be the same with any adventure of the same luckless admiration. If a philosopher, when taken for the first time for a ride in a motor-car, were to fall into such an enthusiasm for the marvel that he insisted on understanding the whole of the mechanism on the spot, it is probable that he would have got to his destination rather quicker if he had walked. If he were, in his simple zeal, to insist on the machine being taken to pieces in the road, that he might rejoice in the inmost secrets of its structure, he might even lose his popularity with the garage taxi-driver or chauffeur. Now we have all known children, for instance, who did really in this fashion want to see wheels go round. But though their attitude may bring them nearest to the kingdom of heaven, it does not necessarily bring them nearer to the end of the journey. They are admiring motors; but they are not motoring—that is, they are not necessarily moving. They are not serving that purpose which motoring was meant to serve. Now as a matter of fact this contradiction has ended in a congestion; and a sort of stagnant state of the spirit in which there is rather less real appreciation of the marvels of man’s invention than if the poet confined himself to making a penny whistle (on which to pipe in the woods of Arcady) or the child confined himself to making a toy bow or a catapult. The child really is happy with a beautiful happiness every time he lets fly an arrow. It is by no means certain that the business man is happy with a beautiful happiness every time he sends off a telegram. The very name of a telegram is a poem, even more magical than the arrow; for it means a dart, and a dart that writes. Think what the child would feel if he could shoot a pencil-arrow that drew a picture at the other end of the valley or the long street. Yet the business man but seldom dances and claps his hands for joy, at the thought of this, whenever he sends a telegram.
II IL ROMANZO DEL MACCHINARIO
Ho ripetutamente chiesto al lettore di ricordare che la mia visione generale del nostro potenziale futuro si divide in due parti. Primo, c’è la politica di invertire, o anche soltanto di resistere, alla moderna tendenza al monopolio o alla concentrazione del capitale. Si noti che questa è una politica perché è una direzione, se perseguita in qualsiasi misura. In un senso, invero, chi non è con noi è contro di noi; perché se quella tendenza non è contrastata, prevarrà. Ma in un altro senso chiunque le resista anche solo un poco è con noi; anche se non spingesse l’inversione tanto lontano quanto dovremmo noi. Nel tentare di invertire la concentrazione anche solo un poco, egli ci aiuta a fare ciò che nessuno ha ancora fatto. Egli si porrà contro la tendenza della sua epoca, o almeno delle epoche recenti. E un uomo può lavorare nella nostra direzione, invece che nella direzione esistente e contraria, anche con il macchinario esistente e forse contrario. Anche mentre restiamo industriali, possiamo lavorare verso la distribuzione industriale e lontano dal monopolio industriale. Anche mentre viviamo in case di città, possiamo possedere case di città. Anche mentre siamo una nazione di bottegai, possiamo cercare di possedere le nostre botteghe. Anche mentre siamo l’officina del mondo, possiamo cercare di possedere i nostri strumenti. Anche se la nostra città è coperta di pubblicità, essa può essere coperta di pubblicità diverse. Se il marchio dell’intera nostra società è il marchio di fabbrica, non è necessario che sia il medesimo marchio di fabbrica. In breve, esiste una politica perfettamente sostenibile e praticabile di resistere al monopolio mercantile persino in uno stato mercantile. E diciamo che moltissime persone dovrebbero sostenerci in ciò, pur non concordando forse con il nostro ideale ultimo di uno stato che non dovrebbe essere mercantile — o piuttosto di uno stato che non dovrebbe essere interamente mercantile. Non possiamo appellarci all’Inghilterra come a una nazione di contadini, come la Francia o la Serbia è una nazione di contadini. Ma possiamo appellarci all’Inghilterra che è stata una nazione di bottegai perché resista all’esser trasformata in un unico grande emporio yankee.
Ecco perché, cominciando qui la discussione sul macchinario, ho fatto notare, primo, che nel senso ultimo siamo liberi di distruggere il macchinario; e secondo, che nel senso immediato è possibile dividere la proprietà del macchinario. E direi io stesso che persino in uno stato sano vi sarebbe una certa proprietà del macchinario da dividere. Ma quando veniamo a considerare quel criterio più ampio, dobbiamo dire qualcosa sulla definizione del macchinario, e persino sull’ideale del macchinario. Ora, ho molta simpatia per ciò che potrei chiamare l’argomento sentimentale a favore del macchinario. Di tutti i critici che ci hanno rimproverato, l’uomo che preferisco è l’ingegnere che dice: «Ma a me il macchinario piace davvero — proprio come a voi piace la mitologia. Perché dovrei farmi togliere i miei balocchi più di quanto ve li togliate voi?». E delle varie posizioni che devo affrontare, comincerò dalla sua. Ora, in una pagina precedente ho detto di concordare con il signor Penty che sarebbe un diritto umano abbandonare del tutto il macchinario. Aggiungerò qui che non concordo con il signor Penty nel ritenere il macchinario simile alla magia — un mero potere maligno od origine di mali. Mi pare altrettanto materialistico esser dannati da una macchina quanto esser salvati da una macchina. Mi pare altrettanto idolatra bestemmiarla quanto adorarla. Ma anche supponendo che qualcuno, senza adorarlo, lo goda tuttavia immaginativamente e in un certo senso misticamente, la questione, come la poniamo, resta comunque in piedi.
Nessuno sarebbe più realmente inadatto all’età della macchina di un uomo che ammirasse davvero le macchine. Il sistema moderno presuppone persone che prenderanno il meccanismo meccanicamente; non persone che lo prenderanno misticamente. Si potrebbe scrivere una storia divertente su un poeta che era davvero apprezzatore delle fiabe della scienza, e che si trovava a essere più d’ostacolo nella civiltà scientifica di quanto lo sarebbe stato se l’avesse ritardata raccontando le fiabe dell’infanzia. Supponiamo che ogni volta che andava al telefono (inchinandosi tre volte mentre si avvicinava al sacrario dell’oracolo disincarnato e mormorando qualche formula appropriata come vox et praeterea nihil), egli agisse come se davvero apprezzasse il significato dello strumento. Supponiamo che cadesse in un’estasi tremante nell’udire da una centrale lontana la voce di una sconosciuta giovane donna in una remota cittadina, indugiasse sulla realissima meraviglia di quell’incontro momentaneo a mezz’aria con uno spirito umano che non avrebbe mai visto in terra, speculasse sulla sua vita e sulla sua personalità, così reale e tuttavia così remota dalla propria, si soffermasse a rivolgerle qualche domanda personale, appena sufficiente ad accentuare la sua umana estraneità, le chiedesse se anche lei non avesse qualche senso di questo strano tête-à-tête psichico, creato e dissolto in un istante, se anche lei pensasse a quelle impensabili leghe di valle e foresta che stavano tra la bocca che parlava e l’orecchio che ascoltava — supponiamo, insomma, che dicesse tutto questo alla signora della centrale che stava giusto per metterlo in comunicazione col 666 di Upper Tooting. Egli esprimerebbe realmente e veramente il sentimento: «Cosa meravigliosa, il telefono!»; e, a differenza delle migliaia che lo dicono, lo penserebbe davvero. Egli giustificherebbe realmente e veramente le grandi scoperte scientifiche e renderebbe onore ai grandi inventori scientifici. Egli sarebbe invero il degno figlio di un’età scientifica. Eppure temo che in un’età scientifica egli sarebbe forse frainteso, e persino soffrirebbe per mancanza di simpatia. Temo che egli sarebbe, di fatto, in pratica un avversario di tutto ciò che desiderava sostenere. Egli sarebbe un peggior nemico del macchinario di qualunque luddista fracassatore di macchine. Egli intralcerebbe le attività della centrale telefonica, lodando le bellezze del telefono, più di quanto avrebbe fatto se si fosse messo a sedere, come un poeta più normale e tradizionale, a raccontare a tutta quella gente d’affari indaffarata le bellezze di un fiore di ciglio.
Sarebbe naturalmente lo stesso con qualsiasi avventura della medesima sciagurata ammirazione. Se un filosofo, portato per la prima volta a fare un giro in automobile, cadesse in un tale entusiasmo per la meraviglia da insistere per comprendere all’istante l’intero meccanismo, è probabile che sarebbe giunto a destinazione piuttosto più in fretta se avesse camminato. Se, nel suo semplice zelo, insistesse che la macchina fosse fatta a pezzi sulla strada, per potersi rallegrare nei più intimi segreti della sua struttura, potrebbe persino perdere la sua popolarità presso il tassista del garage o l’autista. Ora, abbiamo tutti conosciuto bambini, per esempio, che desideravano davvero in questo modo vedere le ruote girare. Ma benché il loro atteggiamento possa avvicinarli quanto più al regno dei cieli, non necessariamente li avvicina alla fine del viaggio. Essi ammirano le automobili; ma non stanno andando in automobile — cioè, non necessariamente si muovono. Non stanno servendo quello scopo che l’andare in automobile doveva servire. Ora, di fatto, questa contraddizione è sfociata in una congestione; e in una sorta di stato stagnante dello spirito in cui vi è un apprezzamento reale delle meraviglie dell’invenzione umana piuttosto minore di quanto ve ne sarebbe se il poeta si limitasse a costruire un fischietto da un soldo (su cui zufolare nei boschi d’Arcadia) o il bambino si limitasse a costruire un arco giocattolo o una fionda. Il bambino è davvero felice, di una bella felicità, ogni volta che scocca una freccia. Non è affatto certo che l’uomo d’affari sia felice, di una bella felicità, ogni volta che spedisce un telegramma. Il nome stesso di telegramma è una poesia, ancor più magica della freccia; poiché significa un dardo, e un dardo che scrive. Si pensi a ciò che proverebbe il bambino se potesse scagliare un dardo-matita che disegnasse un’immagine all’altro capo della valle o della lunga strada. Eppure l’uomo d’affari ben di rado danza e batte le mani per la gioia, al pensiero di questo, ogni volta che invia un telegramma.
Now this has a considerable relevancy to the real criticism of the modern mechanical civilization. Its supporters are always telling us of its marvellous inventions and proving that they are marvellous improvements. But it is highly doubtful whether they really feel them as improvements. For instance, I have heard it said a hundred times that glass is an excellent illustration of the way in which something becomes a convenience for everybody. “Look at glass in windows,” they say; “that has been turned into a mere necessity; yet that also was once a luxury.” And I always feel disposed to answer, “Yes, and it would be better for people like you if it were still a luxury; if that would induce you to look at it, and not only to look through it. Do you ever consider how magical a thing is that invisible film standing between you and the birds and the wind? Do you ever think of it as water hung in the air or a flattened diamond too clear to be even valued? Do you ever feel a window as a sudden opening in a wall? And if you do not, what is the good of glass to you?” This may be a little exaggerated, in the heat of the moment, but it is really true that in these things invention outstrips imagination. Humanity has not got the good out of its own inventions; and by making more and more inventions, it is only leaving its own power of happiness further and further behind.
I remarked in an earlier part of this particular meditation that machinery was not necessarily evil, and that there were some who valued it in the right spirit, but that most of those who had to do with it never had a chance of valuing it at all. A poet might enjoy a clock as a child enjoys a musical-box. But the actual clerk who looks at the actual clock, to see that he is just in time to catch the train for the city, is no more enjoying machinery than he is enjoying music. There may be something to be said for mechanical toys; but modern society is a mechanism and not a toy. The child indeed is a good test in these matters; and illustrates both the fact that there is an interest in machinery and the fact that machinery itself generally prevents us from being interested. It is almost a proverb that every little boy wants to be an engine-driver. But machinery has not multiplied the number of engine-drivers, so as to allow all little boys to drive engines. It has not given each little boy a real engine, as his family might give him a toy engine. The effect of railways on a population cannot be to produce a population of engine-drivers. It can only produce a population of passengers; and of passengers a little too like packages. In other words, its only effect on the visionary or potential engine-driver is to put him inside the train, where he cannot see the engine, instead of outside the train where he can. And though he grows up to the greatest and most glorious success in life, and swindles the widow and orphan till he can travel in a first-class carriage specially reserved, with a permanent pass to the International Congress of Cosmopolitan World Peace for Wire-Pullers, he will never perhaps enjoy a railway train again, he will never even see a railway train again, as he saw it when he stood as a ragged urchin and waved wildly from a grassy bank at the passage of the Scotch Express.
We may transfer the parable from engine-drivers to engineers. It may be that the driver of the Scotch Express hurls himself forward in a fury of speed because his heart is in the Highlands, his heart is not here; that he spurns the Border behind him with a gesture and hails the Grampians before him with a cheer. And whether or no it is true that the engine-driver’s heart is in the Highlands, it is sometimes true that the little boy’s heart is in the engine. But it is by no means true that passengers as a whole, travelling behind engines as a whole, enjoy the speed in a positive sense, though they may approve of it in a negative sense. I mean that they wish to travel swiftly, not because swift travelling is enjoyable, but because it is not enjoyable. They want it rushed through; not because being behind the railway-engine is a rapture, but because being in the railway-carriage is a bore. In the same way, if we consider the joy of engineers, we must remember that there is only one joyful engineer to a thousand bored victims of engineering. The discussion that raged between Mr. Penty and others at one time threatened to resolve itself into a feud between engineers and architects. But when the engineer asks us to forget all the monotony and materialism of a mechanical age because his own science has some of the inspiration of an art, the architect may well be ready with a reply. For this is very much as if architects were never engaged in anything but the building of prisons and lunatic asylums. It is as if they told us proudly with what passionate and poetical enthusiasm they had themselves reared towers high enough for the hanging of Haman or dug dungeons impenetrable enough for the starving of Ugolino.
Now I have already explained that I do not propose anything in what some call the practical way, but should rather be called the immediate way, beyond the better distribution of the ownership of such machines as are really found to be necessary. But when we come to the larger question of machinery in a fundamentally different sort of society, governed by our philosophy and religion, there is a great deal more to be said. The best and shortest way of saying it is that instead of the machine being a giant to which the man is a pygmy, we must at least reverse the proportions until man is a giant to whom the machine is a toy. Granted that idea, and we have no reason to deny that it might be a legitimate and enlivening toy. In that sense it would not matter if every child were an engine-driver or (better still) every engine-driver a child. But those who were always taunting us with unpracticality will at least admit that this is not practical.
Ora, ciò ha una considerevole rilevanza per la vera critica della moderna civiltà meccanica. I suoi sostenitori ci parlano sempre delle sue meravigliose invenzioni e dimostrano che esse sono meravigliosi miglioramenti. Ma è assai dubbio che le sentano davvero come miglioramenti. Per esempio, ho sentito dire un centinaio di volte che il vetro è un’eccellente illustrazione del modo in cui qualcosa diventa una comodità per tutti. «Guardate il vetro nelle finestre», dicono; «è stato trasformato in una mera necessità; eppure anche quello un tempo era un lusso». E mi sento sempre disposto a rispondere: «Sì, e sarebbe meglio per gente come voi se fosse ancora un lusso; se ciò vi inducesse a guardarlo, e non solo a guardarci attraverso. Riflettete mai su quanto magica sia quella pellicola invisibile che sta tra voi e gli uccelli e il vento? La pensate mai come acqua sospesa nell’aria o come un diamante appiattito troppo limpido persino per esser valutato? Sentite mai una finestra come un’improvvisa apertura in un muro? E se non lo fate, che vi giova il vetro?». Questo può essere un po’ esagerato, nel calore del momento, ma è davvero vero che in queste cose l’invenzione sopravanza l’immaginazione. L’umanità non ha tratto il bene dalle proprie invenzioni; e facendo sempre più invenzioni, non fa che lasciare sempre più indietro la propria capacità di felicità.
Ho osservato in una parte precedente di questa particolare meditazione che il macchinario non era necessariamente malvagio, e che vi erano alcuni che lo apprezzavano nel giusto spirito, ma che la maggior parte di coloro che vi avevano a che fare non ebbe mai la possibilità di apprezzarlo affatto. Un poeta potrebbe godere di un orologio come un bambino gode di un carillon. Ma l’effettivo impiegato che guarda l’effettivo orologio, per vedere di essere giusto in tempo a prendere il treno per la città, non gode del macchinario più di quanto goda della musica. Vi può essere qualcosa da dire a favore dei balocchi meccanici; ma la società moderna è un meccanismo e non un balocco. Il bambino, invero, è un buon banco di prova in queste faccende; e illustra sia il fatto che vi è un interesse nel macchinario, sia il fatto che il macchinario stesso generalmente ci impedisce di interessarcene. È quasi un proverbio che ogni ragazzino voglia fare il macchinista. Ma il macchinario non ha moltiplicato il numero dei macchinisti, sì da permettere a tutti i ragazzini di guidare le locomotive. Non ha dato a ciascun ragazzino una locomotiva vera, come la sua famiglia potrebbe dargli una locomotiva giocattolo. L’effetto delle ferrovie su una popolazione non può essere quello di produrre una popolazione di macchinisti. Può solo produrre una popolazione di passeggeri; e di passeggeri un po’ troppo simili a colli. In altre parole, il suo unico effetto sul macchinista visionario o potenziale è di metterlo dentro il treno, dove non può vedere la locomotiva, invece che fuori del treno dove può. E benché egli cresca fino al più grande e glorioso successo della vita, e truffi la vedova e l’orfano finché non possa viaggiare in una carrozza di prima classe appositamente riservata, con un permesso permanente per il Congresso Internazionale della Pace Mondiale Cosmopolita per Manovratori d’Intrighi, egli non godrà forse mai più di un treno, non vedrà forse mai più un treno, come lo vedeva quando stava lì da monello cencioso e agitava selvaggiamente la mano da un argine erboso al passaggio dell’Espresso di Scozia.
Possiamo trasferire la parabola dai macchinisti agli ingegneri. Può darsi che il macchinista dell’Espresso di Scozia si scagli in avanti in una furia di velocità perché il suo cuore è negli Highlands, il suo cuore non è qui; che disdegni con un gesto il Border alle sue spalle e saluti con un evviva i Grampian dinanzi a sé. E che sia o no vero che il cuore del macchinista è negli Highlands, è talvolta vero che il cuore del ragazzino è nella locomotiva. Ma non è affatto vero che i passeggeri nel loro insieme, viaggiando dietro le locomotive nel loro insieme, godano della velocità in senso positivo, benché possano approvarla in senso negativo. Voglio dire che essi desiderano viaggiare rapidamente, non perché viaggiare rapidamente sia godibile, ma perché non è godibile. Vogliono che sia sbrigato in fretta; non perché stare dietro la locomotiva ferroviaria sia un rapimento, ma perché stare nella carrozza ferroviaria è una noia. Allo stesso modo, se consideriamo la gioia degli ingegneri, dobbiamo ricordare che c’è un solo ingegnere gioioso ogni mille annoiate vittime dell’ingegneria. La discussione che infuriò a un certo momento tra il signor Penty e altri minacciò di risolversi in una faida tra ingegneri e architetti. Ma quando l’ingegnere ci chiede di dimenticare tutta la monotonia e il materialismo di un’età meccanica perché la sua stessa scienza ha qualcosa dell’ispirazione di un’arte, l’architetto può bene esser pronto con una replica. Poiché ciò è molto come se gli architetti non fossero mai stati impegnati in altro che nella costruzione di prigioni e di manicomi. È come se ci raccontassero con orgoglio con quale passionale e poetico entusiasmo avessero essi stessi eretto torri abbastanza alte per l’impiccagione di Aman o scavato segrete abbastanza impenetrabili per la fame di Ugolino.
Ora, ho già spiegato che non propongo nulla in ciò che alcuni chiamano il modo pratico, ma che dovrebbe piuttosto chiamarsi il modo immediato, al di là della migliore distribuzione della proprietà di quelle macchine che si trovino davvero necessarie. Ma quando veniamo alla più ampia questione del macchinario in una società di tipo fondamentalmente diverso, governata dalla nostra filosofia e religione, c’è molto di più da dire. Il modo migliore e più breve di dirlo è che, invece che la macchina sia un gigante di cui l’uomo è un pigmeo, dobbiamo almeno rovesciare le proporzioni finché l’uomo sia un gigante di cui la macchina è un balocco. Ammessa quell’idea, non abbiamo ragione di negare che potrebbe essere un balocco legittimo e ravvivante. In quel senso non importerebbe se ogni bambino fosse un macchinista o (meglio ancora) ogni macchinista un bambino. Ma coloro che ci rinfacciavano sempre l’impraticabilità ammetteranno almeno che questo non è pratico.
I have thus tried to put myself fairly in the position of the enthusiast, as we should always do in judging of enthusiasms. And I think it will be agreed that even after the experiment a real difference between the engineering enthusiasm and older enthusiasms remains as a fact of common sense. Admitting that the man who designs a steam-engine is as original as the man who designs a statue, there is an immediate and immense difference in the effects of what they design. The original statue is a joy to the sculptor; but it is also in some degree (when it is not too original) a joy to the people who see the statue. Or at any rate it is meant to be a joy to other people seeing it, or there would be no point in letting it be seen. But though the engine may be a great joy to the engineer and of great use to the other people, it is not, and it is not meant to be, in the same sense a great joy to the other people. Nor is this because of a deficiency in education, as some of the artists might allege in the case of art. It is involved in the very nature of machinery; which, when once it is established, consists of repetitions and not of variations and surprises. A man can see something in the limbs of a statue which he never saw before; they may seem to toss or sweep as they never did before; but he would not only be astonished but alarmed if the wheels of the steam-engine began to behave as they never did before. We may take it, therefore, as an essential and not an accidental character of machinery that it is an inspiration for the inventor but merely a monotony for the consumer.
This being so, it seems to me that in an ideal state engineering would be the exception, just as the delight in engines is the exception. As it is, engineering and engines are the rule; and are even a grinding and oppressive rule. The lifelessness which the machine imposes on the masses is an infinitely bigger and more obvious fact than the individual interest of the man who makes machines. Having reached this point in the argument, we may well compare it with what may be called the practical aspect of the problem of machinery. Now it seems to me obvious that machinery, as it exists to-day, has gone almost as much beyond its practical sphere as it has beyond its imaginative sphere. The whole of industrial society is founded on the notion that the quickest and cheapest thing is to carry coals to Newcastle; even if it be only with the object of afterwards carrying them from Newcastle. It is founded on the idea that rapid and regular transit and transport, perpetual interchange of goods, and incessant communication between remote places, is of all things the most economical and direct. But it is not true that the quickest and cheapest thing, for a man who has just pulled an apple from an apple tree, is to send it in a consignment of apples on a train that goes like a thunderbolt to a market at the other end of England. The quickest and cheapest thing for a man who has pulled a fruit from a tree is to put it in his mouth. He is the supreme economist who wastes no money on railway journeys. He is the absolute type of efficiency who is far too efficient to go in for organization. And though he is, of course, an extreme and ideal case of simplification, the case for simplification does stand as solid as an apple tree. In so far as men can produce their own goods on the spot, they are saving the community a vast expenditure which is often quite out of proportion to the return. In so far as we can establish a considerable proportion of simple and self-supporting people, we are relieving the pressure of what is often a wasteful as well as a harassing process. And taking this as a general outline of the reform, it does appear true that a simpler life in large areas of the community might leave machinery more or less as an exceptional thing; as it may well be to the exceptional man who really puts his soul into it.
There are difficulties in this view; but for the moment I may well take as an illustration the parallel of the particular sort of modern engineering which moderns are very fond of denouncing. They often forget that most of their praise of scientific instruments applies most vividly to scientific weapons. If we are to have so much pity for the unhappy genius who has just invented a new galvanometer, what about the poor genius who has just invented a new gun? If there is a real imaginative inspiration in the making of a steam-engine, is there not imaginative interest in the making of a submarine? Yet many modern admirers of science would be very anxious to abolish these machines altogether; even in the very act of telling us that we cannot abolish machines at all. As I believe in the right of national self-defence, I would not abolish them altogether. But I think they may give us a hint of how exceptional things may be treated exceptionally. For the moment I will leave the progressive to laugh at my absurd notion of a limitation of machines, and go off to a meeting to demand the limitation of armaments.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Ho così cercato di mettermi lealmente nella posizione dell’entusiasta, come dovremmo sempre fare nel giudicare gli entusiasmi. E credo si converrà che, anche dopo l’esperimento, resta come dato di buon senso una reale differenza fra l’entusiasmo dell’ingegnere e gli entusiasmi più antichi. Ammesso che l’uomo che progetta una macchina a vapore sia altrettanto originale dell’uomo che progetta una statua, vi è una differenza immediata e immensa negli effetti di ciò che progettano. La statua originale è una gioia per lo scultore; ma è anche in qualche misura (quando non è troppo originale) una gioia per la gente che vede la statua. O comunque è destinata a essere una gioia per gli altri che la vedono, altrimenti non avrebbe senso lasciarla vedere. Ma per quanto la macchina possa essere una grande gioia per l’ingegnere e di grande utilità per gli altri, essa non è, né è destinata a essere, nello stesso senso una grande gioia per gli altri. E questo non per una carenza di istruzione, come alcuni artisti potrebbero addurre nel caso dell’arte. È implicito nella natura stessa del macchinario; il quale, una volta stabilito, consiste in ripetizioni e non in variazioni e sorprese. Un uomo può vedere qualcosa nelle membra di una statua che non aveva mai visto prima; esse possono sembrare slanciarsi o volteggiare come mai prima; ma egli non solo sarebbe stupito ma allarmato se le ruote della macchina a vapore cominciassero a comportarsi come mai prima. Possiamo dunque considerare come carattere essenziale e non accidentale del macchinario che esso sia un’ispirazione per l’inventore ma una mera monotonia per il consumatore.
Stando così le cose, mi sembra che in uno stato ideale l’ingegneria sarebbe l’eccezione, proprio come il diletto per le macchine è l’eccezione. Così com’è, l’ingegneria e le macchine sono la regola; e sono anzi una regola opprimente e schiacciante. L’assenza di vita che la macchina impone alle masse è un fatto infinitamente più grande e più evidente dell’interesse individuale dell’uomo che fabbrica le macchine. Giunti a questo punto del ragionamento, possiamo bene confrontarlo con quello che si può chiamare l’aspetto pratico del problema del macchinario. Ora mi sembra ovvio che il macchinario, così com’esiste oggi, è andato quasi altrettanto oltre la sua sfera pratica quanto è andato oltre la sua sfera immaginativa. L’intera società industriale è fondata sull’idea che la cosa più rapida ed economica sia portare carbone a Newcastle; anche se solo allo scopo di riportarlo poi da Newcastle. È fondata sull’idea che il transito e il trasporto rapidi e regolari, il perpetuo scambio di merci e l’incessante comunicazione fra luoghi remoti siano fra tutte le cose la più economica e diretta. Ma non è vero che la cosa più rapida ed economica, per un uomo che ha appena colto una mela da un melo, sia spedirla in un carico di mele su un treno che va come una folgore verso un mercato all’altro capo dell’Inghilterra. La cosa più rapida ed economica per un uomo che ha colto un frutto da un albero è metterselo in bocca. Egli è il supremo economista che non spreca denaro in viaggi ferroviari. Egli è il tipo assoluto dell’efficienza, troppo efficiente per darsi all’organizzazione. E benché egli sia, naturalmente, un caso estremo e ideale di semplificazione, la causa della semplificazione resta salda come un melo. Nella misura in cui gli uomini possono produrre i propri beni sul posto, essi risparmiano alla comunità un’enorme spesa spesso del tutto sproporzionata al rendimento. Nella misura in cui possiamo stabilire una considerevole proporzione di gente semplice e autosufficiente, alleviamo la pressione di quello che è spesso un processo tanto dispendioso quanto vessatorio. E prendendo questo come profilo generale della riforma, appare davvero vero che una vita più semplice in vaste aree della comunità potrebbe lasciare il macchinario più o meno come cosa eccezionale; come bene può esserlo per l’uomo eccezionale che davvero vi mette l’anima.
Vi sono difficoltà in questa concezione; ma per il momento posso bene prendere come illustrazione il parallelo con quel particolare genere di ingegneria moderna che i moderni amano molto denunciare. Spesso dimenticano che gran parte del loro elogio degli strumenti scientifici si applica in modo assai più vivido alle armi scientifiche. Se dobbiamo avere tanta pietà per l’infelice genio che ha appena inventato un nuovo galvanometro, che dire del povero genio che ha appena inventato un nuovo cannone? Se c’è una reale ispirazione immaginativa nel costruire una macchina a vapore, non c’è forse un interesse immaginativo nel costruire un sommergibile? Eppure molti moderni ammiratori della scienza sarebbero ansiosissimi di abolire del tutto queste macchine; proprio nell’atto stesso di dirci che non possiamo affatto abolire le macchine. Poiché credo nel diritto alla autodifesa nazionale, non le abolirei del tutto. Ma penso che esse possano darci un indizio su come le cose eccezionali possano essere trattate in modo eccezionale. Per il momento lascerò il progressista a ridere della mia assurda idea di una limitazione delle macchine, e me ne andrò a un comizio a chiedere la limitazione degli armamenti.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
III THE HOLIDAY OF THE SLAVE
I have sometimes suggested that industrialism of the American type, with its machinery and mechanical hustle, will some day be preserved on a truly American model; I mean in the manner of the Red Indian Reservation. As we leave a patch of forest for savages to hunt and fish in, so a higher civilization might leave a patch of factories for those who are still at such a stage of intellectual infancy as really to want to see the wheels go round. And as the Red Indians could still, I suppose, tell their quaint old legends of a red god who smoked a pipe or a red hero who stole the sun and moon, so the simple folk in the industrial enclosure could go on talking of their own Outline of History and discussing the evolution of ethics, while all around them a more mature civilization was dealing with real history and serious philosophy. I hesitate to repeat this fancy here; for, after all, machinery is their religion, or at any rate superstition, and they do not like it to be treated with levity. But I do think there is something to be said for the notion of which this fancy might stand as a sort of symbol; for the idea that a wiser society would eventually treat machines as it treats weapons, as something special and dangerous and perhaps more directly under a central control. But however this may be, I do think the wildest fancy of a manufacturer kept at bay like a painted barbarian is much more sane than a serious scientific alternative now often put before us. I mean what its friends call the Leisure State, in which everything is to be done by machinery. It is only right to say a word about this suggestion in comparison with our own.
In practice we already know what is meant by a holiday in a world of machinery and mass production. It means that a man, when he has done turning a handle, has a choice of certain pleasures offered to him. He can, if he likes, read a newspaper and discover with interest how the Crown Prince of Fontarabia landed from the magnificent yacht Atlantis amid a cheering crowd; how certain great American millionaires are making great financial consolidations; how the Modern Girl is a delightful creature, in spite of (or because of) having shingled hair or short skirts; and how the true religion, for which we all look to the Churches, consists of sympathy and social progress and marrying, divorcing, or burying everybody without reference to the precise meaning of the ceremony. On the other hand, if he prefers some other amusement, he may go to the Cinema, where he will see a very vivid and animated scene of the crowds cheering the Crown Prince of Fontarabia after the arrival of the yacht Atlantis; where he will see an American film featuring the features of American millionaires, with all those resolute contortions of visage which accompany their making of great financial consolidations; where there will not be lacking a charming and vivacious heroine, recognizable as a Modern Girl by her short hair and short skirts; and possibly a kind and good clergyman (if any) who explains in dumb show, with the aid of a few printed sentences, that true religion is social sympathy and progress and marrying and burying people at random. But supposing the man’s tastes to be detached from the drama and from the kindred arts, he may prefer the reading of fiction; and he will have no difficulty in finding a popular novel about the doubts and difficulties of a good and kind clergyman slowly discovering that true religion consists of progress and social sympathy, with the assistance of a Modern Girl whose shingled hair and short skirts proclaim her indifference to all fine distinctions about who should be buried and who divorced; nor, probably, will the story fail to contain an American millionaire making vast financial consolidations, and certainly a yacht and possibly a Crown Prince. But there are yet other tastes that are catered for under the conditions of modern publicity and pleasure-seeking. There is the great institution of wireless or broadcasting; and the holiday-maker, turning away from fiction, journalism, and film drama, may prefer to “listen-in” to a programme that will contain the very latest news of great financial consolidations made by American millionaires; which will most probably contain little lectures on how the Modern Girl can crop her hair or abbreviate her skirts; in which he can hear the very accents of some great popular preacher proclaiming to the world that revelation of true religion which consists of sympathy and social progress rather than of dogma and creed; and in which he will certainly hear the very thunder of cheering which welcomes His Royal Highness the Crown Prince of Fontarabia when he lands from the magnificent yacht Atlantis. There is thus indeed a very elaborate and well-ordered choice placed before him, in the matter of the means of entertainment.
But even the rich variety of method and approach unfolded before us in this alternative seems to some to cover a certain secret and subtle element of monotony. Even here the pleasure-seeker may have that weird psychological sensation of having known the same thing before. There seems to be something recurrent about the type of topic; suggestive of something rigid about the type of mind. Now I think it very doubtful whether it is really a superior mind. If the pleasure-seeker himself were really a pleasure-maker for himself, if he were forced to amuse himself instead of being amused, if he were, in short, obliged to sit down in an old tavern and talk— I am really very doubtful about whether he would confine his conversation entirely to the Crown Prince of Fontarabia, the shingling of hair, the greatness of certain rich Yankees, and so on; and then begin the same round of subjects all over again. His interests might be more local, but they would be more lively; his experience of men more personal but more mixed; his likes and dislikes more capricious but not quite so easily satisfied. To take a parallel, modern children are made to play public-school games, and will doubtless soon be made to listen to the praise of the millionaires on the wireless and in the newspaper. But children left to themselves almost invariably invent games of their own, dramas of their own, often whole imaginary kingdoms and commonwealths of their own. In other words, they produce; until the competition of monopoly kills their production. The boy playing at robbers is not liberated but stunted by learning about American crooks, all of one pattern less picturesque than his own. He is psychologically undercut, undersold, dumped upon, frozen out, flooded, swamped, and ruined; but not emancipated.
III LA VACANZA DELLO SCHIAVO
A volte ho suggerito che l’industrialismo di tipo americano, con le sue macchine e il suo trambusto meccanico, un giorno verrà conservato secondo un modello veramente americano; intendo dire nel modo delle Riserve degli Indiani Rossi. Come lasciamo una porzione di foresta perché i selvaggi possano cacciare e pescare, così una civiltà superiore potrebbe lasciare una zona di fabbriche per coloro che si trovano ancora in uno stadio di tale infanzia intellettuale da voler davvero vedere girare le ruote. E come gli Indiani Rossi potrebbero ancora, immagino, raccontare i loro curiosi vecchi miti di un dio rosso che fumava la pipa o di un eroe rosso che rubò il sole e la luna, così il semplice popolo nell’area industriale potrebbe continuare a parlare del proprio Outline of History e discutere dell’evoluzione dell’etica, mentre tutto intorno a loro una civiltà più matura si occupava di vera storia e seria filosofia. Esito a ripetere questa fantasia qui; perché, dopotutto, le macchine sono la loro religione, o almeno superstizione, e non gradiscono che vengano trattate con leggerezza. Ma penso che ci sia qualcosa da dire per l’idea di cui questa fantasia potrebbe essere una sorta di simbolo; l’idea che una società più saggia alla fine tratterebbe le macchine come tratta le armi, come qualcosa di speciale e pericoloso e forse più direttamente sotto un controllo centrale. Ma comunque sia, penso che anche la fantasia più selvaggia di un industriale tenuto a bada come un barbaro dipinto sia molto più sana di una seria alternativa scientifica che spesso ci viene proposta. Intendo dire quello che i suoi amici chiamano lo Stato dell’Ozio, in cui tutto dovrebbe essere fatto dalle macchine. È giusto dire una parola su questo suggerimento in confronto con il nostro.
In pratica, sappiamo già cosa si intende per vacanza in un mondo di macchinari e produzione di massa. Significa che un uomo, dopo aver finito di girare una manovella, ha la scelta tra certi piaceri offerti a lui. Può, se gli piace, leggere un giornale e scoprire con interesse come il principe ereditario di Fontarabia sia sbarcato dal magnifico yacht Atlantis in mezzo a una folla festante; come certi grandi milionari americani stiano facendo grandi consolidamenti finanziari; come la Ragazza Moderna sia una creatura deliziosa, nonostante (o proprio per) i capelli corti e le gonne corte; e come la vera religione, a cui tutti guardiamo nelle Chiese, consista in simpatia e progresso sociale e nel sposare, divorziare o seppellire tutti senza riferimento al preciso significato della cerimonia. D’altra parte, se preferisce qualche altro divertimento, può andare al Cinema, dove vedrà una scena molto vivida e animata delle folle che festeggiano il principe ereditario di Fontarabia dopo l’arrivo dello yacht Atlantis; dove vedrà un film americano con le caratteristiche dei milionari americani, con tutte quelle contorsioni risolute del volto che accompagnano la loro realizzazione di grandi consolidamenti finanziari; dove non mancherà una eroina affascinante e vivace, riconoscibile come Ragazza Moderna per i suoi capelli corti e le gonne corte; e forse un clero gentile e buono (se ce n’è) che spiega in pantomima, con l’aiuto di alcune frasi stampate, che la vera religione è simpatia sociale e progresso e sposare e seppellire le persone a caso. Ma supponendo che i gusti dell’uomo siano distaccati dal dramma e dalle arti affini, può preferire la lettura di narrativa; e non avrà difficoltà a trovare un romanzo popolare su dubbi e difficoltà di un clero buono e gentile che scopre lentamente che la vera religione consiste in progresso e simpatia sociale, con l’aiuto di una Ragazza Moderna i cui capelli corti e gonne corte proclamano la sua indifferenza a tutte le sottili distinzioni su chi dovrebbe essere sepolto e chi divorziato; né, probabilmente, la storia mancherà di contenere un milionario americano che fa vasti consolidamenti finanziari, e certamente uno yacht e forse un principe ereditario. Ma ci sono ancora altri gusti per i quali si provvede nelle condizioni della pubblicità moderna e della ricerca del piacere. C’è la grande istituzione della radio o della trasmissione; e il vacanziero, allontanandosi dalla narrativa, dal giornalismo e dal dramma cinematografico, può preferire “ascoltare” un programma che conterrà le ultimissime notizie dei grandi consolidamenti finanziari fatti da milionari americani; che molto probabilmente conterrà piccole lezioni su come la Ragazza Moderna possa tagliarsi i capelli o accorciare le gonne; in cui può sentire gli stessi accenti di qualche grande predicatore popolare che proclama al mondo quella rivelazione della vera religione che consiste in simpatia e progresso sociale piuttosto che in dogma e credo; e in cui certamente sentirà il tuono stesso degli applausi che accolgono Sua Altezza Reale il principe ereditario di Fontarabia quando sbarca dal magnifico yacht Atlantis. C’è quindi davvero una scelta molto elaborata e ben ordinata posta davanti a lui, per quanto riguarda i mezzi di intrattenimento.
Ma anche la ricca varietà di metodi e approcci che si svela davanti a noi in questa alternativa sembra a qualcuno nascondere un certo elemento segreto e sottile di monotonia. Anche qui il cercatore di piacere può avere quella strana sensazione psicologica di aver già conosciuto la stessa cosa prima. Sembra esserci qualcosa di ricorrente nel tipo di argomento; suggestivo di qualcosa di rigido nel tipo di mente. Ora io penso che sia molto dubbio se si tratti davvero di una mente superiore. Se il cercatore di piacere fosse realmente un creatore di piacere per sé stesso, se fosse costretto a divertirsi invece di essere divertito, se in breve fosse obbligato a sedersi in una vecchia locanda e parlare— sono davvero molto dubbio sul fatto che confinerebbe la sua conversazione interamente al principe ereditario di Fontarabia, alla pettinatura dei capelli, alla grandezza di certi ricchi yankee e così via; e poi inizierebbe lo stesso ciclo di argomenti da capo. I suoi interessi potrebbero essere più locali, ma sarebbero più vivaci; la sua esperienza degli uomini più personale ma più varia; i suoi gusti e disgusti più capricciosi ma non così facilmente soddisfatti. Per fare un paragone, ai bambini moderni viene fatto giocare a giochi delle scuole pubbliche, e senza dubbio presto verrà loro fatto ascoltare l’elogio dei milionari alla radio e sui giornali. Ma i bambini lasciati a se stessi inventano quasi invariabilmente giochi propri, drammi propri, spesso interi regni immaginari e comuni propri. In altre parole, producono; fino a quando la concorrenza del monopolio non uccide la loro produzione. Il ragazzo che gioca ai ladri non è liberato ma ritardato nell’apprendimento su criminali americani, tutti di uno stesso modello meno pittoresco del suo. È psicologicamente sottoposto a concorrenza sleale, venduto sotto costo, sommerso, escluso, inondato, travolto e rovinato; ma non emancipato.
Inventions have destroyed invention. The big modern machines are like big guns dominating and terrorizing a whole stretch of country, within the range of which nothing can raise its head. There is far more inventiveness to the square yard of mankind than can ever appear under that monopolist terror. The minds of men are not so much alike as the motor-cars of men, or the morning papers of men, or the mechanical manufacture of the coats and hats of men. In other words, we are not getting the best out of men. We are certainly not getting the most individual or the most interesting qualities out of men. And it is doubtful whether we ever shall, until we shut off this deafening din of megaphones that drowns their voices, this deathly glare of limelight which kills the colours of their complexions, this plangent yell of platitudes which stuns and stops their minds. All this sort of thing is killing thoughts as they grow, as a great white death-ray might kill plants as they grow. When, therefore, people tell me that making a great part of England rustic and self-supporting would mean making it rude and senseless, I do not agree with them; and I do not think they understand the alternative or the problem. Nobody wants all men to be rustics even in normal times; it is very tenable that some of the most intelligent would turn to the towns even in normal times. But I say the towns themselves are the foes of intelligence, in these times; I say the rustics themselves would have more variety and vivacity than is really encouraged by these towns. I say it is only by shutting off this unnatural noise and light that men’s minds can begin again to move and to grow. Just as we spread paving-stones over different soils without reference to the different crops that might grow there, so we spread programmes of platitudinous plutocracy over souls that God made various, and simpler societies have made free.
If by machinery saving labour, and therefore producing leisure, be meant the machinery that now achieves what is called mass production, I cannot see any vital value in the leisure; because there is in that leisure nothing of liberty. The man may only work for an hour with his machine-made tools, but he can only run away and play for twenty-three hours with machine-made toys. Everything he handles has to come from a huge machine that he cannot handle. Everything must come from something to which, in the current capitalist phrase, he can only lend “a hand.” Now as this would apply to intellectual and artistic toys as well as to merely material toys, it seems to me that the machine would dominate him for a much longer time than his hand had to turn the handle. It is practically admitted that much fewer men are needed to work the machine. The answer of the mechanical collectivists is that though the machine might give work to the few, it could give food to the many. But it could only give food to the many by an operation that had to be presided over by the few. Or even if we suppose that some work, subdivided into small sections, were given to the many, that system of rotation would have to be ruled by a responsible few; and some fixed authority would be needed to distribute the work as much as to distribute the food. In other words, the officials would very decidedly be permanent officials. In a sense all the rest of us might be intermittent or occasional officials. But the general character of the system would remain; and whatever else it is like, nothing can make it like a population pottering about in its own several fields or practising small creative crafts in its own little workshops. The man who has helped to produce a machine-made article may indeed leave off working, in the sense of leaving off turning one particular wheel. He may have an opportunity to do as he likes, in so far as he likes using what the system likes producing. He may have a power of choice—in the sense that he may choose between one thing it produces and another thing it produces. He may choose to pass his leisure hours in sitting in a machine-made chair or lying on a machine-made bed or resting in a machine-made hammock or swinging on a machine-made trapeze. But he will not be in the same position as a man who carves his own hobby-horse out of his own wood or his own hobby out of his own will. For that introduces another principle or purpose; which there is no warrant for supposing will coexist with the principle or purpose of using all the wood so as to save labour or simplifying all the wills so as to save leisure. If our ideal is to produce things as rapidly and easily as possible, we must have a definite number of things that we desire to produce. If we desire to produce them as freely and variously as possible, we must not at the same time try to produce them as quickly as possible. I think it most probable that the result of saving labour by machinery would be then what it is now, only more so: the limitation of the type of thing produced; standardization.
Now it may be that some of the supporters of the Leisure State have in mind some system of distributed machinery, which shall really make each man the master of his machine; and in that case I agree that the problem becomes different and that a great part of the problem is resolved. There would still remain the question of whether a man with a free soul would want to use a machine upon about three-quarters of the things for which machines are now used. In other words, there would remain the whole problem of the craftsman in the sense of the creator. But I should agree that if the small man found his small mechanical plant helpful to the preservation of his small property, its claim would be very considerable. But it is necessary to make it clear, that if the holidays provided for the mechanic are provided as mechanically as at present, and with the merely mechanical alternative offered at present, I think that even the slavery of his labour would be light compared to the grinding slavery of his leisure.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Le invenzioni hanno distrutto l’inventiva. Le grandi macchine moderne sono come grandi cannoni che dominano e terrorizzano un intero tratto di paese, entro la cui portata nulla può alzare il capo. Vi è assai più inventiva per iarda quadrata di umanità di quanta ne possa mai apparire sotto quel terrore monopolistico. Le menti degli uomini non si somigliano tanto quanto le automobili degli uomini, o i giornali del mattino degli uomini, o la fabbricazione meccanica delle giacche e dei cappelli degli uomini. In altre parole, non stiamo traendo il meglio dagli uomini. Di certo non stiamo traendo dagli uomini le qualità più individuali o più interessanti. Ed è dubbio che mai lo faremo, finché non spegneremo questo assordante frastuono di megafoni che soffoca le loro voci, questo mortale bagliore di riflettori che uccide i colori delle loro carnagioni, questo strepitante urlo di banalità che stordisce e arresta le loro menti. Tutto questo genere di cose uccide i pensieri mentre crescono, come un grande raggio bianco della morte potrebbe uccidere le piante mentre crescono. Quando, perciò, la gente mi dice che rendere gran parte dell’Inghilterra rurale e autosufficiente significherebbe renderla rozza e insensata, io non sono d’accordo con loro; e non credo che comprendano l’alternativa o il problema. Nessuno vuole che tutti gli uomini siano campagnoli, nemmeno in tempi normali; è ben sostenibile che alcuni fra i più intelligenti si volgerebbero alle città anche in tempi normali. Ma io dico che le città stesse sono nemiche dell’intelligenza, in questi tempi; io dico che i campagnoli stessi avrebbero più varietà e vivacità di quanta ne sia davvero incoraggiata da queste città. Io dico che è solo spegnendo questo rumore e questa luce innaturali che le menti degli uomini possono ricominciare a muoversi e a crescere. Proprio come stendiamo lastre di pietra su suoli diversi senza riguardo per le diverse messi che vi potrebbero crescere, così stendiamo programmi di plutocrazia banale su anime che Dio fece varie, e società più semplici hanno reso libere.
Se per macchinario che risparmia lavoro, e dunque produce ozio, si intende il macchinario che oggi realizza ciò che si chiama produzione di massa, non riesco a vedere alcun valore vitale in quell’ozio; perché in quell’ozio non c’è nulla di libertà. L’uomo può lavorare anche solo un’ora con i suoi arnesi fatti a macchina, ma può fuggire e giocare per ventitré ore solo con balocchi fatti a macchina. Tutto ciò che maneggia deve provenire da un’enorme macchina che egli non può maneggiare. Tutto deve provenire da qualcosa a cui, nell’odierna frase capitalista, egli può solo prestare «una mano». Ora, poiché ciò si applicherebbe ai balocchi intellettuali e artistici tanto quanto ai balocchi meramente materiali, mi sembra che la macchina lo dominerebbe per un tempo assai più lungo di quanto la sua mano dovesse girare la manovella. È praticamente ammesso che occorrano assai meno uomini per far funzionare la macchina. La risposta dei collettivisti meccanici è che, sebbene la macchina possa dare lavoro a pochi, potrebbe dare cibo a molti. Ma potrebbe dare cibo a molti solo mediante un’operazione presieduta da pochi. O anche supponendo che un qualche lavoro, suddiviso in piccole sezioni, fosse dato ai molti, quel sistema di rotazione dovrebbe essere governato da pochi responsabili; e occorrerebbe una qualche autorità fissa per distribuire il lavoro non meno che per distribuire il cibo. In altre parole, i funzionari sarebbero assai decisamente funzionari permanenti. In un certo senso tutto il resto di noi potrebbe essere funzionario intermittente od occasionale. Ma il carattere generale del sistema rimarrebbe; e in qualunque modo lo si voglia, nulla può renderlo simile a una popolazione che traffica nei propri diversi campi o pratica piccoli mestieri creativi nelle proprie piccole botteghe. L’uomo che ha contribuito a produrre un articolo fatto a macchina può in verità smettere di lavorare, nel senso di smettere di girare una particolare ruota. Può avere l’opportunità di fare ciò che gli piace, nella misura in cui gli piace usare ciò che al sistema piace produrre. Può avere un potere di scelta—nel senso che può scegliere fra una cosa che esso produce e un’altra cosa che esso produce. Può scegliere di passare le sue ore d’ozio sedendo su una sedia fatta a macchina o giacendo su un letto fatto a macchina o riposando in un’amaca fatta a macchina o dondolandosi su un trapezio fatto a macchina. Ma non si troverà nella stessa posizione di un uomo che intaglia il proprio cavallo a dondolo dal proprio legno o il proprio passatempo dalla propria volontà. Perché ciò introduce un altro principio o scopo; e non c’è garanzia di supporre che coesisterà col principio o scopo di usare tutto il legno così da risparmiare lavoro o di semplificare tutte le volontà così da risparmiare ozio. Se il nostro ideale è produrre le cose il più rapidamente e facilmente possibile, dobbiamo avere un numero definito di cose che desideriamo produrre. Se desideriamo produrle il più liberamente e variamente possibile, non dobbiamo al tempo stesso cercare di produrle il più rapidamente possibile. Ritengo assai probabile che il risultato del risparmiare lavoro col macchinario sarebbe allora ciò che è ora, solo di più: la limitazione del tipo di cosa prodotta; la standardizzazione.
Ora può darsi che alcuni sostenitori dello Stato dell’Ozio abbiano in mente qualche sistema di macchinario distribuito, che renda davvero ogni uomo padrone della propria macchina; e in tal caso convengo che il problema diventa diverso e che gran parte del problema si risolve. Resterebbe ancora la questione se un uomo con un’anima libera vorrebbe usare una macchina per circa tre quarti delle cose per cui oggi si usano le macchine. In altre parole, resterebbe l’intero problema dell’artigiano nel senso del creatore. Ma converrei che, se il piccolo uomo trovasse il suo piccolo impianto meccanico utile alla conservazione della sua piccola proprietà, la sua pretesa sarebbe assai considerevole. Ma è necessario chiarire che, se le vacanze fornite al meccanico sono fornite in modo altrettanto meccanico che oggi, e con la sola alternativa meccanica offerta oggi, io penso che perfino la schiavitù del suo lavoro sarebbe lieve in confronto alla schiacciante schiavitù del suo ozio.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
IV THE FREE MAN AND THE FORD CAR
I am not a fanatic; and I think that machines may be of considerable use in destroying machinery. I should generously accord them a considerable value in the work of exterminating all that they represent. But to put the truth in those terms is to talk in terms of the remote conclusion of our slow and reasonable revolution. In the immediate situation the same truth may be stated in a more moderate way. Towards all typical things of our time we should have a rational charity. Machinery is not wrong; it is only absurd. Perhaps we should say it is merely childish, and can even be taken in the right spirit by a child. If, therefore, we find that some machine enables us to escape from an inferno of machinery, we cannot be committing a sin though we may be cutting a silly figure, like a dragoon rejoining his regiment on an old bicycle. What is essential is to realize that there is something ridiculous about the present position, something wilder than any Utopia. For instance, I shall have occasion here to note the proposal of centralized electricity, and we could justify the use of it so long as we see the joke of it. But, in fact, we do not even see the joke of the waterworks and the water company. It is almost too broadly comic that an essential of life like water should be pumped to us from nobody knows where, by nobody knows whom, sometimes nearly a hundred miles away. It is every bit as funny as if air were pumped to us from miles away, and we all walked about like divers at the bottom of the sea. The only reasonable person is the peasant who owns his own well. But we have a long way to go before we begin to think about being reasonable.
There are at present some examples of centralization of which the effects may work for decentralization. An obvious case is that recently discussed in connection with a common plant of electricity. I think it is broadly true that if electricity could be cheapened, the chances of a very large number of small independent shops, especially workshops, would be greatly improved. At the same time, there is no doubt at all that such dependence for essential power on a central plant is a real dependence, and is therefore a defect in any complete scheme of independence. On this point I imagine that many Distributists might differ considerably; but, speaking for myself, I am inclined to follow the more moderate and provisional policy that I have suggested more than once in this place. I think the first necessity is to make sure of any small properties obtaining any success in any decisive or determining degree. Above all, I think it is vital to create the experience of small property, the psychology of small property, the sort of man who is a small proprietor. When once men of that sort exist, they will decide, in a manner very different from any modern mob, how far the central power-house is to dominate their own private house, or whether it need dominate at all. They will perhaps discover the way of breaking up and individualizing that power. They will sacrifice, if there is any need to sacrifice, even the help of science to the hunger for possession. So that I am disposed at the moment to accept any help that science and machinery can give in creating small property, without in the least bowing down to such superstitions where they only destroy it. But we must keep in mind the peasant ideal as the motive and the goal; and most of those who offer us mechanical help seem to be blankly ignorant of what we regard it as helping. A well-known name will illustrate both the thing being done and the man being ignorant of what he is doing.
The other day I found myself in a Ford car, like that in which I remember riding over Palestine, and in which, (I suppose) Mr. Ford would enjoy riding over Palestinians. Anyhow, it reminded me of Mr. Ford, and that reminded me of Mr. Penty and his views upon equality and mechanical civilization. The Ford car (if I may venture on one of those new ideas urged upon us in newspapers) is a typical product of the age. The best thing about it is the thing for which it is despised; that it is small. The worst thing about it is the thing for which it is praised; that it is standardized. Its smallness is, of course, the subject of endless American jokes, about a man catching a Ford like a fly or possibly a flea. But nobody seems to notice how this popularization of motoring (however wrong in motive or in method) really is a complete contradiction to the fatalistic talk about inevitable combination and concentration. The railway is fading before our eyes—birds nesting, as it were, in the railway signals, and wolves howling, so to speak, in the waiting-room. And the railway really was a communal and concentrated mode of travel like that in a Utopia of the Socialists. The free and solitary traveller is returning before our very eyes; not always (it is true) equipped with scrip or scallop, but having recovered to some extent the freedom of the King’s highway in the manner of Merry England. Nor is this the only ancient thing such travel has revived. While Mugby Junction neglected its refreshment-rooms, Hugby-in-the-Hole has revived its inns. To that limited extent the Ford motor is already a reversion to the free man. If he has not three acres and a cow, he has the very inadequate substitute of three hundred miles and a car. I do not mean that this development satisfies my theories. But I do say that it destroys other people’s theories; all the theories about the collective thing as a thing of the future and the individual thing as a thing of the past. Even in their own special and stinking way of science and machinery, the facts are very largely going against their theories.
Yet I have never seen Mr. Ford and his little car really and intelligently praised for this. I have often, of course, seen him praised for all the conveniences of what is called standardization. The argument seems to be more or less to this effect. When your car breaks down with a loud crash in the middle of Salisbury Plain, though it is not very likely that any fragments of other ruined motor cars will be lying about amid the ruins of Stonehenge, yet if they are, it is a great advantage to think that they will probably be of the same pattern, and you can take them to mend your own car. The same principle applies to persons motoring in Tibet, and exulting in the reflection that if another motorist from the United States did happen to come along, it would be possible to exchange wheels or footbrakes in token of amity. I may not have got the details of the argument quite correct; but the general point of it is that if anything goes wrong with parts of a machine, they can be replaced with identical machinery. And anyhow the argument could be carried much further; and used to explain a great many other things. I am not sure that it is not the clue to many mysteries of the age. I begin to understand, for instance, why magazine stories are all exactly alike; it is ordered so that when you have left one magazine in a railway carriage in the middle of a story called “Pansy Eyes,” you may go on with exactly the same story in another magazine under the title of “Dandelion Locks.” It explains why all leading articles on The Future of the Churches are exactly the same; so that we may begin reading the article in the Daily Chronicle and finish it in the Daily Express. It explains why all the public utterances urging us to prefer new things to old never by any chance say anything new; they mean that we should go to a new paper-stall and read it in a new newspaper. This is why all American caricatures repeat themselves like a mathematical pattern; it means that when we have torn off a part of the picture to wrap up sandwiches, we can tear off a bit of another picture and it will always fit in. And this is also why American millionaires all look exactly alike; so that when the bright, resolute expression of one of them has led us to do serious damage to his face with a heavy blow of the fist, it is always possible to mend it with noses and jaw-bones taken from other millionaires, who are exactly similarly constituted.
IV L’UOMO LIBERO E L’AUTOMOBILE FORD
Non sono un fanatico; e penso che le macchine possano essere di considerevole utilità nel distruggere il macchinario. Accorderei loro generosamente un considerevole valore nell’opera di sterminare tutto ciò che rappresentano. Ma esprimere la verità in questi termini significa parlare nei termini della conclusione remota della nostra lenta e ragionevole rivoluzione. Nella situazione immediata la stessa verità può essere enunciata in modo più moderato. Verso tutte le cose tipiche del nostro tempo dovremmo avere una razionale carità. Il macchinario non è sbagliato; è soltanto assurdo. Forse dovremmo dire che è meramente puerile, e può perfino essere preso nello spirito giusto da un fanciullo. Se dunque troviamo che qualche macchina ci permette di sfuggire a un inferno di macchinario, non possiamo commettere un peccato benché possiamo fare una figura sciocca, come un dragone che raggiunge il suo reggimento su una vecchia bicicletta. L’essenziale è rendersi conto che c’è qualcosa di ridicolo nella posizione presente, qualcosa di più stravagante di qualsiasi Utopia. Per esempio, avrò occasione qui di notare la proposta dell’elettricità centralizzata, e potremmo giustificarne l’uso finché ne cogliamo la comicità. Ma, di fatto, non cogliamo nemmeno la comicità dell’acquedotto e della compagnia dell’acqua. È fin troppo grossolanamente comico che un elemento essenziale della vita come l’acqua ci venga pompato da chissà dove, da chissà chi, talvolta da quasi cento miglia di distanza. È esattamente altrettanto buffo che se l’aria ci venisse pompata da miglia di distanza, e camminassimo tutti come palombari in fondo al mare. L’unica persona ragionevole è il contadino che possiede il proprio pozzo. Ma abbiamo molta strada da fare prima di cominciare anche solo a pensare di essere ragionevoli.
Vi sono al presente alcuni esempi di centralizzazione i cui effetti possono operare in favore della decentralizzazione. Un caso ovvio è quello discusso di recente a proposito di un impianto comune di elettricità. Credo sia sostanzialmente vero che, se l’elettricità potesse essere resa più economica, le possibilità di un gran numero di piccole botteghe indipendenti, specialmente le officine, sarebbero grandemente migliorate. Allo stesso tempo, non c’è alcun dubbio che una tale dipendenza per la forza essenziale da un impianto centrale sia una reale dipendenza, e sia perciò un difetto in ogni completo schema d’indipendenza. Su questo punto immagino che molti Distributisti potrebbero dissentire considerevolmente; ma, parlando per me, sono incline a seguire la politica più moderata e provvisoria che ho suggerito più d’una volta in questa sede. Penso che la prima necessità sia assicurarsi che le piccole proprietà ottengano un qualche successo in qualche grado decisivo o determinante. Soprattutto, penso sia vitale creare l’esperienza della piccola proprietà, la psicologia della piccola proprietà, quel tipo d’uomo che è un piccolo proprietario. Una volta che esistano uomini di tal fatta, essi decideranno, in un modo assai diverso da qualsiasi folla moderna, fino a che punto la centrale elettrica debba dominare la loro casa privata, o se debba dominarla affatto. Forse scopriranno il modo di spezzare e individualizzare quella forza. Sacrificheranno, se vi sarà bisogno di sacrificare, perfino l’aiuto della scienza alla fame di possesso. Sicché sono al momento disposto ad accettare qualsiasi aiuto che la scienza e il macchinario possano dare nel creare la piccola proprietà, senza minimamente prostrarmi a tali superstizioni là dove esse la distruggono soltanto. Ma dobbiamo tenere a mente l’ideale del contadino come movente e come meta; e la maggior parte di coloro che ci offrono aiuto meccanico sembrano essere del tutto ignari di ciò che noi riteniamo esso debba aiutare. Un nome ben noto illustrerà sia la cosa che viene fatta sia l’uomo che è ignaro di ciò che sta facendo.
L’altro giorno mi trovai in una Ford, come quella su cui ricordo di aver viaggiato per la Palestina, e sulla quale, (suppongo) il signor Ford godrebbe a viaggiare sopra i Palestinesi. Ad ogni modo, mi rammentò il signor Ford, e ciò mi rammentò il signor Penty e le sue vedute sull’uguaglianza e sulla civiltà meccanica. La Ford (se posso azzardare una di quelle idee nuove che ci vengono propinate sui giornali) è un prodotto tipico dell’epoca. La cosa migliore che la riguarda è la cosa per cui è disprezzata; che è piccola. La cosa peggiore che la riguarda è la cosa per cui è lodata; che è standardizzata. La sua piccolezza è, naturalmente, oggetto di infinite facezie americane, su un uomo che acchiappa una Ford come una mosca o magari una pulce. Ma nessuno pare notare come questa popolarizzazione dell’automobilismo (per quanto errata nel movente o nel metodo) sia davvero una completa contraddizione al discorso fatalistico sull’inevitabile combinazione e concentrazione. La ferrovia svanisce sotto i nostri occhi—gli uccelli che nidificano, per così dire, nei segnali ferroviari, e i lupi che ululano, per modo di dire, nella sala d’aspetto. E la ferrovia era davvero un modo di viaggiare comune e concentrato come quello in un’Utopia dei Socialisti. Il viaggiatore libero e solitario sta tornando sotto i nostri stessi occhi; non sempre (è vero) munito di bisaccia o conchiglia, ma avendo in qualche misura recuperato la libertà della strada maestra del Re alla maniera della Merry England. Né è questa l’unica cosa antica che tale viaggio ha fatto rivivere. Mentre Mugby Junction trascurava le sue sale di ristoro, Hugby-in-the-Hole ha fatto rivivere le sue locande. In quella misura limitata l’automobile Ford è già un ritorno all’uomo libero. Se non ha tre acri e una vacca, ha il ben inadeguato surrogato di trecento miglia e un’automobile. Non intendo dire che questo sviluppo soddisfi le mie teorie. Ma dico che esso distrugge le teorie altrui; tutte le teorie sulla cosa collettiva come cosa dell’avvenire e sulla cosa individuale come cosa del passato. Perfino nel loro speciale e fetido modo, quello della scienza e del macchinario, i fatti vanno in gran parte contro le loro teorie.
Eppure non ho mai visto il signor Ford e la sua piccola automobile lodati per questo davvero e intelligentemente. L’ho visto spesso, naturalmente, lodato per tutte le comodità di ciò che si chiama standardizzazione. L’argomento sembra ridursi più o meno a questo. Quando la vostra automobile si guasta con un gran fracasso in mezzo alla Piana di Salisbury, benché non sia molto probabile che frammenti di altre automobili in rovina giacciano sparsi fra le rovine di Stonehenge, tuttavia se ci sono, è un gran vantaggio pensare che saranno probabilmente dello stesso modello, e potrete prenderli per riparare la vostra. Lo stesso principio si applica alle persone che viaggiano in automobile in Tibet, ed esultano nel riflettere che se per caso arrivasse un altro automobilista dagli Stati Uniti, sarebbe possibile scambiare ruote o freni a pedale in segno di amicizia. Può darsi che non abbia colto del tutto correttamente i dettagli dell’argomento; ma il punto generale è che se qualcosa va storto in parti di una macchina, esse possono essere sostituite con macchinario identico. E comunque l’argomento potrebbe essere spinto molto oltre; e usato per spiegare molte altre cose. Non sono sicuro che non sia la chiave di molti misteri dell’epoca. Comincio a capire, per esempio, perché le storie delle riviste sono tutte esattamente uguali; è disposto così affinché quando avete lasciato una rivista in un vagone ferroviario nel bel mezzo di una storia intitolata «Occhi di Viola», possiate proseguire con esattamente la stessa storia in un’altra rivista sotto il titolo di «Riccioli di Tarassaco». Spiega perché tutti gli articoli di fondo su L’Avvenire delle Chiese sono esattamente uguali; sicché possiamo cominciare a leggere l’articolo sul Daily Chronicle e finirlo sul Daily Express. Spiega perché tutti i pubblici pronunciamenti che ci esortano a preferire le cose nuove alle vecchie non dicono mai, per nessun caso, alcunché di nuovo; intendono che dovremmo andare a una nuova edicola e leggerlo in un nuovo giornale. Ecco perché tutte le caricature americane si ripetono come uno schema matematico; significa che quando abbiamo strappato una parte del disegno per incartare i panini, possiamo strappare un pezzo di un altro disegno e combacerà sempre. Ed ecco anche perché i milionari americani si somigliano tutti esattamente; sicché quando l’espressione vivace e risoluta di uno di essi ci ha indotti a danneggiargli seriamente il volto con un pesante colpo di pugno, è sempre possibile ripararlo con nasi e mascelle prese da altri milionari, che sono costituiti esattamente allo stesso modo.
Such are the advantages of standardization; but, as may be suspected, I think the advantages are exaggerated; and I agree with Mr. Penty in doubting whether all this repetition really corresponds to human nature. But a very interesting question was raised by Mr. Ford’s remarks on the difference between men and men; and his suggestion that most men preferred mechanical action or were only fitted for it. About all those arguments affecting human equality, I myself always have one feeling, which finds expression in a little test of my own. I shall begin to take seriously those classifications of superiority and inferiority, when I find a man classifying himself as inferior. It will be noted that Mr. Ford does not say that he is only fitted to mind machines; he confesses frankly that he is too fine and free and fastidious a being for such tasks. I shall believe the doctrine when I hear somebody say: “I have only got the wits to turn a wheel.” That would be real, that would be realistic, that would be scientific. That would be independent testimony that could not easily be disputed. It is exactly the same, of course, with all the other superiorities and denials of human equality that are so specially characteristic of a scientific age. It is so with the men who talk about superior and inferior races; I never heard a man say: “Anthropology shows that I belong to an inferior race.” If he did, he might be talking like an anthropologist; as it is, he is talking like a man, and not unfrequently like a fool. I have long hoped that I might some day hear a man explaining on scientific principles his own unfitness for any important post or privilege, say: “The world should belong to the free and fighting races, and not to persons of that servile disposition that you will notice in myself; the intelligent will know how to form opinions, but the weakness of intellect from which I so obviously suffer renders my opinions manifestly absurd on the face of them: there are indeed stately and godlike races—but look at me! Observe my shapeless and fourth-rate features! Gaze, if you can bear it, on my commonplace and repulsive face!” If I heard a man making a scientific demonstration in that style, I might admit that he was really scientific. But as it invariably happens, by a curious coincidence, that the superior race is his own race, the superior type is his own type, and the superior preference for work the sort of work he happens to prefer—I have come to the conclusion that there is a simpler explanation.
Now Mr. Ford is a good man, so far as it is consistent with being a good millionaire. But he himself will very well illustrate where the fallacy of his argument lies. It is probably quite true that, in the making of motors, there are a hundred men who can work a motor and only one man who can design a motor. But of the hundred men who could work a motor, it is very probable that one could design a garden, another design a charade, another design a practical joke or a derisive picture of Mr. Ford. I do not mean, of course, in anything I say here, to deny differences of intelligence, or to suggest that equality (a thing wholly religious) depends on any such impossible denial. But I do mean that men are nearer to a level than anybody will discover by setting them all to make one particular kind of run-about clock. Now Mr. Ford himself is a man of defiant limitations. He is so indifferent to history, for example, that he calmly admitted in the witness-box that he had never heard of Benedict Arnold. An American who has never heard of Benedict Arnold is like a Christian who has never heard of Judas Iscariot. He is rare. I believe that Mr. Ford indicated in a general way that he thought Benedict Arnold was the same as Arnold Bennett. Not only is this not the case, but it is an error to suppose that there is no importance in such an error. If he were to find himself, in the heat of some controversy, accusing Mr. Arnold Bennett of having betrayed the American President and ravaged the South with an Anti-American army, Mr. Bennett might bring an action. If Mr. Ford were to suppose that the lady who recently wrote revelations in the Daily Express was old enough to be the widow of Benedict Arnold, the lady might bring an action. Now it is not impossible that among the workmen whom Mr. Ford perceives (probably quite truly) to be only suited to the mechanical part of the construction of mechanical things, there might be a man who was fond of reading all the history he could lay his hands on; and who had advanced step by step, by painful efforts of self-education, until the difference between Benedict Arnold and Arnold Bennett was quite clear in his mind. If his employer did not care about the difference, of course, he would not consult him about the difference, and the man would remain to all appearance a mere cog in the machine; there would be no reason for finding out that he was a rather cogitating cog. Anybody who knows anything of modern business knows that there are any number of such men who remain in subordinate and obscure positions because their private tastes and talents have no relation to the very stupid business in which they are engaged. If Mr. Ford extends his business over the Solar System, and gives cars to the Martians and the Man in the Moon, he will not be an inch nearer to the mind of the man who is working his machine for him, and thinking about something more sensible. Now all human things are imperfect; but the condition in which such hobbies and secondary talents do to some extent come out is the condition of small independence. The peasant almost always runs two or three sideshows and lives on a variety of crafts and expedients. The village shopkeeper will shave travellers and stuff weasels and grow cabbages and do half a dozen such things, keeping a sort of balance in his life like the balance of sanity in the soul. The method is not perfect; but it is more intelligent than turning him into a machine in order to find out whether he has a soul above machinery.
Tali sono i vantaggi della standardizzazione; ma, come si può sospettare, penso che i vantaggi siano esagerati; e concordo col signor Penty nel dubitare che tutta questa ripetizione corrisponda davvero alla natura umana. Ma una questione assai interessante fu sollevata dalle osservazioni del signor Ford sulla differenza fra uomo e uomo; e dalla sua ipotesi che la maggior parte degli uomini preferisca l’azione meccanica o sia adatta soltanto ad essa. Riguardo a tutti quegli argomenti che toccano l’uguaglianza umana, io stesso ho sempre un sentimento, che trova espressione in una piccola prova tutta mia. Comincerò a prendere sul serio quelle classificazioni di superiorità e inferiorità, quando troverò un uomo che classifica sé stesso come inferiore. Si noterà che il signor Ford non dice di essere adatto soltanto a badare alle macchine; confessa francamente di essere un essere troppo fine e libero e schizzinoso per simili compiti. Crederò alla dottrina quando udrò qualcuno dire: «Ho soltanto l’ingegno per girare una ruota.» Quello sarebbe reale, quello sarebbe realistico, quello sarebbe scientifico. Quella sarebbe una testimonianza indipendente che non si potrebbe facilmente contestare. È esattamente lo stesso, naturalmente, con tutte le altre superiorità e negazioni dell’uguaglianza umana così specialmente caratteristiche di un’epoca scientifica. È così con gli uomini che parlano di razze superiori e inferiori; non ho mai udito un uomo dire: «L’antropologia mostra che appartengo a una razza inferiore.» Se lo dicesse, potrebbe parlare come un antropologo; così com’è, parla come un uomo, e non di rado come uno stolto. Ho lungamente sperato che potessi un giorno udire un uomo che, spiegando su principi scientifici la propria inadeguatezza a qualsiasi carica o privilegio importante, dica: «Il mondo dovrebbe appartenere alle razze libere e combattive, e non alle persone di quella disposizione servile che noterete in me stesso; gli intelligenti sapranno come formarsi opinioni, ma la debolezza d’intelletto di cui io così evidentemente soffro rende le mie opinioni manifestamente assurde a prima vista: vi sono in verità razze maestose e divine—ma guardate me! Osservate i miei lineamenti informi e di quart’ordine! Contemplate, se ci riuscite, la mia faccia comune e ripugnante!» Se udissi un uomo fare una dimostrazione scientifica in quello stile, potrei ammettere che fosse davvero scientifico. Ma poiché accade invariabilmente, per una curiosa coincidenza, che la razza superiore sia la sua propria razza, il tipo superiore sia il suo proprio tipo, e la preferenza superiore per il lavoro sia il genere di lavoro che egli per caso preferisce—sono giunto alla conclusione che vi sia una spiegazione più semplice.
Ora il signor Ford è un buon uomo, per quanto ciò sia compatibile con l’essere un buon milionario. Ma egli stesso illustrerà assai bene dove risiede la fallacia del suo argomento. È probabilmente del tutto vero che, nella fabbricazione di automobili, vi sono cento uomini capaci di far funzionare un’automobile e uno solo capace di progettarla. Ma dei cento uomini capaci di far funzionare un’automobile, è assai probabile che uno saprebbe progettare un giardino, un altro progettare una sciarada, un altro progettare uno scherzo pratico o un ritratto derisorio del signor Ford. Non intendo, naturalmente, in nulla di ciò che dico qui, negare le differenze d’intelligenza, o suggerire che l’uguaglianza (cosa del tutto religiosa) dipenda da una simile impossibile negazione. Ma intendo dire che gli uomini sono più vicini a un livello comune di quanto chiunque scoprirà mettendoli tutti a fabbricare un particolare tipo di orologio semovente. Ora il signor Ford stesso è un uomo di sfrontate limitazioni. È tanto indifferente alla storia, per esempio, che ammise placidamente al banco dei testimoni di non aver mai sentito parlare di Benedict Arnold. Un americano che non ha mai sentito parlare di Benedict Arnold è come un cristiano che non ha mai sentito parlare di Giuda Iscariota. È raro. Credo che il signor Ford abbia indicato in modo generico di ritenere che Benedict Arnold fosse lo stesso che Arnold Bennett. Non solo non è così, ma è un errore supporre che non vi sia importanza in un tale errore. Se dovesse trovarsi, nel calore di qualche controversia, ad accusare il signor Arnold Bennett di aver tradito il Presidente americano e devastato il Sud con un esercito antiamericano, il signor Bennett potrebbe intentargli causa. Se il signor Ford dovesse supporre che la dama che di recente scrisse rivelazioni sul Daily Express fosse abbastanza vecchia da essere la vedova di Benedict Arnold, la dama potrebbe intentargli causa. Ora non è impossibile che fra gli operai che il signor Ford scorge (probabilmente in modo del tutto veritiero) essere adatti soltanto alla parte meccanica della costruzione di cose meccaniche, vi sia un uomo amante di leggere tutta la storia su cui poteva mettere le mani; e che avesse avanzato passo dopo passo, con penosi sforzi di autoeducazione, finché la differenza fra Benedict Arnold e Arnold Bennett non gli fosse del tutto chiara in mente. Se il suo datore di lavoro non si curava della differenza, naturalmente, non lo consulterebbe sulla differenza, e l’uomo rimarrebbe a tutte le apparenze un mero ingranaggio nella macchina; non vi sarebbe ragione di scoprire che era un ingranaggio piuttosto ragionante. Chiunque conosca qualcosa degli affari moderni sa che vi è un qualsiasi numero di simili uomini che rimangono in posizioni subalterne e oscure perché i loro gusti e talenti privati non hanno alcuna relazione con l’assai stupido affare in cui sono impegnati. Se il signor Ford estenderà i suoi affari su tutto il Sistema Solare, e darà automobili ai Marziani e all’Uomo nella Luna, non sarà di un pollice più vicino alla mente dell’uomo che sta facendo funzionare la sua macchina per lui, e sta pensando a qualcosa di più sensato. Ora tutte le cose umane sono imperfette; ma la condizione in cui simili passatempi e talenti secondari vengono in qualche misura alla luce è la condizione della piccola indipendenza. Il contadino gestisce quasi sempre due o tre attività collaterali e vive di una varietà di mestieri ed espedienti. Il bottegaio di villaggio rade i viaggiatori e impaglia le donnole e coltiva i cavoli e fa una mezza dozzina di simili cose, mantenendo una sorta di equilibrio nella sua vita come l’equilibrio della sanità nell’anima. Il metodo non è perfetto; ma è più intelligente che trasformarlo in una macchina per scoprire se abbia un’anima al di sopra del macchinario.
Upon this point of immediate compromise with machinery, therefore, I am inclined to conclude that it is quite right to use the existing machines in so far as they do create a psychology that can despise machines; but not if they create a psychology that respects them. The Ford car is an excellent illustration of the question; even better than the other illustration I have given of an electrical supply for small workshops. If possessing a Ford car means rejoicing in a Ford car, it is melancholy enough; it does not bring us much farther than Tooting or rejoicing in a Tooting tramcar. But if possessing a Ford car means rejoicing in a field of corn or clover, in a fresh landscape and a free atmosphere, it may be the beginning of many things—and even the end of many things. It may be, for instance, the end of the car and the beginning of the cottage. Thus we might almost say that the final triumph of Mr. Ford is not when the man gets into the car, but when he enthusiastically falls out of the car. It is when he finds somewhere, in remote and rural corners that he could not normally have reached, that perfect poise and combination of hedge and tree and meadow in the presence of which any modern machine seems suddenly to look an absurdity; yes, even an antiquated absurdity. Probably that happy man, having found the place of his true home, will proceed joyfully to break up the car with a large hammer, putting its iron fragments for the first time to some real use, as kitchen utensils or garden tools. That is using a scientific instrument in the proper way; for it is using it as an instrument. The man has used modern machinery to escape from modern society; and the reason and rectitude of such a course commends itself instantly to the mind. It is not so with the weaker brethren who are not content to trust Mr. Ford’s car, but also trust Mr. Ford’s creed. If accepting the car means accepting the philosophy I have just criticized, the notion that some men are born to make cars, or rather small bits of cars, then it will be far more worthy of a philosopher to say frankly that men never needed to have cars at all. It is only because the man had been sent into exile in a railway-train that he has to be brought back home in a motor-car. It is only because all machinery has been used to put things wrong that some machinery may now rightly be used to put things right. But I conclude upon the whole that it may so be used; and my reason is that which I considered on a previous page under the heading of “The Chance of Recovery.” I pointed out that our ideal is so sane and simple, so much in accord with the ancient and general instincts of men, that when once it is given a chance anywhere it will improve that chance by its own inner vitality because there is some reaction towards health whenever disease is removed. The man who has used his car to find his farm will be more interested in the farm than in the car; certainly more interested than in the shop where he once bought the car. Nor will Mr. Ford always woo him back to that shop, even by telling him tenderly that he is not fitted to be a lord of land, a rider of horses, or a ruler of cattle; since his deficient intellect and degraded anthropological type fit him only for mean and mechanical operations. If anyone will try saying this (tenderly, of course) to any considerable number of large farmers, who have lived for some time on their own farms with their own families, he will discover the defects of the approach.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Su questo punto di compromesso immediato con le macchine, dunque, sono incline a concludere che sia del tutto giusto usare le macchine esistenti nella misura in cui creano una psicologia capace di disprezzare le macchine; ma non se creano una psicologia che le rispetta. La Ford è un’eccellente illustrazione della questione; anche migliore dell’altra illustrazione che ho dato, quella di una fornitura elettrica per piccole officine. Se possedere una Ford significa esultare per una Ford, la cosa è abbastanza malinconica; non ci porta molto più in là di Tooting o dell’esultare per un tram di Tooting. Ma se possedere una Ford significa esultare per un campo di grano o di trifoglio, per un paesaggio fresco e un’atmosfera libera, essa può essere l’inizio di molte cose… e persino la fine di molte cose. Può essere, per esempio, la fine dell’automobile e l’inizio del cottage. Così potremmo quasi dire che il trionfo finale del signor Ford non è quando l’uomo sale in automobile, ma quando entusiasticamente ne cade fuori. È quando trova in qualche luogo, in remoti angoli rurali che normalmente non avrebbe potuto raggiungere, quell’equilibrio perfetto e quella combinazione di siepe, albero e prato in presenza dei quali qualunque macchina moderna appare d’un tratto un’assurdità; sì, persino un’assurdità antiquata. Probabilmente quell’uomo felice, avendo trovato il luogo della sua vera casa, procederà con gioia a fare a pezzi l’automobile con un grosso martello, mettendo per la prima volta i suoi frammenti di ferro a qualche uso reale, come utensili da cucina o attrezzi da giardino. Questo è usare uno strumento scientifico nel modo giusto; perché è usarlo come strumento. L’uomo ha usato la macchina moderna per fuggire dalla società moderna; e la ragionevolezza e la rettitudine di tale condotta si raccomandano all’istante alla mente. Non è così per i fratelli più deboli che non si accontentano di fidarsi dell’automobile del signor Ford, ma si fidano anche del credo del signor Ford. Se accettare l’automobile significa accettare la filosofia che ho appena criticato, l’idea che certi uomini nascano per fabbricare automobili, o piuttosto piccoli pezzi di automobili, allora sarà assai più degno di un filosofo dire francamente che gli uomini non hanno mai avuto bisogno di automobili. È solo perché l’uomo era stato mandato in esilio su un treno ferroviario che deve essere ricondotto a casa in automobile. È solo perché ogni macchina è stata usata per mettere le cose per storto che qualche macchina può ora essere usata a buon diritto per rimetterle a posto. Ma nel complesso concludo che così può essere usata; e la mia ragione è quella che ho considerato in una pagina precedente sotto il titolo di «La possibilità di guarigione». Ho fatto notare che il nostro ideale è tanto sano e semplice, tanto in accordo con gli istinti antichi e generali degli uomini, che una volta che gli si conceda un’occasione in qualsiasi luogo esso migliorerà quell’occasione con la propria vitalità interiore, perché vi è una qualche reazione verso la salute ogni volta che si rimuove una malattia. L’uomo che ha usato l’automobile per trovare la sua fattoria sarà più interessato alla fattoria che all’automobile; certamente più interessato di quanto lo sia al negozio dove un tempo comprò l’automobile. Né il signor Ford riuscirà sempre a corteggiarlo per ricondurlo a quel negozio, nemmeno dicendogli teneramente che non è adatto a essere un signore della terra, un cavaliere di cavalli, o un padrone di bestiame; giacché il suo intelletto carente e il suo degradato tipo antropologico lo rendono adatto solo a operazioni meschine e meccaniche. Se qualcuno proverà a dire questo (teneramente, s’intende) a un numero considerevole di grandi agricoltori, che hanno vissuto per qualche tempo sulle proprie fattorie con le proprie famiglie, scoprirà i difetti dell’approccio.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
- The Religion of Small Property
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
I THE NEED OF A NEW SPIRIT
Before closing these notes, with some words on the colonial aspect of democratic distribution, it will be well to make some acknowledgment of the recent suggestion of so distinguished a man as Mr. John Galsworthy. Mr. Galsworthy is a man for whom I have the very warmest regard; for a human being who really tries to be fair is something very like a monster and miracle in the long history of this merry race of ours. Sometimes, indeed, I get a little exasperated at being so persistently excused. I can imagine few things more annoying, to a free-born and properly constituted Christian, than the thought that if he did choose to wait for Mr. Galsworthy behind a wall, knock him down with a brick, jump on him with heavy boots, and so on, Mr. Galsworthy would still faintly gasp that it was only the fault of the System; that the System made bricks and the System heaved bricks and the System went about wearing heavy boots, and so on. As a human being, I should feel a longing for a little human justice, after all that inhuman mercy.
But these feelings do not interfere with the other feelings I have, of something like enthusiasm, for something that can only be called beautiful in the fair-mindedness of a study like “The White Monkey.” It is when this attitude of detachment is applied not to the judgment of individuals but of men in bulk, that the detachment begins to savour of something unnatural. And in Mr. Galsworthy’s last political pronouncement the detachment amounts to despair. At any rate, it amounts to despair about this earth, this England, about which I am certainly not going to despair yet. But I think it might be well if I took this opportunity of stating what I, for one, at least feel about the different claims here involved.
It may be debated whether it is a good or a bad thing for England that England has an Empire. It may be debated, at least as a matter of true definition, whether England has an Empire at all. But upon one point all Englishmen ought to stand firm, as a matter of history, of philosophy, and of logic. And that is that it has been, and is, a question of our owning an Empire and not of an Empire owning us.
There is sense in being separated from Americans on the principles of George Washington, and sense in being attached to Americans on the principles of George the Third. But there is no sense in being out-voted and swamped by Americans in the name of the Anglo-Saxon race. The Colonies were by origin English. They owe us that much; if it be only the trivial circumstance, so little valued by modern thought, that without their maker they could never have existed at all. If they choose to remain English, we thank them very sincerely for the compliment. If they choose not to remain English, but to turn into something else, we think they are within their rights. But anyhow England shall remain English. They shall not first turn themselves into something else, and then turn us into themselves. It may have been wrong to be an Empire, but it does not rob us of our right to be a nation.
But there is another sense in which those of our school would use the motto of “England First.” It is in the sense that our first step should be to discover how far the best ethical and economic system can be fitted into England, before we treat it as an export and cart it away to the ends of the earth. The scientific or commercial character, who is sure he has found an explosive that will blow up the solar system or a bullet that will kill the man in the moon, always makes a great parade of saying that he offers it first to his own country, and only afterwards to a foreign country. Personally, I cannot conceive how a man can bring himself in any case to offer such a thing to a foreign country. But then I am not a great scientific and commercial genius. Anyhow, such as our little notion of normal ownership is, we certainly do not propose to offer it to any foreign country, or even to any colony, before we offer it to our own country. And we do think it highly urgent and practical to find out first how much of it can really be carried out in our own country. Nobody supposes that the whole English population could live on the English land. But everybody ought to realize that immeasurably more people could live on it than do live on it; and that if such a policy did establish such a peasantry, there would be a recognizable narrowing of the margin of men left over for the town and the colonies. But we would suggest that these ought really to be left over, and dealt with as seems most desirable, after the main experiment has been made where it matters most. And what most of us would complain of in the emigrationists of the ordinary sort is that they seem to think first of the colony and then of what must be left behind in the country; instead of thinking first of the country and then of what must overflow into the colony.
People talk about an optimist being in a hurry; but it seems to me that a pessimist like Mr. Galsworthy is very much in a hurry. He has not tried the obvious reform on England, and, finding it fail, gone into exile to try it elsewhere. He is trying the obvious reform everywhere except where it is most obvious. And in this I think he has a subconscious affinity to people much less reasonable and respectable than himself. The pessimists have a curious way of urging us to counsels of despair as the only solution of a problem they have not troubled to solve. They declare solemnly that some unnatural thing would become necessary if certain conditions existed; and then somehow assume from that that they exist. They never think of attempting to prove that they exist, before they prove what follows from their existence. This is exactly the sort of plunging and premature pessimism, for instance, that people exhibit about Birth Control. Their desire is towards destruction; their hope is for despair; they eagerly anticipate the darkest and most doubtful predictions. They run with eager feet before and beyond the lingering and inconveniently slow statistics; like as the hart pants for the water-brooks they thirst to drink of Styx and Lethe before their hour; even the facts they show fall far short of the faith that they see shining beyond them; for faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen.
- La Religione della Piccola Proprietà
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
I IL BISOGNO DI UNO SPIRITO NUOVO
Prima di chiudere queste note, con alcune parole sull’aspetto coloniale della distribuzione democratica, sarà bene rendere qualche riconoscimento al recente suggerimento di un uomo tanto distinto quanto il signor John Galsworthy. Il signor Galsworthy è un uomo per cui nutro il più caldo dei riguardi; poiché un essere umano che davvero cerca di essere giusto è qualcosa di molto simile a un mostro e a un miracolo nella lunga storia di questa nostra allegra razza. A volte, in verità, mi esaspero un poco a essere così ostinatamente scusato. Riesco a immaginare poche cose più irritanti, per un cristiano nato libero e ben costituito, del pensiero che, se davvero scegliesse di aspettare il signor Galsworthy dietro un muro, abbatterlo con un mattone, saltargli addosso con pesanti stivali, e così via, il signor Galsworthy ansimerebbe ancora debolmente che era soltanto colpa del Sistema; che il Sistema fabbricava i mattoni e il Sistema scagliava i mattoni e il Sistema andava in giro calzando pesanti stivali, e così via. Come essere umano, proverei una brama di un po’ di giustizia umana, dopo tutta quella disumana misericordia.
Ma questi sentimenti non interferiscono con gli altri sentimenti che ho, di qualcosa come entusiasmo, per qualcosa che si può solo definire bello nell’imparzialità di uno studio come «La Scimmia Bianca». È quando questo atteggiamento di distacco viene applicato non al giudizio degli individui ma degli uomini in massa, che il distacco comincia a sapere di qualcosa di innaturale. E nell’ultimo pronunciamento politico del signor Galsworthy il distacco equivale alla disperazione. Ad ogni modo, equivale alla disperazione riguardo a questa terra, questa Inghilterra, di cui io certamente non ho intenzione di disperare ancora. Ma penso che potrebbe essere bene se cogliessi questa occasione per dichiarare ciò che io, per parte mia, almeno sento riguardo alle diverse pretese qui coinvolte.
Si può discutere se sia cosa buona o cattiva per l’Inghilterra che l’Inghilterra abbia un Impero. Si può discutere, almeno come questione di vera definizione, se l’Inghilterra abbia affatto un Impero. Ma su un punto tutti gli inglesi dovrebbero restare fermi, come questione di storia, di filosofia e di logica. E cioè che è stata, ed è, una questione del nostro possedere un Impero e non di un Impero che possiede noi.
Vi è senso nell’essere separati dagli americani secondo i principi di George Washington, e senso nell’essere legati agli americani secondo i principi di Giorgio III. Ma non vi è senso nell’essere messi in minoranza e sommersi dagli americani nel nome della razza anglosassone. Le Colonie erano per origine inglesi. Ci devono almeno questo; non fosse che la banale circostanza, così poco apprezzata dal pensiero moderno, che senza il loro creatore non avrebbero mai potuto esistere affatto. Se scelgono di rimanere inglesi, le ringraziamo assai sinceramente del complimento. Se scelgono di non rimanere inglesi, ma di trasformarsi in qualcos’altro, riteniamo che siano nel loro diritto. Ma comunque l’Inghilterra rimarrà inglese. Non si trasformeranno prima in qualcos’altro, per poi trasformare noi in loro stessi. Può essere stato sbagliato essere un Impero, ma ciò non ci deruba del nostro diritto di essere una nazione.
Ma vi è un altro senso in cui quelli della nostra scuola userebbero il motto «Prima l’Inghilterra». È nel senso che il nostro primo passo dovrebbe essere scoprire fino a che punto il migliore sistema etico ed economico possa essere adattato all’Inghilterra, prima di trattarlo come un’esportazione e trasportarlo via ai confini della terra. Il tipo scientifico o commerciale, sicuro di aver trovato un esplosivo che farà saltare in aria il sistema solare o un proiettile che ucciderà l’uomo nella luna, fa sempre gran pompa nel dire che lo offre prima al proprio paese, e solo in seguito a un paese straniero. Personalmente, non riesco a concepire come un uomo possa in alcun caso indursi a offrire una simile cosa a un paese straniero. Ma d’altronde io non sono un grande genio scientifico e commerciale. Ad ogni modo, per quanto sia la nostra piccola nozione di proprietà normale, di certo non ci proponiamo di offrirla ad alcun paese straniero, né tantomeno ad alcuna colonia, prima di offrirla al nostro proprio paese. E riteniamo assai urgente e pratico scoprire prima quanto di essa possa davvero essere attuato nel nostro proprio paese. Nessuno suppone che l’intera popolazione inglese possa vivere sulla terra inglese. Ma tutti dovrebbero rendersi conto che incommensurabilmente più persone potrebbero viverci di quante vi vivono; e che, se una tale politica stabilisse davvero un tale contadinato, vi sarebbe un riconoscibile restringimento del margine di uomini rimasti in eccesso per la città e le colonie. Ma noi suggeriremmo che questi dovrebbero davvero essere lasciati in eccesso, e trattati come sembra più desiderabile, dopo che l’esperimento principale sia stato fatto là dove più conta. E ciò di cui la maggior parte di noi si lamenterebbe negli emigrazionisti del genere comune è che essi sembrano pensare prima alla colonia e poi a ciò che deve essere lasciato indietro nel paese; invece di pensare prima al paese e poi a ciò che deve traboccare nella colonia.
La gente parla dell’ottimista che ha fretta; ma mi sembra che un pessimista come il signor Galsworthy abbia molta fretta. Egli non ha provato l’ovvia riforma sull’Inghilterra e, trovandola fallire, se ne è andato in esilio a provarla altrove. Egli sta provando l’ovvia riforma dappertutto tranne che dove è più ovvia. E in questo penso che egli abbia un’affinità inconscia con persone assai meno ragionevoli e rispettabili di lui. I pessimisti hanno un curioso modo di esortarci a consigli di disperazione come unica soluzione di un problema che non si sono presi la briga di risolvere. Dichiarano solennemente che qualche cosa innaturale diverrebbe necessaria se esistessero certe condizioni; e poi in qualche modo presumono da ciò che esse esistano. Non pensano mai a tentare di provare che esistono, prima di provare ciò che consegue dalla loro esistenza. Questo è esattamente il genere di pessimismo avventato e prematuro che, per esempio, la gente esibisce riguardo al Controllo delle Nascite. Il loro desiderio tende alla distruzione; la loro speranza è per la disperazione; essi anticipano avidamente le previsioni più cupe e dubbie. Corrono con piede impaziente prima e oltre le indugianti e scomodamente lente statistiche; come il cervo anela ai rivi d’acqua essi hanno sete di bere dello Stige e del Lete prima della loro ora; perfino i fatti che mostrano restano assai al di sotto della fede che vedono splendere oltre di essi; poiché la fede è la sostanza delle cose sperate, l’evidenza delle cose non viste.
If I do not compare the critic in question with the doctors of this dismal perversion, still less do I compare him with those whose motives are merely self-protective and plutocratic. But it must also be said that many rush to the expedient of emigration, just as many rush to the expedient of Birth Control, for the perfectly simple reason that it is the easiest way in which the capitalists can escape from their own blunder of capitalism. They lured men into the town with the promise of greater pleasures; they ruined them there and left them with only one pleasure; they found the increase it produced at first convenient for labour and then inconvenient for supply; and now they are ready to round off their experiment in a highly appropriate manner, by telling them that they must have no families, or that their families must go to the modern equivalent of Botany Bay. It is not in that spirit that we envisage an element of colonization; and so long as it is treated in that spirit we refuse to consider it. I put first the statement that real colonial settlement must be not only stable but sacred. I say the new home must be not only a home but a shrine. And that is why I say it must be first established in England, in the home of our fathers and the shrine of our saints, to be a light and an ensign to our children.
I have explained that I cannot content myself with leaving my own nationality out of my own normal ideal; or leaving England as the mere tool-house or coal-cellar of other countries like Canada or Australia— or, for that matter, Argentina. I should like England also to have a much more rural type of redistribution; nor do I think it impossible. But when this is allowed for, nobody in his five wits would dream of denying that there is a real scope and even necessity for emigration and colonial settlement. Only, when we come to that, I have to draw a line rather sharply and explain something else, which is by no means inconsistent with my love of England, but I fear is not so likely to make me loved by Englishmen. I do not believe, as the newspapers and national histories always tell me to believe, that we have “the secret” of this sort of successful colonization and need nothing else to achieve this sort of democratic social construction. I ask for nothing better than that a man should be English in England. But I think he will have to be something more than English (or at any rate something more than “British”) if he is to create a solid social equality outside England. For something is needed for that solid social creation which our colonial tradition has not given. My reasons for holding this highly unpopular opinion I will attempt to suggest; but the fact that they are rather difficult to suggest is itself an evidence of their unfamiliarity and of that narrowness which is neither national nor international, but only imperial.
I should very much like to be present at a conversation between Mr. Saklatvala and Dean Inge. I have a great deal of respect for the real sincerity of the Dean of St. Paul’s, but his subconscious prejudices are of a strange sort. I cannot help having a feeling that he might have a certain sympathy with a Socialist so long as he was not a Christian Socialist. I do not indeed pretend to any respect for the ordinary sort of broad-mindedness which is ready to embrace a Buddhist but draws the line at a Bolshevist. I think its significance is very simple. It means welcoming alien religions when they make us feel comfortable, and persecuting them when they make us feel uncomfortable. But the particular reason I have at the moment for entertaining this association of ideas is one that concerns a larger matter. It concerns, indeed, what is commonly called the British Empire, which we were once taught to reverence largely because it was large. And one of my complaints against that common and rather vulgar sort of imperialism is that it did not really secure even the advantages of largeness. As I have said, I am a nationalist; Eng-land is good enough for me. I would defend England against the whole European continent. With even greater joy would I defend England against the whole British Empire. With a romantic rapture would I defend England against Mr. Ramsay MacDonald when he had become King of Scotland; lighting again the watch fires of Newark and Carlisle and sounding the old tocsins of the Border. With equal energy would I defend England against Mr. Tim Healy as King of Ireland, if ever the gross and growing prosperity of that helpless and decaying Celtic stock became positively offensive. With the greatest ecstasy of all would I defend England against Mr. Lloyd George as King of Wales. It will be seen, therefore, that there is nothing broad-minded about my patriotism; most modern nationality is not narrow enough for me.
But putting aside my own local affections, and looking at the matter in what is called a larger way, I note once more that our Imperialism does not get any of the good that could be got out of being large. And I was reminded of Dean Inge, because he suggested some time ago that the Irish and the French Canadians were increasing in numbers, not because they held the Catholic view of the family, but because they were a backward and apparently almost barbaric stock which naturally (I suppose he meant) increased with the blind luxuriance of a jungle. I have already remarked on the amusing trick of having it both ways which is illustrated in this remark. So long as savages are dying out, we say they are dying out because they are savages. When they are inconveniently increasing, we say they are increasing because they are savages. And from this it is but a simple logical step to say that the countrymen of Sir Wilfred Laurier or Senator Yeats are savages because they are increasing. But what strikes me most about the situation is this: that this spirit will always miss what is really to be learnt by covering any large and varied area. If French Canada is really a part of the British Empire, it would seem that the Empire might at least have served as a sort of interpreter between the British and the French. The Imperial statesman, if he had really been a statesman, ought to have been able to say, “It is always difficult to understand another nation or another religion; but I am more fortunately placed than most people. I know a little more than can be known by self-contained and isolated states like Sweden or Spain. I have more sympathy with the Catholic faith or the French blood because I have French Catholics in my own Empire.” Now it seems to me that the Imperial statesman never has said this; never has even been able to say it; never has even tried or pretended to be able to say it. He has been far narrower than a nationalist like myself, engaged in desperately defending Offa’s Dyke against a horde of Welsh politicians. I doubt if there was ever a politician who knew a word more of the French language, let alone a word more of the Latin Mass, because he had to govern a whole population that drew its traditions from Rome and Gaul. I will suggest in a moment how this enormous international narrowness affects the question of a peasantry and the extension of the natural ownership of land. But for the moment it is important to make the point clear about the nature of that narrowness. And that is why some light might be thrown on it in that tender, that intimate, that heart-to-heart talk between Mr. Saklatvala and the Dean of St. Paul’s. Mr. Saklatvala is a sort of parody or extreme and extravagant exhibition of the point; that we really know nothing at all about the moral and philosophical elements that make up the Empire. It is quite obvious, of course, that he does not represent Battersea. But have we any way of knowing to what extent he represents India? It seems to me not impossible that the more impersonal and indefinite doctrines of Asia do form a soil for Bolshevism. Most of the eastern philosophy differs from the western theology in refusing to draw the line anywhere; and it would be a highly probable perversion of that instinct to refuse to draw the line between meum and tuum. I do not think the Indian gentleman is any judge of whether we in the West want to have a hedge round our fields or a wall round our gardens. And as I happen to hold that the very highest human thought and art consists almost entirely in drawing the line somewhere, though not in drawing it anywhere, I am completely confident that in this the western tendency is right and the eastern tendency is wrong. But, in any case, it seems to me that a rather sharp lesson to us is indicated in these two parallel cases of the Indian who grows into a Bolshevist in our dominions without our being able to influence his growth, and the French Canadian who remains a peasant in our dominions without our getting any sort of advantage out of his stability.
Se non paragono il critico in questione ai dottori di questa lugubre perversione, ancor meno lo paragono a coloro i cui moventi sono meramente autoprotettivi e plutocratici. Ma bisogna anche dire che molti si precipitano all’espediente dell’emigrazione, proprio come molti si precipitano all’espediente del Controllo delle Nascite, per la ragione perfettamente semplice che è il modo più facile in cui i capitalisti possono sfuggire al proprio abbaglio del capitalismo. Attirarono gli uomini in città con la promessa di maggiori piaceri; là li rovinarono e li lasciarono con un solo piacere; trovarono l’aumento che esso produsse dapprima conveniente per il lavoro e poi sconveniente per l’approvvigionamento; e ora sono pronti a coronare il loro esperimento in modo assai appropriato, dicendo loro che non devono avere famiglie, o che le loro famiglie devono andare all’equivalente moderno di Botany Bay. Non è in quello spirito che concepiamo un elemento di colonizzazione; e finché è trattato in quello spirito ci rifiutiamo di prenderlo in considerazione. Pongo per prima l’affermazione che il vero insediamento coloniale dev’essere non solo stabile ma sacro. Dico che il nuovo focolare dev’essere non solo un focolare ma un santuario. Ed è per questo che dico che dev’essere prima stabilito in Inghilterra, nella casa dei nostri padri e nel santuario dei nostri santi, per essere una luce e un vessillo ai nostri figli.
Ho spiegato che non posso accontentarmi di lasciare la mia stessa nazionalità fuori dal mio proprio ideale normale; o di lasciare l’Inghilterra come mero ripostiglio degli attrezzi o carbonaia di altri paesi come il Canada o l’Australia—o, se è per questo, l’Argentina. Vorrei che anche l’Inghilterra avesse un tipo di redistribuzione assai più rurale; né lo credo impossibile. Ma quando si è tenuto conto di ciò, nessuno che abbia il senno a posto sognerebbe di negare che vi sia un reale spazio e perfino una necessità per l’emigrazione e l’insediamento coloniale. Solo che, quando veniamo a ciò, devo tracciare una linea piuttosto netta e spiegare qualcos’altro, che non è affatto incoerente col mio amore per l’Inghilterra, ma che temo non sia così probabile che mi faccia amare dagli inglesi. Io non credo, come i giornali e le storie nazionali mi dicono sempre di credere, che noi abbiamo «il segreto» di questo genere di colonizzazione riuscita e non abbiamo bisogno d’altro per realizzare questo genere di costruzione sociale democratica. Non chiedo nulla di meglio che un uomo sia inglese in Inghilterra. Ma penso che dovrà essere qualcosa di più che inglese (o comunque qualcosa di più che «britannico») se deve creare una solida uguaglianza sociale fuori dall’Inghilterra. Poiché qualcosa è necessario per quella solida creazione sociale che la nostra tradizione coloniale non ha dato. Le mie ragioni per sostenere questa opinione assai impopolare cercherò di suggerirle; ma il fatto che siano piuttosto difficili da suggerire è di per sé una prova della loro estraneità e di quella ristrettezza che non è né nazionale né internazionale, ma soltanto imperiale.
Mi piacerebbe moltissimo essere presente a una conversazione fra il signor Saklatvala e il Decano Inge. Ho un gran rispetto per la reale sincerità del Decano di San Paolo, ma i suoi pregiudizi inconsci sono di strana specie. Non posso fare a meno di avere la sensazione che egli potrebbe avere una certa simpatia per un socialista finché questi non fosse un socialista cristiano. Non pretendo in verità di avere alcun rispetto per il genere comune di larghezza di vedute che è pronto ad abbracciare un buddhista ma traccia la linea a un bolscevico. Penso che il suo significato sia molto semplice. Significa dare il benvenuto alle religioni straniere quando ci fanno sentire a nostro agio, e perseguitarle quando ci fanno sentire a disagio. Ma la ragione particolare che ho al momento per intrattenere questa associazione di idee è una che riguarda una faccenda più grande. Riguarda, in verità, ciò che comunemente si chiama l’Impero Britannico, che un tempo ci fu insegnato a riverire in gran parte perché era grande. E una delle mie lagnanze contro quel genere comune e piuttosto volgare di imperialismo è che esso non assicurava davvero nemmeno i vantaggi della grandezza. Come ho detto, io sono un nazionalista; l’Inghilterra è abbastanza buona per me. Difenderei l’Inghilterra contro l’intero continente europeo. Con gioia ancor maggiore difenderei l’Inghilterra contro l’intero Impero Britannico. Con un rapimento romantico difenderei l’Inghilterra contro il signor Ramsay MacDonald quando fosse divenuto Re di Scozia; riaccendendo i fuochi di guardia di Newark e Carlisle e suonando le vecchie campane a martello del Confine. Con pari energia difenderei l’Inghilterra contro il signor Tim Healy come Re d’Irlanda, se mai la grossolana e crescente prosperità di quella impotente e decadente stirpe celtica divenisse positivamente offensiva. Con la più grande estasi di tutte difenderei l’Inghilterra contro il signor Lloyd George come Re del Galles. Si vedrà, perciò, che non c’è nulla di magnanimo nel mio patriottismo; la maggior parte della nazionalità moderna non è abbastanza ristretta per me.
Ma mettendo da parte i miei affetti locali, e guardando la faccenda in quello che si chiama un modo più ampio, noto ancora una volta che il nostro Imperialismo non ottiene nulla del bene che si potrebbe trarre dall’essere grande. E mi è tornato in mente il Decano Inge, perché egli suggerì qualche tempo fa che gli irlandesi e i franco-canadesi crescevano di numero, non perché avessero la concezione cattolica della famiglia, ma perché erano una stirpe arretrata e quasi barbarica che naturalmente (suppongo intendesse) cresceva con la cieca lussureggianza di una giungla. Ho già osservato l’amena trovata di volere le cose in entrambi i modi che è illustrata in questa osservazione. Finché i selvaggi si estinguono, diciamo che si estinguono perché sono selvaggi. Quando aumentano in modo scomodo, diciamo che aumentano perché sono selvaggi. E da ciò è solo un semplice passo logico dire che i compatrioti di Sir Wilfred Laurier o del Senatore Yeats sono selvaggi perché aumentano. Ma ciò che più mi colpisce della situazione è questo: che tale spirito mancherà sempre ciò che davvero si potrebbe imparare abbracciando una qualsiasi area grande e varia. Se il Canada francese è davvero una parte dell’Impero Britannico, sembrerebbe che l’Impero potesse almeno aver servito come una sorta di interprete fra i britannici e i francesi. Lo statista imperiale, se fosse stato davvero uno statista, avrebbe dovuto essere in grado di dire: «È sempre difficile comprendere un’altra nazione o un’altra religione; ma io sono più fortunatamente collocato della maggior parte della gente. So un po’ più di quanto possa essere saputo da stati autocontenuti e isolati come la Svezia o la Spagna. Ho più simpatia per la fede cattolica o per il sangue francese perché ho cattolici francesi nel mio proprio Impero.» Ora mi sembra che lo statista imperiale non abbia mai detto questo; non sia mai stato nemmeno in grado di dirlo; non abbia mai nemmeno tentato o preteso di essere in grado di dirlo. È stato assai più ristretto di un nazionalista come me, impegnato a difendere disperatamente l’Argine di Offa contro un’orda di politici gallesi. Dubito che vi sia mai stato un politico che conoscesse una parola in più della lingua francese, per non parlare di una parola in più della Messa latina, perché doveva governare un’intera popolazione che traeva le sue tradizioni da Roma e dalla Gallia. Suggerirò fra un momento come questa enorme ristrettezza internazionale influisca sulla questione di un contadinato e dell’estensione della naturale proprietà della terra. Ma per il momento è importante chiarire il punto sulla natura di quella ristrettezza. Ed è per questo che qualche luce potrebbe esservi gettata in quel tenero, intimo, cuore-a-cuore colloquio fra il signor Saklatvala e il Decano di San Paolo. Il signor Saklatvala è una sorta di parodia o esibizione estrema e stravagante del punto; che noi non sappiamo davvero nulla degli elementi morali e filosofici che compongono l’Impero. È del tutto ovvio, naturalmente, che egli non rappresenta Battersea. Ma abbiamo un qualche modo di sapere in che misura egli rappresenti l’India? Non mi sembra impossibile che le dottrine più impersonali e indefinite dell’Asia formino un terreno per il bolscevismo. Gran parte della filosofia orientale differisce dalla teologia occidentale nel rifiutare di tracciare la linea da qualsiasi parte; e sarebbe una perversione assai probabile di quell’istinto rifiutare di tracciare la linea fra meum e tuum. Non credo che il gentiluomo indiano sia un buon giudice di se noi in Occidente vogliamo avere una siepe intorno ai nostri campi o un muro intorno ai nostri giardini. E poiché mi accade di ritenere che il più alto pensiero e la più alta arte umana consistano quasi interamente nel tracciare la linea da qualche parte, benché non nel tracciarla da qualsiasi parte, sono completamente fiducioso che in questo la tendenza occidentale abbia ragione e la tendenza orientale abbia torto. Ma, in ogni caso, mi sembra che una lezione piuttosto aspra ci sia indicata in questi due casi paralleli dell’indiano che cresce fino a diventare un bolscevico nei nostri domini senza che noi siamo in grado di influenzare la sua crescita, e del franco-canadese che rimane un contadino nei nostri domini senza che noi otteniamo alcun vantaggio dalla sua stabilità.
I do not profess to know very much about the French Canadians; but I know enough to know that most of the people who talk at large about the Empire know even less than I do. And the point about them is that they generally do not even try to know any more. The very vague picture that they always call up, of colonists doing wonders in all the corners of the world, never does, in fact, include the sort of thing that French Canadians can do, or might possibly show other people how to do. There is about all this fashionable fancy of colonization a very dangerous sort of hypocrisy. People tried to use the Over-seas Dominion as Eldorado while still using it as Botany Bay. They sent away people that they wanted to get rid of, and then added insult to injury by representing that the ends of the earth would be delighted to have them. And they called up a sort of fancy portrait of a person whose virtues and even vices were entirely suitable for founding an Empire, though apparently quite unsuitable for founding a family. The very language they used was misleading. They talked of such people as settlers; but the very last thing they ever expected them to do was to settle. They expected of them a sort of indistinct individualistic breaking of new ground, for which the world is less and less really concerned to-day. They sent an inconvenient nephew to hunt wild bisons in the streets of Toronto; just as they had sent any number of irrepressible Irish exiles to war with wild Redskins in the streets of New York. They incessantly repeated that what the world wants is pioneers, and had never even heard that what the world wants is peasants. There was a certain amount of sincere and natural sentiment about the wandering exile inheriting our traditions. There was really no pretence that he was engaged in founding his own traditions. All the ideas that go with a secure social standing were absent from the very discussion; no one thought of the continuity, the customs, the religion, or the folklore of the future colonist. Above all, nobody ever conceived him as having any strong sense of private property. There was in the vague idea of his gaining something for the Empire always, if anything, the idea of his gaining what belonged to somebody else. I am not now discussing how wrong it was or whether it could in some cases be right; I am pointing out that nobody ever entertained the notion of the other sort of right; the special right of every man to his own. I doubt whether a word could be quoted emphasizing it even from the healthiest adventure story or the jolliest Jingo song. I quite appreciate all there is in such songs or stories that is really healthy or jolly. I am only pointing out that we have badly neglected something; and are now suffering from the neglect. And the worst aspect of the neglect was that we learnt nothing whatever from the peoples that were actually inside the Empire which we wished to glorify: nothing whatever from the Irish; nothing whatever from the French Canadian; nothing whatever even from the poor Hindoos. We have now reached a crisis in which we particularly require these neglected talents; and we do not even know how to set about learning them. And the explanation of this blunder, as of most blunders, is in the weakness which is called pride: in other words, it is in the tone taken by people like the Dean of St. Paul’s.
Now there will be needed a large element of emigration in the solution of re-creating a peasantry in the modern world. I shall have more to say about the elements of the idea in the next section. But I believe that any scheme of the sort will have to be based on a totally different and indeed diametrically opposite spirit and principle to that which is commonly applied to emigration in England to-day. I think we need a new sort of inspiration, a new sort of appeal, a new sort of ordinary language even, before that solution will even help to solve anything. What we need is the ideal of Property, not merely of Progress— especially progress over other people’s property. Utopia needs more frontiers, not less. And it is because we were weak in the ethics of property on the edges of Empire that our own society will not defend property as men defend a right. The Bolshevist is the sequel and punishment of the Buccaneer.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
II THE RELIGION OF SMALL PROPERTY
We hear a great deal nowadays about the disadvantages of decorum, especially from those who are always telling us that women in the last generation were helpless and impotent, and then proceed to prove it by describing the tremendous and towering tyranny of Mrs. Grundy. Rather in the same way, they insist that Victorian women were especially soft and submissive. And it is rather unfortunate for them that, even in order to say so, they have to introduce the name of Queen Victoria. But it is more especially in connection with the indecorous in art and literature that the question arises, and it is now the fashion to argue as if there were no psychological basis for reticence at all. That is where the argument should end; but fortunately these thinkers do not know how to get to the end of an argument. I have heard it argued that there is no more harm in describing the violation of one Commandment than of another; but this is obviously a fallacy. There is at least a case in psychology for saying that certain images move the imagination to the weakening of the character. There is no case for saying that the mere contemplation of a kit of burglar’s tools would inflame us all with a desire to break into houses. There is no possibility of pretending that the mere sight of means to murder our maiden aunt with a poker does really make the ill deed done. But what strikes me as most curious about the controversy is this: that while our fiction and journalism is largely breaking down the prohibitions for which there really was a logical case, in the consideration of human nature, they still very largely feel the pressure of prohibitions for which there was never any case at all. And the most curious thing about the criticism we hear directed against the Victorian Age is that it is never directed against the most arbitrary conventions of that age. One of these, which I remember very vividly in my youth, was the convention that there is something embarrassing or unfair about a man mentioning his religion. There was something of the same feeling about his mentioning his money. Now these things cannot possibly be defended by the same psychological argument as the other. Nobody is moved to madness by the mere sight of a church spire, or finds uncontrollable emotions possess him at the thought of an archdeacon’s hat. Yet there is still enough of that really irrational Victorian convention lingering in our life and literature to make it necessary to offer a defence, if not an apology, whenever an argument depends upon this fundamental fact in life.
Non pretendo di sapere molto sui franco-canadesi; ma so abbastanza per sapere che la maggior parte delle persone che parlano a ruota libera dell’Impero ne sanno ancora meno di me. E il punto è che generalmente non cercano nemmeno di saperne di più. Il quadro molto vago che sempre evocano, di coloni che compiono meraviglie in tutti gli angoli del mondo, non include mai, di fatto, il tipo di cose che i franco-canadesi possono fare, o potrebbero forse mostrare agli altri come farle. C’è in tutta questa moda della colonizzazione un tipo molto pericoloso di ipocrisia. La gente ha cercato di usare il Dominio d’Oltremare come Eldorado mentre lo usava ancora come Botany Bay. Hanno mandato via persone che volevano sbarazzarsi, e poi hanno aggiunto l’insulto al danno rappresentando che i confini del mondo sarebbero stati lieti di averle. E hanno evocato una sorta di ritratto immaginario di una persona le cui virtù e anche vizi erano interamente adatti a fondare un Impero, sebbene apparentemente del tutto inadatti a fondare una famiglia. Anche il linguaggio che usavano era fuorviante. Parlavano di tali persone come coloni; ma l’ultima cosa che si aspettavano da loro era che si stabilissero. Si aspettava da loro un tipo di vaga rottura individualistica di nuovo terreno, per cui il mondo è sempre meno realmente interessato oggi. Hanno mandato un scomodo nipote a cacciare bisonti selvaggi nelle strade di Toronto; proprio come avevano mandato qualsiasi numero di irriducibili esuli irlandesi a combattere con i pellerossa selvaggi nelle strade di New York. Hanno incessantemente ripetuto che ciò che il mondo vuole sono i pionieri, e non avevano mai nemmeno sentito dire che ciò che il mondo vuole sono i contadini. C’era una certa quantità di sincero e naturale sentimento riguardo all’esule errante che ereditava le nostre tradizioni. Non c’era davvero nessuna pretesa che fosse impegnato a fondare le proprie tradizioni. Tutte le idee che accompagnano un solido status sociale erano assenti dalla discussione stessa; nessuno pensava alla continuità, ai costumi, alla religione o al folklore del futuro colonista. Soprattutto, nessuno lo ha mai concepito come avendo un forte senso di proprietà privata. C’era nell’idea vaga di guadagnare qualcosa per l’Impero sempre, se non altro, l’idea di guadagnare ciò che apparteneva a qualcun altro. Non sto ora discutendo quanto fosse sbagliato o se in alcuni casi potesse essere giusto; sto sottolineando che nessuno ha mai intrattenuto la nozione dell’ altro tipo di diritto; il diritto speciale di ogni uomo al proprio. Dubito che si possa citare una parola che lo enfatizzi anche dalla storia d’avventura più sana o dalla canzone jingoista più allegra canzone. Apprezzo pienamente tutto ciò che c’è in tali canzoni o storie che è veramente sano o allegro. Sto solo sottolineando che abbiamo trascurato qualcosa; e ora ne stiamo soffrendo per la negligenza. E il peggio della negligenza era che non imparavamo nulla dai popoli che erano effettivamente dentro l’Impero che desideravamo glorificare: niente dai franco-canadesi; niente affatto nemmeno dai poveri indiani. Abbiamo ora raggiunto una crisi in cui abbiamo particolarmente bisogno di questi talenti trascurati; e non sappiamo nemmeno come impararli. E la spiegazione di questo errore, come della maggior parte degli errori, è nella debolezza chiamata orgoglio: in altre parole, è nel tono assunto da persone come il Decano di San Paolo.
Ora sarà necessario un ampio elemento di emigrazione nella soluzione per ricreare una classe contadina nel mondo moderno. Avrò più da dire sugli elementi dell’idea nella prossima sezione. Ma credo che qualsiasi schema del genere dovrà basarsi su uno spirito e un principio totalmente diversi, anzi diametralmente opposti a quello comunemente applicato all’emigrazione in Inghilterra oggi. Penso che abbiamo bisogno di una nuova ispirazione, di un nuovo appello, persino di una nuova lingua comune, prima che quella soluzione possa anche solo aiutare a risolvere qualcosa. Ciò di cui abbiamo bisogno è l’ideale della Proprietà, non semplicemente del Progresso - specialmente progresso sulla proprietà altrui. L’Utopia ha bisogno di più confini, non di meno. E questo perché siamo stati deboli nell’etica della proprietà ai margini dell’Impero che la nostra stessa società non difenderà la proprietà come gli uomini difendono un diritto. Il bolscevico è il seguito e la punizione del pirata.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
II LA RELIGIONE DELLA PICCOLA PROPRIETÀ
Oggi si parla molto degli svantaggi del decoro, soprattutto da parte di coloro che ci ripetono sempre che le donne della generazione precedente erano impotenti e indifese, per poi dimostrarlo descrivendo la tremenda e imponente tirannia della signora Grundy. Più o meno nello stesso modo, insistono sul fatto che le donne vittoriane fossero particolarmente morbide e sottomesse. E per loro è piuttosto sfortunato che, anche solo per dirlo, debbono introdurre il nome della regina Vittoria. Ma è soprattutto in relazione all’indecoroso nell’arte e nella letteratura che la questione si pone, ed è ora di moda ragionare come se non ci fosse affatto una base psicologica per la reticenza. Qui dovrebbe finire l’argomento; ma fortunatamente questi pensatori non sanno come arrivare alla fine di un ragionamento. Ho sentito sostenere che descrivere la violazione di un comandamento non è più dannoso che descriverne un altro; ma questa è ovviamente una fallacia. Esiste almeno un caso in psicologia per dire che certe immagini muovono l’immaginazione indebolendo il carattere. Non esiste alcun caso per dire che la mera contemplazione di un kit di strumenti da scassinatore ci infiammerebbe tutti del desiderio di entrare nelle case altrui. Non c’è possibilità di fingere che la semplice vista dei mezzi per uccidere nostra zia nubile con uno scaccapolvere faccia realmente compiere il misfatto. Ma ciò che mi sembra più curioso in questa controversia è questo: mentre la nostra narrativa e il nostro giornalismo stanno ampiamente abbattendo le proibizioni per le quali c’era davvero un caso logico, nella considerazione della natura umana, sentono ancora molto largamente la pressione delle proibizioni per cui non è mai esistito alcun caso. E la cosa più curiosa nelle critiche che sentiamo rivolgere all’età vittoriana è che non sono mai dirette contro le convenzioni più arbitrarie di quell’epoca. Una di queste, che ricordo molto vividamente nella mia giovinezza, era la convenzione secondo cui c’è qualcosa di imbarazzante o sleale nel fatto che un uomo menzioni la propria religione. C’era lo stesso sentimento riguardo al fatto che menzionasse i propri soldi. Ora queste cose non possono essere difese con lo stesso argomento psicologico degli altri. Nessuno è spinto alla pazzia dalla semplice vista di un campanile, o trova emozioni incontrollabili che lo possiedono al pensiero del cappello di un arcidiacono. Eppure c’è ancora abbastanza di quella convenzione vittoriana davvero irrazionale che persiste nella nostra vita e letteratura da rendere necessario offrire una difesa, se non delle scuse, ogni volta che un argomento dipende da questo fatto fondamentale della vita.
Now when I remark that we want a type of colonization rather represented by the French Canadians, there are probably still a number of sly critics who would point the finger of detection at me and cry, as if they had caught me in something very naughty, “You believe in the French Canadians because they are Catholics”; which is in one sense not only true, but very nearly the whole truth. But in another sense it is not true at all; if it means that I exercise no independent judgment in perceiving that this is really what we do want. Now when this difficulty and misunderstanding arises, there is only one practical way of meeting it in the present state of public information, or lack of information. It is to call what is generally described as an impartial witness; though it is quite probable that he is far less impartial than I am. What is really important about him is that, if he were partial, he would be partial on the other side.
The dear old Daily News, of the days of my youth, on which I wrote happily for many years and had so many good and admirable friends, cannot be accused as yet as being an organ of the Jesuits. It was, and is, as every one knows, the organ of the Nonconformists. Dr. Clifford brandished his teapot there when he was selling it in order to demonstrate, by one symbolical act, that he had long been a teetotaller and was now a Passive Resister. We may be pardoned for smiling at this aspect of the matter; but there are many other aspects which are real and worthy of all possible respect. The tradition of the old Puritan ideal does really descend to this paper; and multitudes of honest and hard-thinking Radicals read it in my youth and read it still.
I therefore think that the following remarks which appeared recently in the Daily News, in an article by Mr. Hugh Martin, writing from Toronto, are rather remarkable. He begins by saying that the Anglo-Saxon has got too proud to bend his back; but the curious thing is that he goes on to suggest, almost in so many words, that the backs of the French Canadians are actually strengthened, not only by being bent over rustic spades, but even by being bent before superstitious altars. I am very anxious not to do my impartial witness an unfair damage in the matter; so I may be excused if I quote his own words at some little length. After saying that the Anglo-Saxons are drawn away to the United States, or at any rate to the industrial cities, he remarks that the French are of course very numerous in Quebec and elsewhere, but that it is not here that the notable development is taking place, and that Montreal, being a large city, is showing signs of the slackening to be seen in other large cities.
“Now look at the other picture. The race that is going ahead is the French race… . In Quebec, where there are nearly 2,000,000 Canadians of French origin in a population of 2,350,000, that might have been expected. But as a matter of fact it is not in Quebec that the French are making good most conspicuously … nor in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick is the comparative success of the French stock most marked. They are doing splendidly on the land and raising prodigious families. A family of twelve is quite common, and I could name several cases where there have been twenty, who all lived. The day may come when they will equal or outnumber the Scotch, but that is some way ahead. If you want to see what French stock can still achieve, you should go to the northern part of this province of Ontario. It is doing pioneer work. It is bending its back as men did in the old days. It is multiplying and staying on the soil. It is content to be happy without being rich.
“Though I am not a religious man myself, I must confess I think religion has a good deal to do with it. These French Canadians are more Catholic than the Pope. You might call a good many of them desperately ignorant and desperately superstitious. They seem to me to be a century behind the times and a century nearer happiness.”
These seem to me, I repeat, to be rather remarkable words; remarkable if they appeared anywhere, arresting and astonishing when they appear in the traditional paper of the Manchester Radicals and the nineteenth-century Nonconformists. The words are splendidly straightforward and unaffected in their literary form; they have a clear ring of sincerity and experience, and they are all the more convincing because they are written by somebody who does not share my own desperate ignorance and desperate superstition. But he proceeds to suggest a reason, and incidentally to make his own independence in the matter quite clear.
“Apart from the fact that their women bear an incredible number of children, you have this other consequence of their submission to the priest, that a social organism is created, which is of incalculable value in the backwoods. The church, the school, the cure, hold each little group together as a unit. Do not think for a moment that I believe a general spread of Catholicism would turn us back into a pioneer people. One might just as reasonably recommend a return to early Scottish Protestantism. I merely record the fact that the simplicity of these people is proving their salvation and is one of the most hopeful things in Canada to-day.”
Of course, there are a good many things of an incidental kind that a person with my views might comment on in that passage. I might go off at a gallop on the highly interesting comparison with early Scottish Protestantism. Very early Scottish Protestantism, like very early English Protestantism, consisted chiefly of loot. But if we take it as referring to the perfectly pure and sincere enthusiasm of many Covenanters or early Calvinists, we come upon the contrast that is the point of the whole matter. Early Puritanism was pure Puritanism; but the purer it is the more early it seems. We cannot imagine it as a good thing and also a modern thing. It might have been one of the most honest things in Scotland then. But nobody would be found calling it one of the most hopeful things in Canada to-day. If John Knox appeared to-morrow in the pulpit of St. Giles, he would be a stickit minister. He would be regarded as a raving savage because of his ignorance of German metaphysics. That comparison does not meet the extraordinary case of the thing that is older than Knox and yet also newer than Knox. Or again, I might point out that the common connotation of “submission to the priest” is misleading, even if it is true. It is like talking of the Charge of the Light Brigade as the submission to Lord Raglan. It is still more like talking about the storming of Jerusalem as the submission to the Count of Bouillon. In one sense it is quite true; in another it is very untrue. But I have not the smallest desire here to disturb the impartiality of my witness. I have not the smallest intention of using any of the tortures of the Inquisition to make him admit anything that he did not wish to admit. The admission as it stands seems to me very remarkable; not so much because it is a tribute to Frenchmen as colonists as because it is a tribute to colonists as pious and devout people. But what concerns me most of all in the general discussion of my own theme is the insistence on stability. They are staying on the soil; they are a social organism; they are held together as a unit. That is the new note which I think is needed in all talk of colonization, before it can again be any part of the hope of the world.
Ora, quando osservo che vogliamo un tipo di colonizzazione piuttosto rappresentato dai franco-canadesi, vi sono probabilmente ancora un certo numero di critici scaltri che punterebbero contro di me il dito dell’accusa e griderebbero, come se mi avessero colto in qualcosa di assai malizioso: «Voi credete nei franco-canadesi perché sono cattolici»; il che, in un senso, non solo è vero, ma è quasi tutta la verità. Ma in un altro senso non è affatto vero; se significa che io non eserciti alcun giudizio indipendente nel percepire che questo è davvero ciò che vogliamo. Ora, quando sorge questa difficoltà e questo malinteso, vi è un solo modo pratico di affrontarlo nel presente stato dell’informazione pubblica, o mancanza d’informazione. È chiamare ciò che generalmente si descrive come un testimone imparziale; benché sia assai probabile che egli sia assai meno imparziale di me. Ciò che davvero è importante riguardo a lui è che, se fosse parziale, sarebbe parziale dall’altra parte.
Il caro vecchio Daily News, dei giorni della mia giovinezza, sul quale scrissi felicemente per molti anni e ove ebbi tanti buoni e ammirevoli amici, non può ancora essere accusato di essere un organo dei Gesuiti. Era, ed è, come tutti sanno, l’organo dei Non-conformisti. Il dottor Clifford brandì là la sua teiera quando la vendeva, per dimostrare, con un solo atto simbolico, di essere stato a lungo un astemio ed essere ora un Resistente Passivo. Ci si può perdonare di sorridere di questo aspetto della faccenda; ma vi sono molti altri aspetti che sono reali e degni di ogni possibile rispetto. La tradizione del vecchio ideale puritano discende davvero fino a questo giornale; e moltitudini di radicali onesti e di dura riflessione lo leggevano nella mia giovinezza e lo leggono tuttora.
Ritengo perciò che le seguenti osservazioni, apparse di recente sul Daily News, in un articolo del signor Hugh Martin, che scriveva da Toronto, siano piuttosto notevoli. Egli comincia col dire che l’anglosassone è divenuto troppo orgoglioso per piegare la schiena; ma la cosa curiosa è che egli prosegue suggerendo, quasi con altrettante parole, che le schiene dei franco-canadesi sono in realtà rafforzate, non solo dall’essere piegate su rustiche vanghe, ma perfino dall’essere piegate dinanzi ad altari superstiziosi. Sono assai ansioso di non arrecare al mio testimone imparziale un danno ingiusto nella faccenda; sicché mi si scusi se cito le sue stesse parole con qualche piccola ampiezza. Dopo aver detto che gli anglosassoni sono attratti via verso gli Stati Uniti, o comunque verso le città industriali, egli osserva che i francesi sono naturalmente assai numerosi nel Quebec e altrove, ma che non è qui che sta avvenendo lo sviluppo notevole, e che Montreal, essendo una grande città, mostra segni del rallentamento che si vede in altre grandi città.
«Ora guardate l’altro quadro. La razza che va avanti è la razza francese… . Nel Quebec, dove vi sono quasi 2.000.000 di canadesi di origine francese su una popolazione di 2.350.000, ciò era da aspettarsi. Ma di fatto non è nel Quebec che i francesi stanno riuscendo nel modo più cospicuo … né in Nuova Scozia e nel Nuovo Brunswick il comparativo successo della stirpe francese è più marcato. Se la cavano splendidamente sulla terra e allevano famiglie prodigiose. Una famiglia di dodici è del tutto comune, e potrei citare parecchi casi in cui ve ne sono state venti, tutte sopravvissute. Verrà forse il giorno in cui eguaglieranno o supereranno di numero gli scozzesi, ma è ancora lontano. Se volete vedere ciò che la stirpe francese può ancora realizzare, dovreste andare nella parte settentrionale di questa provincia dell’Ontario. Sta facendo opera di pionieri. Sta piegando la schiena come facevano gli uomini nei tempi antichi. Si moltiplica e resta sul suolo. Si accontenta di essere felice senza essere ricca.
«Benché io stesso non sia un uomo religioso, devo confessare che penso che la religione abbia molto a che farci. Questi franco-canadesi sono più cattolici del Papa. Potreste dire che un buon numero di loro è disperatamente ignorante e disperatamente superstizioso. Mi sembrano essere un secolo indietro rispetto ai tempi e un secolo più vicini alla felicità.»
Queste mi sembrano, ripeto, parole piuttosto notevoli; notevoli se apparissero ovunque, sorprendenti e stupefacenti quando appaiono nel giornale tradizionale dei Radicali di Manchester e dei Non-conformisti dell’Ottocento. Le parole sono splendidamente schiette e senza affettazione nella loro forma letteraria; hanno un chiaro suono di sincerità e di esperienza, e sono tanto più convincenti in quanto scritte da qualcuno che non condivide la mia stessa disperata ignoranza e disperata superstizione. Ma egli procede a suggerire una ragione, e per inciso a rendere del tutto chiara la propria indipendenza nella faccenda.
«A parte il fatto che le loro donne partoriscono un numero incredibile di figli, avete quest’altra conseguenza della loro sottomissione al prete, che si crea un organismo sociale, di incalcolabile valore nelle foreste remote. La chiesa, la scuola, il curato, tengono insieme ogni piccolo gruppo come un’unità. Non pensate neppure per un momento che io creda che una diffusione generale del cattolicesimo ci ricondurrebbe a essere un popolo di pionieri. Si potrebbe altrettanto ragionevolmente raccomandare un ritorno al primo protestantesimo scozzese. Io mi limito a registrare il fatto che la semplicità di questa gente si sta rivelando la loro salvezza ed è una delle cose più promettenti nel Canada di oggi.»
Naturalmente, vi sono parecchie cose di genere incidentale su cui una persona con le mie vedute potrebbe commentare in quel passo. Potrei lanciarmi al galoppo sull’assai interessante paragone col primo protestantesimo scozzese. Il primissimo protestantesimo scozzese, come il primissimo protestantesimo inglese, consisteva principalmente in bottino. Ma se lo prendiamo come riferito all’entusiasmo perfettamente puro e sincero di molti Covenanters o dei primi calvinisti, ci imbattiamo nel contrasto che è il punto di tutta la faccenda. Il primo Puritanesimo era puro Puritanesimo; ma quanto più è puro tanto più sembra antico. Non possiamo immaginarlo come una cosa buona e insieme una cosa moderna. Poté essere una delle cose più oneste della Scozia di allora. Ma nessuno si troverebbe a definirlo una delle cose più promettenti nel Canada di oggi. Se John Knox apparisse domani sul pulpito di St. Giles, sarebbe un ministro senza gregge. Sarebbe considerato un selvaggio farneticante per la sua ignoranza della metafisica tedesca. Quel paragone non affronta lo straordinario caso della cosa che è più antica di Knox eppure anche più nuova di Knox. O ancora, potrei far notare che la comune connotazione di «sottomissione al prete» è fuorviante, anche se è vera. È come parlare della Carica della Brigata Leggera come della sottomissione a Lord Raglan. È ancor più come parlare della presa di Gerusalemme come della sottomissione al Conte di Buglione. In un senso è del tutto vero; in un altro è assai falso. Ma non ho qui il minimo desiderio di turbare l’imparzialità del mio testimone. Non ho la minima intenzione di usare alcuna delle torture dell’Inquisizione per fargli ammettere qualcosa che non desiderasse ammettere. L’ammissione così com’è mi sembra assai notevole; non tanto perché è un tributo ai francesi come colonizzatori quanto perché è un tributo ai colonizzatori come gente pia e devota. Ma ciò che più mi concerne in tutta la discussione generale del mio proprio tema è l’insistenza sulla stabilità. Essi restano sul suolo; sono un organismo sociale; sono tenuti insieme come un’unità. Questa è la nota nuova che penso sia necessaria in ogni discorso di colonizzazione, prima che essa possa di nuovo essere una qualsiasi parte della speranza del mondo.
A recent description of the Happy Factory, as it exists in America or will exist in Utopia, rose from height to height of ideality until it ended with a sort of hush, as of the ultimate opening of the heavens, and these words about the workman, “He turns out for his homeward journey like a member of the Stock Exchange.” Any attempt to imagine humanity in its final perfection always has about it something faintly unreal, as being too good for this world; but the visionary light that breaks from the cloud, in that last phrase, accentuates clearly the contrast which is to be drawn between such a condition and that of the labour of common men. Adam left Eden as a gardener; but he will set out for his homeward journey like a member of the Stock Exchange. St. Joseph was a carpenter; but he will be raised again as a stockbroker. Giotto was a shepherd; for he was not yet worthy to be a stockbroker. Shakespeare was an actor; but he dreamed day and night of being a stockbroker. Burns was a ploughman; but if he sang at the plough, how much more appropriately he would have sung in the Stock Exchange. It is assumed in this kind of argument that all humanity has consciously or unconsciously hoped for this consummation; and that if men were not brokers, it was because they were not able to broke. But this remarkable passage in Sir Ernest Benn’s exposition has another application besides the obvious one. A stockbroker in one sense really is a very poetical figure. In one sense he is as poetical as Shakespeare, and his ideal poet, since he does give to airy nothing a local habitation and a name. He does deal to a great extent in what economists (in their poetical way) describe as imaginaries. When he exchanges two thousand Patagonian Pumpkins for one thousand shares in Alaskan Whale Blubber, he does not demand the sensual satisfaction of eating the pumpkin or need to behold the whale with the gross eye of flesh. It is quite possible that there are no pumpkins; and if there is somewhere such a thing as a whale, it is very unlikely to obtrude itself upon the conversation in the Stock Exchange. Now what is the matter with the financial world is that it is a great deal too full of imagination, in the sense of fiction. And when we react against it, we naturally in the first place react into realism. When the stockbroker homeward plods his weary way and leaves the world to darkness and Sir Ernest Benn, we are disposed to insist that it is indeed he who has the darkness and we who have the daylight. He has not only the darkness but the dreams, and all the unreal leviathans and unearthly pumpkins pass before him like a mere scroll of symbols in the dreams of the Old Testament. But when the small proprietor grows pumpkins, they really are pumpkins, and sometimes quite a large pumpkin for quite a small proprietor. If he should ever have occasion to grow whales (which seems improbable) they would either be real whales or they would be of no use to him. We naturally grow a little impatient, under these conditions, when people who call themselves practical scoff at the small proprietor as if he were a minor poet. Nevertheless, there is another side to the case, and there is a sense in which the small proprietor had better be a minor poet, or at least a mystic. Nay, there is even a sort of queer paradoxical sense in which the stockbroker is a man of business.
It is to that other side of small property, as exemplified in the French Canadians, and an article on them in the Daily News, that I devoted my last remarks. The really practical point in that highly interesting statement is, that in this case, being progressive is actually identified with being what is called static. In this case, by a strange paradox, a pioneer is really d settler. In this case, by a still stranger paradox, a settler is a person who really settles. It will be noted that the success of the experiment is actually founded on a certain power of striking root; which we might almost call rapid tradition, as others talk of rapid transit. And indeed the ground under the pioneer’s feet can only be made solid by being made sacred. It is only religion that can thus rapidly give a sort of accumulated power of culture and legend to something that is crude or incomplete. It sounds like a joke to say that baptizing a baby makes the baby venerable; it suggests the old joke of the baby with spectacles who died an enfeebled old dotard at five. Yet it is profoundly true that something is added that is not only something to be venerated, but something partly to be venerated for its antiquity—that is, for the unfathomable depth of its humanity. In a sense a new world can be baptized as a new baby is baptized, and become a part of an ancient order not merely on the map but in the mind. Instead of crude people merely extending their crudity, and calling that colonization, it would be possible for people to cultivate the soil as they cultivate the soul. But for this it is necessary to have a respect for the soil as well as for the soul; and even a reverence for it, as having some associations with holy things. But for that purpose we need some sense of carrying holy things with us and taking them home with us; not merely the feeling that holiness may exist as a hope. In the most exalted phrase, we need a real presence. In the most popular phrase, we need something that is always on the spot.
That is, we want something that is always on the spot, and not only beyond the horizon. The pioneer instinct is beginning to fail, as a well-known traveller recently complained, but I doubt whether he could tell us the reason. It is even possible that he will not understand it, in one radiant burst of joyful comprehension, if I tell him that I am all in favour of a wild-goose chase, so long as he really believes that the wild goose is the bird of paradise; but that it is necessary to hunt it with the hounds of heaven. If it be barely possible that this does not seem quite clear to him, I will explain that the traveller must possess something as well as pursue something, or he will not even know what to pursue. It is not enough always to follow the gleam: it is necessary sometimes to rest in the glow; to feel something sacred in the glow of the camp fire as well as the gleam of the polar star. And that same mysterious and to some divided voice, which alone tells that we have here no abiding city, is the only voice which within the limits of this world can build up cities that abide.
Una recente descrizione della Fabbrica Felice, quale esiste in America o quale esisterà in Utopia, si innalzava di altezza in altezza nell’idealità finché non si concluse con una sorta di silenzio, come dell’ultimo dischiudersi dei cieli, e con queste parole sull’operaio: «Egli si mette in cammino per il suo viaggio verso casa come un membro della Borsa Valori». Ogni tentativo di immaginare l’umanità nella sua perfezione finale ha sempre in sé qualcosa di lievemente irreale, come troppo bello per questo mondo; ma la luce visionaria che erompe dalla nube, in quell’ultima frase, accentua con chiarezza il contrasto che va tracciato tra una simile condizione e quella del lavoro degli uomini comuni. Adamo lasciò l’Eden come giardiniere; ma si metterà in cammino per il suo viaggio verso casa come un membro della Borsa Valori. San Giuseppe era falegname; ma risorgerà come agente di cambio. Giotto era pastore; giacché non era ancora degno di essere un agente di cambio. Shakespeare era attore; ma sognava giorno e notte di essere un agente di cambio. Burns era aratore; ma se cantava all’aratro, quanto più appropriatamente avrebbe cantato nella Borsa Valori. Si presume, in questo genere di argomentazione, che tutta l’umanità abbia consciamente o inconsciamente sperato in questo compimento; e che se gli uomini non erano intermediari, era perché non erano capaci di intermediare. Ma questo notevole passo nell’esposizione di Sir Ernest Benn ha un’altra applicazione oltre a quella ovvia. Un agente di cambio, in un certo senso, è davvero una figura molto poetica. In un certo senso è poetico quanto Shakespeare, e quanto il suo poeta ideale, poiché conferisce davvero all’aereo nulla una dimora e un nome. Egli tratta in effetti, in larga misura, ciò che gli economisti (nel loro modo poetico) descrivono come immaginari. Quando scambia duemila Zucche Patagoniche per mille azioni di Grasso di Balena dell’Alaska, non pretende la soddisfazione sensuale di mangiare la zucca né ha bisogno di contemplare la balena con il grossolano occhio della carne. È del tutto possibile che non vi siano zucche; e se da qualche parte esiste una cosa come una balena, è assai improbabile che essa si intrometta nella conversazione della Borsa Valori. Ora, ciò che non va nel mondo finanziario è che esso è di gran lunga troppo pieno di immaginazione, nel senso di finzione. E quando reagiamo contro di esso, naturalmente in primo luogo reagiamo cadendo nel realismo. Quando l’agente di cambio arranca stancamente verso casa lungo la sua via e lascia il mondo alle tenebre e a Sir Ernest Benn, siamo inclini a insistere che è proprio lui ad avere le tenebre e noi ad avere la luce del giorno. Egli ha non solo le tenebre ma i sogni, e tutti gli irreali leviatani e le zucche ultraterrene gli passano davanti come un mero rotolo di simboli nei sogni dell’Antico Testamento. Ma quando il piccolo proprietario coltiva zucche, esse sono davvero zucche, e talvolta una zucca piuttosto grande per un proprietario piuttosto piccolo. Se mai avesse occasione di allevare balene (il che pare improbabile), esse o sarebbero balene vere o non gli servirebbero a nulla. Naturalmente ci facciamo un po’ impazienti, in queste condizioni, quando coloro che si dicono pratici scherniscono il piccolo proprietario come se fosse un poeta minore. Nondimeno, vi è un altro lato della questione, e vi è un senso in cui è meglio che il piccolo proprietario sia un poeta minore, o quantomeno un mistico. Anzi, vi è persino una sorta di curioso senso paradossale in cui l’agente di cambio è un uomo d’affari.
È a quell’altro lato della piccola proprietà, quale esemplificato nei Franco-Canadesi, e in un articolo su di loro nel Daily News, che ho dedicato le mie ultime osservazioni. Il punto davvero pratico in quell’affermazione altamente interessante è che, in questo caso, essere progressista si identifica in realtà con l’essere ciò che si dice statico. In questo caso, per uno strano paradosso, un pioniere è davvero un colono. In questo caso, per un paradosso ancor più strano, un colono è una persona che davvero si stabilisce. Si noterà che il successo dell’esperimento si fonda in realtà su un certo potere di mettere radici; che potremmo quasi chiamare tradizione rapida, come altri parlano di transito rapido. E in effetti il terreno sotto i piedi del pioniere può essere reso solido solo essendo reso sacro. È solo la religione che può così rapidamente conferire una sorta di potere accumulato di cultura e leggenda a qualcosa che è grezzo o incompleto. Suona come una battuta dire che battezzare un neonato rende il neonato venerabile; richiama la vecchia facezia del bimbo con gli occhiali che morì decrepito e rimbambito a cinque anni. Eppure è profondamente vero che vi si aggiunge qualcosa che non è soltanto qualcosa da venerare, ma qualcosa da venerare in parte per la sua antichità—cioè per l’insondabile profondità della sua umanità. In un certo senso un mondo nuovo può essere battezzato come si battezza un neonato, e divenire parte di un ordine antico non solo sulla carta geografica ma nella mente. Invece di gente grezza che si limita a estendere la propria rozzezza, chiamando ciò colonizzazione, sarebbe possibile agli uomini coltivare il suolo come coltivano l’anima. Ma per questo è necessario avere un rispetto per il suolo non meno che per l’anima; e persino una reverenza verso di esso, come avente qualche legame con le cose sacre. Ma a tal fine ci occorre un certo senso di portare con noi cose sacre e di recarle con noi a casa; non semplicemente la sensazione che la santità possa esistere come una speranza. Nella frase più elevata, ci occorre una presenza reale. Nella frase più popolare, ci occorre qualcosa che sia sempre sul posto.
Vale a dire, vogliamo qualcosa che sia sempre sul posto, e non solo oltre l’orizzonte. L’istinto del pioniere comincia a venir meno, come un noto viaggiatore si è recentemente lamentato, ma dubito che egli saprebbe dircene la ragione. È persino possibile che egli non lo comprenda, in un raggiante lampo di gioiosa comprensione, se gli dico che sono del tutto favorevole a un inseguimento chimerico, purché egli creda davvero che l’oca selvatica sia l’uccello del paradiso; ma che è necessario darle la caccia con i segugi del cielo. Se fosse appena possibile che ciò non gli paia del tutto chiaro, spiegherò che il viaggiatore deve possedere qualcosa oltre che inseguire qualcosa, altrimenti non saprà nemmeno cosa inseguire. Non basta seguire sempre il barlume: è necessario talvolta riposare nel bagliore; sentire qualcosa di sacro nel bagliore del fuoco da campo non meno che nel barlume della stella polare. E quella stessa voce misteriosa e per alcuni divisa, che sola ci dice che qui non abbiamo città che duri, è l’unica voce che entro i limiti di questo mondo possa edificare città che durino.
As I said at the beginning of this section, it is futile to pretend that such a faith is not a fundamental of the true change. But its practical relation to the reconstruction of property is that, unless we understand this spirit, we cannot now relieve congestion with colonization. People will prefer the mere nomadism of the town to the mere nomadism of the wilderness. They will not tolerate emigration if it merely means being moved on by the politicians as they have been moved on by the policemen. They will prefer bread and circuses to locusts and wild honey, so long as the forerunner does not know for what God he prepares the way.
But even if we put aside for the moment the strictly spiritual ideals involved in the change, we must admit that there are secular ideals involved which must be positive and not merely comparative, like the ideal of progress. We are sometimes taunted with setting against all other Utopias what is in truth the most impossible Utopia; with describing a Merry Peasant who cannot exist except on the stage, with depending on a China Shepherdess who never was seen except on the mantelpiece. If we are indeed presenting impossible portraits of an ideal humanity, we are not alone in that. Not only the Socialists but also the Capitalists parade before us their imaginary and ideal figures, and the Capitalists if possible more than the Socialists. For once that we read of the last Earthly Paradise of Mr. Wells, where men and women move gracefully in simple garments and keep their tempers in a way in which we in this world sometimes find difficult (even when we are the authors of Utopian novels), for once that we see the ideal figure of that vision, we see ten times a day the ideal figure of the commercial advertisers. We are told to “Be Like This Man,” or to imitate an aggressive person pointing his finger at us in a very rude manner for one who regards himself as a pattern to the young. Yet it is entirely an ideal portrait; it is very unlikely (we are glad to say) that any of us will develop a chin or a finger of that obtrusive type. But we do not blame either the Capitalists or the Socialists for setting up a type or talismanic figure to fix the imagination. We do not wonder at their presenting the perfect person for our admiration; we only wonder at the person they admire. And it is quite true that, in our movement as much as any other, there must be a certain amount of this romantic picture-making. Men have never done anything in the world without it; but ours is much more of a reality as well as a romance than the dreams of the other romantics. There cannot be a nation of millionaires, and there has never yet been a nation of Utopian comrades; but there have been any number of nations of tolerably contented peasants. In this connection, however, the point is that if we do not directly demand the religion of small property, we must at least demand the poetry of small property. It is a thing about which it is definitely and even urgently practical to be poetical. And it is those who blame us for being poetical who do not really see the practical problem.
For the practical problem is the goal. The pioneer notion has weakened like the progressive notion, and for the same reason. People could go on talking about progress so long as they were not merely thinking about progress. Progressives really had in their minds some notion of a purpose in progress; and even the most practical pioneer had some vague and shadowy idea of what he wanted. The Progressives trusted the tendency of their time, because they did believe, or at least had believed, in a body of democratic doctrines which they supposed to be in process of establishment. And the pioneers and empire-builders were filled with hope and courage because, to do them justice, most of them did at least in some dim way believe that the flag they carried stood for law and liberty, and a higher civilization. They were therefore in search of something and not merely in search of searching. They subconsciously conceived an end of travel and not endless travelling; they were not only breaking through a jungle but building a city. They knew more or less the style of architecture in which it would be built, and they honestly believed it was the best style of architecture in the world. The spirit of adventure has failed because it has been left to adventurers. Adventure for adventure’s sake became like art for art’s sake. Those who had lost all sense of aim lost all sense of art and even of accident. The time has come in every department, but especially in our department, to make once again vivid and solid the aim of political progress or colonial adventure. Even if we picture the goal of the pilgrimage as a sort of peasant paradise, it will be far more practical than setting out on a pilgrimage which has no goal. But it is yet more practical to insist that we do not want to insist only on what are called the qualities of a pioneer; that we do not want to describe merely the virtues that achieve adventures. We want men to think, not merely of a place which they would be interested to find, but of a place where they would be contented to stay. Those who wish merely to arouse again the social hopes of the nineteenth century must offer not an endless hope, but the hope of an end. Those who wish to continue the building of the old colonial idea must leave off telling us that the Church of Empire is founded entirely on the rolling stone. For it is a sin against the reason to tell men that to travel hopefully is better than to arrive; and when once they believe it, they travel hopefully no longer.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Come ho detto all’inizio di questa sezione, è vano fingere che una tale fede non sia un fondamento del vero mutamento. Ma la sua relazione pratica con la ricostruzione della proprietà è che, se non comprendiamo questo spirito, non possiamo ormai alleviare la congestione con la colonizzazione. La gente preferirà il puro nomadismo della città al puro nomadismo del deserto. Non tollererà l’emigrazione se essa significa soltanto essere spinta avanti dai politici come è stata spinta avanti dai poliziotti. Preferirà il pane e i giochi circensi alle locuste e al miele selvatico, finché il precursore non sappia per quale Dio prepara la via.
Ma anche se mettiamo da parte per il momento gli ideali strettamente spirituali implicati nel mutamento, dobbiamo ammettere che vi sono ideali secolari implicati che devono essere positivi e non meramente comparativi, come l’ideale del progresso. Talvolta ci si rimprovera di contrapporre a tutte le altre Utopie quella che è in verità l’Utopia più impossibile; di descrivere un Allegro Contadino che non può esistere se non sul palcoscenico, di affidarci a una Pastorella di Porcellana mai vista se non sulla mensola del camino. Se davvero presentiamo ritratti impossibili di un’umanità ideale, non siamo i soli a farlo. Non solo i Socialisti ma anche i Capitalisti sfilano davanti a noi le loro figure immaginarie e ideali, e i Capitalisti se possibile più dei Socialisti. Per una volta che leggiamo dell’ultimo Paradiso Terrestre del signor Wells, dove uomini e donne si muovono con grazia in semplici vesti e mantengono la calma in un modo che noi in questo mondo troviamo talvolta difficile (anche quando siamo gli autori di romanzi utopici), per una volta che vediamo la figura ideale di quella visione, vediamo dieci volte al giorno la figura ideale dei pubblicitari commerciali. Ci viene detto di «Essere Come Quest’Uomo», o di imitare una persona aggressiva che ci punta il dito addosso in modo assai villano per uno che si considera un modello per i giovani. Eppure è del tutto un ritratto ideale; è assai improbabile (siamo lieti di dirlo) che qualcuno di noi sviluppi un mento o un dito di quel tipo invadente. Ma non biasimiamo né i Capitalisti né i Socialisti per l’aver eretto un tipo o una figura talismanica per fissare l’immaginazione. Non ci meravigliamo che presentino la persona perfetta alla nostra ammirazione; ci meravigliamo soltanto della persona che essi ammirano. Ed è del tutto vero che, nel nostro movimento non meno che in ogni altro, deve esservi una certa dose di questa fabbricazione romantica di immagini. Gli uomini non hanno mai fatto nulla al mondo senza di essa; ma la nostra è assai più una realtà oltre che un romanzo rispetto ai sogni degli altri romantici. Non può esservi una nazione di milionari, e non c’è mai stata finora una nazione di compagni utopici; ma vi sono state innumerevoli nazioni di contadini tollerabilmente contenti. A questo riguardo, tuttavia, il punto è che se non esigiamo direttamente la religione della piccola proprietà, dobbiamo almeno esigere la poesia della piccola proprietà. È una cosa riguardo alla quale è decisamente e persino urgentemente pratico essere poetici. E sono proprio coloro che ci biasimano di essere poetici a non vedere davvero il problema pratico.
Poiché il problema pratico è la meta. La nozione del pioniere si è indebolita come la nozione del progresso, e per la stessa ragione. La gente poteva continuare a parlare di progresso finché non pensava soltanto al progresso. I progressisti avevano davvero nella mente una qualche nozione di uno scopo nel progresso; e anche il pioniere più pratico aveva una qualche vaga e ombrosa idea di ciò che voleva. I Progressisti confidavano nella tendenza del loro tempo, perché credevano davvero, o almeno avevano creduto, in un corpo di dottrine democratiche che supponevano in via di affermazione. E i pionieri e i costruttori d’imperi erano colmi di speranza e di coraggio perché, per rendere loro giustizia, la maggior parte di essi credeva almeno in qualche oscuro modo che la bandiera che portavano stesse per legge e libertà, e per una civiltà superiore. Erano perciò in cerca di qualcosa e non semplicemente in cerca del cercare. Concepivano inconsciamente una fine del viaggio e non un viaggiare senza fine; non stavano solo aprendosi la strada attraverso una giungla ma costruendo una città. Conoscevano più o meno lo stile architettonico secondo cui essa sarebbe stata edificata, e credevano onestamente che fosse il migliore stile architettonico del mondo. Lo spirito d’avventura è venuto meno perché è stato lasciato agli avventurieri. L’avventura per amore dell’avventura divenne come l’arte per amore dell’arte. Coloro che avevano perduto ogni senso dello scopo persero ogni senso dell’arte e persino del caso. È giunto il tempo, in ogni campo, ma specialmente nel nostro campo, di rendere di nuovo vivida e solida la meta del progresso politico o dell’avventura coloniale. Anche se raffiguriamo la meta del pellegrinaggio come una sorta di paradiso contadino, sarà assai più pratico che mettersi in un pellegrinaggio che non ha meta. Ma è ancor più pratico insistere che non vogliamo insistere soltanto su ciò che si chiamano le qualità di un pioniere; che non vogliamo descrivere soltanto le virtù che compiono avventure. Vogliamo che gli uomini pensino, non soltanto a un luogo che sarebbero interessati a trovare, ma a un luogo dove sarebbero contenti di restare. Coloro che desiderano semplicemente ridestare le speranze sociali dell’Ottocento devono offrire non una speranza senza fine, ma la speranza di una fine. Coloro che desiderano continuare l’edificazione della vecchia idea coloniale devono smettere di dirci che la Chiesa dell’Impero è fondata interamente sulla pietra rotolante. Poiché è un peccato contro la ragione dire agli uomini che viaggiare con speranza è meglio che arrivare; e una volta che lo credono, non viaggiano più con speranza.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
VI A SUMMARY
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
A SUMMARY
I once debated with a learned man who had a curious fancy for arranging the correspondence in mathematical patterns; first a thousand words each and then a hundred words each—and then altering them all to another pattern. I accepted as I would always accept a challenge, especially an apparent appeal for fairness, but I was tempted to tell him how utterly unworkable this mechanical method is for a living thing like argument. Obviously a man might need a thousand words to reply to ten words. Suppose I began the philosophic dialogue by saying, “You strangle babies.” He would naturally reply, “Nonsense—I never strangled any babies.” And even in that obvious ejaculation he has already used twice as many words as I have. It is impossible to have real debate without digression. Every definition will look like a digression. Suppose somebody puts to me some journalistic statement, say, “Spanish Jesuits denounced in Parliament.” I cannot deal with it without explaining to the journalist where I differ from him about the atmosphere and implication of each term in turn. I cannot answer quickly if I am just discovering slowly that the man suffers from a series of extraordinary delusions: as (1) that Parliament is a popular representative assembly; (2) that Spain is an effete and decadent country; or (3) that a Spanish Jesuit is a sort of soft-footed court chaplain; whereas it was a Spanish Jesuit who anticipated the whole democratic theory of our day, and actually hurled it as a defiance against the divine right of kings. Each of these explanations would have to be a digression, and each would be necessary. Now in this book I am well aware that there are many digressions that may not at first sight seem to be necessary. For I have had to construct it out of what was originally a sort of controversial causerie; and it has proved impossible to cut down the causerie and only leave the controversy. Moreover, no man can controvert with many foes without going into many subjects, as every one knows who has been heckled. And on this occasion I was, I am happy to say, being heckled by many foes who were also friends. I was discharging the double function of writing essays and of talking over the tea-table, or preferably over the tavern table. To turn this sort of mixture of a gossip and a gospel into anything like a grammar of Distributism has been quite impossible. But I fancy that, even considered as a string of essays, it appears more inconsequent than it really is; and many may read the essays without quite seeing the string. I have decided, therefore, to add this last essay merely in order to sum up the intention of the whole; even if the summary be only a recapitulation. I have had a reason for many of my digressions, which may not appear until the whole is seen in some sort of perspective; and where the digression has no such justification, but was due to a desire to answer a friend or (what is even worse) a disposition towards idle and unseemly mirth, I can only apologize sincerely to the scientific reader and promise to do my best to make this final summary as dull as possible.
If we proceed as at present in a proper orderly fashion, the very idea of property will vanish. It is not revolutionary violence that will destroy it. It is rather the desperate and reckless habit of not having a revolution. The world will be occupied, or rather is already occupied, by two powers which are now one power. I speak, of course, of that part of the world that is covered by our system, and that part of the history of the world which will last very much longer than our time. Sooner or later, no doubt, men would rediscover so natural a pleasure as property. But it might be discovered after ages, like those ages filled with pagan slavery. It might be discovered after a long decline of our whole civilization. Barbarians might rediscover it and imagine it was a new thing.
Anyhow, the prospect is a progress towards the complete combination of two combinations. They are both powers that believe only in combination; and have never understood or even heard that there is any dignity in division. They have never had the imagination to understand the idea of Genesis and the great myths: that Creation itself was division. The beginning of the world was the division of heaven and earth; the beginning of humanity was the division of man and woman. But these flat and platitudinous minds can never see the difference between the creative cleavage of Adam and Eve and the destructive cleavage of Cain and Abel. Anyhow, these powers or minds are now both in the same mood; and it is a mood of disliking all division, and therefore all distribution. They believe in unity, in unanimity, in harmony. One of these powers is State Socialism and the other is Big Business. They are already one spirit; they will soon be one body. For, disbelieving in division, they cannot remain divided; believing only in combination, they will themselves combine. At present one of them calls it Solidarity and the other calls it Consolidation. It would seem that we have only to wait while both monsters are taught to say Consolidarity. But, whatever it is called, there will be no doubt about the character of the world which they will have made between them. It is becoming more and more fixed and familiar. It will be a world of organization, or syndication, of standardization. People will be able to get hats, houses, holidays, and patent medicines of a recognized and universal pattern; they will be fed, clothed, educated, and examined by a wide and elaborate system; but if you were to ask them at any given moment whether the agency which housed or hatted them was still merely mercantile or had become municipal, they probably would not know, and they possibly would not care.
VI RIEPILOGO
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
RIEPILOGO
Una volta discussi con un dotto che aveva una curiosa fantasia di disporre la corrispondenza secondo schemi matematici; prima mille parole ciascuno e poi cento parole ciascuno—e poi mutandoli tutti secondo un altro schema. Accettai come accetterei sempre una sfida, specialmente un apparente appello all’equità, ma fui tentato di dirgli quanto sia del tutto impraticabile questo metodo meccanico per una cosa viva come l’argomentazione. Ovviamente un uomo potrebbe aver bisogno di mille parole per replicare a dieci parole. Supponiamo che io cominciassi il dialogo filosofico dicendo: «Voi strangolate i neonati». Egli replicherebbe naturalmente: «Sciocchezze—non ho mai strangolato alcun neonato». E persino in quell’ovvia esclamazione ha già usato il doppio delle parole rispetto a me. È impossibile avere una vera discussione senza digressione. Ogni definizione parrà una digressione. Supponiamo che qualcuno mi ponga una qualche affermazione giornalistica, poniamo: «Gesuiti spagnoli denunciati in Parlamento». Non posso trattarla senza spiegare al giornalista in che cosa differisco da lui circa l’atmosfera e l’implicazione di ciascun termine a sua volta. Non posso rispondere in fretta se sto appena scoprendo lentamente che l’uomo soffre di una serie di straordinari deliri: come (1) che il Parlamento sia un’assemblea rappresentativa popolare; (2) che la Spagna sia un paese esausto e decadente; o (3) che un gesuita spagnolo sia una sorta di cappellano di corte dal passo felpato; laddove fu un gesuita spagnolo ad anticipare l’intera teoria democratica dei nostri giorni, e a scagliarla effettivamente come una sfida contro il diritto divino dei re. Ciascuna di queste spiegazioni dovrebbe essere una digressione, e ciascuna sarebbe necessaria. Ora, in questo libro sono ben consapevole che vi sono molte digressioni che a prima vista possono non sembrare necessarie. Poiché ho dovuto costruirlo a partire da ciò che era in origine una sorta di causerie polemica; e si è rivelato impossibile ridurre la causerie e lasciare soltanto la polemica. Inoltre, nessuno può controbattere a molti avversari senza addentrarsi in molti argomenti, come sa chiunque sia stato incalzato dalle contestazioni. E in questa occasione ero, sono lieto di dirlo, incalzato da molti avversari che erano anche amici. Adempivo alla duplice funzione di scrivere saggi e di conversare al tavolo del tè, o preferibilmente al tavolo della taverna. Trasformare questa sorta di miscuglio di chiacchiera e di vangelo in qualcosa come una grammatica del Distributismo è stato del tutto impossibile. Ma immagino che, anche considerato come una collana di saggi, esso appaia più incoerente di quanto realmente sia; e molti possono leggere i saggi senza scorgere del tutto il filo che li lega. Ho deciso, perciò, di aggiungere quest’ultimo saggio semplicemente allo scopo di riassumere l’intenzione dell’insieme; anche se il riepilogo non fosse che una ricapitolazione. Ho avuto una ragione per molte delle mie digressioni, che può non apparire finché l’insieme non sia visto in una qualche prospettiva; e là dove la digressione non ha una tale giustificazione, ma era dovuta al desiderio di rispondere a un amico o (ciò che è ancor peggio) a una disposizione all’ozioso e sconveniente buonumore, non posso che scusarmi sinceramente col lettore scientifico e promettere di fare del mio meglio per rendere questo riepilogo finale il più noioso possibile.
Se procediamo come al presente in modo debitamente ordinato, l’idea stessa di proprietà svanirà. Non è la violenza rivoluzionaria che la distruggerà. È piuttosto la disperata e sconsiderata abitudine di non fare una rivoluzione. Il mondo sarà occupato, o piuttosto è già occupato, da due potenze che ora sono una sola potenza. Parlo, s’intende, di quella parte del mondo che è coperta dal nostro sistema, e di quella parte della storia del mondo che durerà assai più a lungo del nostro tempo. Prima o poi, senza dubbio, gli uomini riscoprirebbero un piacere tanto naturale quanto la proprietà. Ma potrebbe essere scoperto dopo epoche, come quelle epoche colme di schiavitù pagana. Potrebbe essere scoperto dopo un lungo declino dell’intera nostra civiltà. I barbari potrebbero riscoprirlo e immaginare che fosse una cosa nuova.
Comunque sia, la prospettiva è un progresso verso la completa combinazione di due combinazioni. Sono entrambe potenze che credono soltanto nella combinazione; e non hanno mai compreso né mai udito che vi sia una qualche dignità nella divisione. Non hanno mai avuto l’immaginazione di comprendere l’idea della Genesi e dei grandi miti: che la Creazione stessa fu divisione. L’inizio del mondo fu la divisione del cielo e della terra; l’inizio dell’umanità fu la divisione dell’uomo e della donna. Ma queste menti piatte e banali non sanno mai vedere la differenza tra la scissione creativa di Adamo ed Eva e la scissione distruttiva di Caino e Abele. Comunque sia, queste potenze o menti sono ora entrambe nella medesima disposizione; ed è una disposizione di avversione a ogni divisione, e perciò a ogni distribuzione. Credono nell’unità, nell’unanimità, nell’armonia. Una di queste potenze è il Socialismo di Stato e l’altra è il Grande Affarismo. Sono già un solo spirito; saranno presto un solo corpo. Poiché, non credendo nella divisione, non possono restare divise; credendo soltanto nella combinazione, si combineranno esse stesse. Al presente una di esse la chiama Solidarietà e l’altra la chiama Consolidamento. Parrebbe che non ci resti che attendere mentre a entrambi i mostri si insegna a dire Consolidarietà. Ma, comunque la si chiami, non vi sarà alcun dubbio sul carattere del mondo che essi avranno fatto insieme. Esso diviene sempre più fisso e familiare. Sarà un mondo di organizzazione, di sindacazione, di standardizzazione. La gente potrà procurarsi cappelli, case, vacanze e medicinali brevettati di un modello riconosciuto e universale; sarà nutrita, vestita, istruita ed esaminata da un ampio ed elaborato sistema; ma se la si interrogasse in un dato momento se l’agenzia che l’alloggiava o l’incappellava fosse ancora meramente mercantile o fosse divenuta municipale, probabilmente non lo saprebbe, e forse non se ne curerebbe.
Many believe that humanity will be happy in this new peace; that classes can be reconciled and souls set at rest. I do not think things will be quite so bad as that. But I admit that there are many things which may make possible such a catastrophe of contentment. Men in large numbers have submitted to slavery; men submit naturally to government, and perhaps even especially to despotic government. But I take it as obvious to any intelligent person that this government will be something more than despotic. It is the very essence of the Trust that it has the power, not only to extinguish military rivalry or mob rebellion as has the State, but also the power to crush any new custom or costume or craft or private enterprise that it does not choose to like. Militarism can only prevent people from fighting; but monopoly can prevent them from buying or selling anything except the article (generally the inferior article) having the trade mark of the monopoly. If anything can be inferred from history and human nature, it is absolutely certain that the despotism will grow more and more despotic, and that the article will grow more and more inferior. There is no conceivable argument from psychology, by which it can be pretended that people preserving such a power, generation after generation, would not abuse it more and more, or neglect everything else more and more. We know what far less rigid rule has become, even when founded by spirited and intelligent rulers. We can darkly guess the effect of larger powers in the hands of lesser men. And if the name of Caesar came at last to stand for all that we call Byzantine, exactly what degree of dullness are we to anticipate when the name of Harrod shall sound even duller than it does? If China passed into a proverb at last for stiffness and monotony after being nourished for centuries by Confucius, what will be the condition of the brains that have been nourished for centuries by Callisthenes?
I leave out there the particular case of my own country, where we are threatened not with a long decline, but rather with an unpleasantly rapid collapse. But taking monopolist capitalism in a country where it is still in the vulgar sense successful, as in the United States, we only see more clearly, and on a more colossal scale, the long and descending perspectives that point down to Byzantium or Pekin. It is perfectly obvious that the whole business is a machine for manufacturing tenth-rate things, and keeping people ignorant of first-rate things. Most civilized systems have declined from a height; but this starts on a low level and in a flat place; and what it would be like when it had really crushed all its critics and rivals and made its monopoly watertight for two hundred years, the most morbid imagination will find it hard to imagine. But whatever the last stage of the story, no sane man any longer doubts that we are seeing the first stages of it. There is no longer any difference in tone and type between collectivist and ordinary commercial order; commerce has its officialism and communism has its organization. Private things are already public in the worst sense of the word; that is, they are impersonal and dehumanized. Public things are already private in the worst sense of the word; that is, they are mysterious and secretive and largely corrupt. The new sort of Business Government will combine everything that is bad in all the plans for a better world. There will be no eccentricity; no humour; no noble disdain of the world. There will be nothing but a loathsome thing called Social Service; which means slavery without loyalty. This Service will be one of the ideals. I forgot to mention that there will be ideals. All the wealthiest men in the movement have made it quite clear that they are in possession of a number of these little comforts. People always have ideals when they can no longer have ideas.
The philanthropists in question will probably be surprised to learn that some of us regard this prospect very much as we should regard the theory that we are to be evolved back into apes. We therefore consider whether it is even yet conceivable to restore that long-forgotten thing called Self-Government: that is, the power of the citizen in some degree to direct his own life and construct his own environment; to eat what he likes, to wear what he chooses, and to have (what the Trust must of necessity deny him) a range of choice. In these notes upon the notion, I have been concerned to ask whether it is possible to escape from this enormous evil of simplification or centralization, and what I have said is best summed up under two heads or in two parallel statements. They may seem to some to contradict each other, but they really confirm each other.
First, I say that this is a thing that could be done by people. It is not a thing that can be done to people. That is where it differs from nearly all Socialist schemes as it does from plutocratic philanthropy. I do not say that I, regarding this prospect with hatred and contempt, can save them from it. I say that they can save me from it, and themselves from it, if they also regard it with hatred and contempt. But it must be done in the spirit of a religion, of a revolution, and (I will add) of a renunciation. They must want to do it as they want to drive invaders out of a country or to stop the spread of a plague. And in this respect our critics have a curious way of arguing in a circle. They ask why we trouble to denounce what we cannot destroy; and offer an ideal we cannot attain. They say we are merely throwing away dirty water before we can get clean; or rather that we are merely analysing the animalculae in the dirty water, while we do not even venture to throw it away. Why do we make men discontented with conditions with which they must be content? Why revile an intolerable slavery that must be tolerated? But when we in turn ask why our ideal is impossible or why the evil is indestructible, they answer in effect, “Because you cannot persuade people to want it destroyed.” Possibly; but, on their own showing, they cannot blame us because we try. They cannot say that people do not hate plutocracy enough to kill it; and then blame us for asking them to look at it enough to hate it. If they will not attack it until they hate it, then we are doing the most practical thing we can do, in showing it to be hateful. A moral movement must begin somewhere; but I do most positively postulate that there must be a moral movement. This is not a financial flutter or a police regulation or a private bill or a detail of book-keeping. It is a mighty effort of the will of man, like the throwing off of any other great evil, or it is nothing. I say that if men will fight for this they may win; I have nowhere suggested that there is any way of winning without fighting.
Molti credono che l’umanità sarà felice in questa nuova pace; che le classi possano essere riconciliate e le anime messe in quiete. Non penso che le cose andranno proprio così male. Ma ammetto che vi sono molte cose che possono rendere possibile una simile catastrofe di appagamento. Uomini in gran numero si sono sottomessi alla schiavitù; gli uomini si sottomettono naturalmente al governo, e forse persino specialmente al governo dispotico. Ma ritengo ovvio per ogni persona intelligente che questo governo sarà qualcosa di più che dispotico. È la vera essenza del Trust che esso abbia il potere, non solo di estinguere la rivalità militare o la ribellione della folla come lo ha lo Stato, ma anche il potere di schiacciare ogni nuova usanza o foggia o mestiere o impresa privata che esso non scelga di gradire. Il militarismo può soltanto impedire alla gente di combattere; ma il monopolio può impedirle di comprare o vendere qualsiasi cosa tranne l’articolo (generalmente l’articolo inferiore) che reca il marchio del monopolio. Se qualcosa può essere dedotto dalla storia e dalla natura umana, è assolutamente certo che il dispotismo diverrà sempre più dispotico, e che l’articolo diverrà sempre più inferiore. Non vi è alcun argomento concepibile tratto dalla psicologia, con cui si possa pretendere che uomini in possesso di un tale potere, generazione dopo generazione, non ne abuserebbero sempre più, o non trascurerebbero ogni altra cosa sempre più. Sappiamo che cosa è divenuto un dominio assai meno rigido, anche quando fondato da governanti vigorosi e intelligenti. Possiamo oscuramente indovinare l’effetto di poteri più grandi nelle mani di uomini più piccoli. E se il nome di Cesare giunse infine a stare per tutto ciò che chiamiamo bizantino, esattamente quale grado di tediosità dobbiamo prevedere quando il nome di Harrod suonerà persino più tedioso di quanto già suoni? Se la Cina passò infine in proverbio per rigidità e monotonia dopo essere stata nutrita per secoli da Confucio, quale sarà la condizione dei cervelli che sono stati nutriti per secoli da Callistene?
Tralascio qui il caso particolare del mio paese, dove siamo minacciati non da un lungo declino, ma piuttosto da un crollo sgradevolmente rapido. Ma prendendo il capitalismo monopolistico in un paese dove esso ha ancora, nel senso volgare, successo, come negli Stati Uniti, vediamo solo più chiaramente, e su scala più colossale, le lunghe e discendenti prospettive che puntano giù verso Bisanzio o Pechino. È perfettamente ovvio che l’intera faccenda è una macchina per fabbricare cose di decim’ordine, e per mantenere la gente ignara delle cose di prim’ordine. La maggior parte dei sistemi civili è decaduta da un’altezza; ma questo parte da un livello basso e in un luogo piatto; e come sarebbe quando avesse davvero schiacciato tutti i suoi critici e rivali e reso il suo monopolio a tenuta stagna per duecento anni, la più morbosa immaginazione farà fatica a immaginarlo. Ma qualunque sia l’ultima fase della storia, nessun uomo sano di mente dubita più che ne stiamo vedendo le prime fasi. Non vi è più alcuna differenza di tono e di tipo tra l’ordine collettivista e quello commerciale ordinario; il commercio ha il suo burocratismo e il comunismo ha la sua organizzazione. Le cose private sono già pubbliche nel peggiore senso della parola; vale a dire, sono impersonali e disumanizzate. Le cose pubbliche sono già private nel peggiore senso della parola; vale a dire, sono misteriose e segrete e in gran parte corrotte. La nuova specie di Governo d’Affari combinerà tutto ciò che vi è di cattivo in tutti i progetti per un mondo migliore. Non vi sarà eccentricità; non umorismo; non nobile disdegno del mondo. Non vi sarà nulla se non una cosa ripugnante chiamata Servizio Sociale; che significa schiavitù senza lealtà. Questo Servizio sarà uno degli ideali. Dimenticavo di menzionare che vi saranno ideali. Tutti gli uomini più ricchi del movimento hanno reso ben chiaro di essere in possesso di un certo numero di questi piccoli conforti. La gente ha sempre ideali quando non può più avere idee.
I filantropi in questione saranno probabilmente sorpresi di apprendere che alcuni di noi considerano questa prospettiva molto come considereremmo la teoria secondo cui dovremmo essere ri-evoluti a ritroso in scimmie. Consideriamo perciò se sia persino ancora concepibile ripristinare quella cosa da lungo dimenticata chiamata Auto-Governo: vale a dire, il potere del cittadino di dirigere in qualche misura la propria vita e di costruire il proprio ambiente; di mangiare ciò che gli piace, di vestire ciò che sceglie, e di avere (ciò che il Trust deve per necessità negargli) una gamma di scelta. In queste note sulla nozione, mi sono preoccupato di chiedere se sia possibile sfuggire a questo enorme male della semplificazione o centralizzazione, e ciò che ho detto si riassume al meglio sotto due capi o in due affermazioni parallele. Esse possono sembrare ad alcuni contraddirsi a vicenda, ma in realtà si confermano a vicenda.
In primo luogo, dico che questa è una cosa che potrebbe essere fatta dalla gente. Non è una cosa che possa essere fatta alla gente. È in questo che essa differisce da quasi tutti gli schemi socialisti come differisce dalla filantropia plutocratica. Non dico che io, guardando a questa prospettiva con odio e disprezzo, possa salvarli da essa. Dico che essi possono salvare me da essa, e sé stessi da essa, se anch’essi la guardano con odio e disprezzo. Ma deve essere fatto nello spirito di una religione, di una rivoluzione, e (aggiungerò) di una rinuncia. Devono volerlo fare come vogliono scacciare gli invasori da un paese o arrestare il diffondersi di una pestilenza. E a questo riguardo i nostri critici hanno un curioso modo di ragionare in circolo. Chiedono perché ci diamo la pena di denunciare ciò che non possiamo distruggere; e di offrire un ideale che non possiamo raggiungere. Dicono che stiamo semplicemente gettando via acqua sporca prima di poterci pulire; o piuttosto che stiamo semplicemente analizzando gli animalculi nell’acqua sporca, mentre non osiamo nemmeno gettarla via. Perché rendiamo gli uomini scontenti di condizioni di cui devono essere contenti? Perché inveire contro un’intollerabile schiavitù che deve essere tollerata? Ma quando a nostra volta chiediamo perché il nostro ideale sia impossibile o perché il male sia indistruttibile, essi rispondono in sostanza: «Perché non potete persuadere la gente a volerlo distrutto». Forse; ma, per loro stessa ammissione, non possono biasimarci perché ci proviamo. Non possono dire che la gente non odia la plutocrazia abbastanza da ucciderla; e poi biasimarci per chiederle di guardarla abbastanza da odiarla. Se non l’attaccheranno finché non l’odieranno, allora stiamo facendo la cosa più pratica che possiamo fare, mostrando che essa è odiosa. Un movimento morale deve pur cominciare da qualche parte; ma postulo nel modo più assoluto che vi debba essere un movimento morale. Questo non è una speculazione finanziaria o un regolamento di polizia o un disegno di legge privato o un dettaglio di contabilità. È un possente sforzo della volontà dell’uomo, come lo scrollarsi di dosso ogni altro grande male, oppure non è nulla. Dico che se gli uomini combatteranno per questo possono vincere; non ho in alcun luogo suggerito che vi sia un modo di vincere senza combattere.
Under this heading I have considered in their place, for instance, the possibility of an organized boycott of big shops. Undoubtedly it would be some sacrifice to boycott big shops; it would be some trouble to seek out small shops. But it would be about a hundredth part of the sacrifice and trouble that has often been shown by masses of men making some patriotic or religious protest—when they really wanted to protest. Under the same general rule, I have remarked that a real life on the land, men not only dwelling on the land but living off it, would be an adventure involving both stubbornness and abnegation. But it would not be half so ascetic as the sort of adventure which it is a commonplace to attribute to colonists and empire-builders; it is nothing to what has been normally shown by millions of soldiers and monks. Only it is true that monks have a faith, that soldiers have a flag, and that even empire-builders were presumably under the impression that they could assist the Empire. But it does not seem to me quite inconceivable, in the varieties of religious experience, that men might take as much notice of earth as monks do of heaven; that people might really believe in the spades that create as well as in the swords that destroy; and that the English who have colonized everywhere else might begin to colonize England.
Having thus admitted, or rather insisted, that this thing cannot be done unless people do really think it worth doing, I then proceeded to suggest that, even in these different departments, there are more people who think it worth doing than is noticed by the people who do not think it worth noticing. Thus, even in the crowds that throng the big shops, you do in fact hear a vast amount of grumbling at the big shops— not so much because they are big as because they are bad. But these real criticisms are disconnected, while the unreal puffs and praises are connected, like any other conspiracy. When the millionaire owning the stores is criticized, it is by his customers. When he is handsomely complimented, it is by himself. But when he is cursed, it is in the inner chamber; when he is praised (by himself) it is proclaimed from the house-tops. That is what is meant by publicity—a voice loud enough to drown any remarks made by the public.
In the case of the land, as in the case of the shops, I went on to point out that there is, if not a moral agitation, at least the materials of a moral agitation. Just as a discontent with the shops lingers even among those who are shopping, so a desire for the land lingers even in those who are hardly allowed to walk on the ground. I gave the instance of the slum population of Limehouse, who were forcibly lifted into high flats, bitterly lamenting the loss of the funny little farmyards they had constructed for themselves in the corners of their slum. It seems absurd to say of a country that none of its people could be countrymen, when even its cockneys try to be countrymen. I also noted that, in the case of the country, there is now a general discontent, in landlords as well as tenants. Everything seems to point to a simpler life of one man one field, free as far as possible of the complications of rent and labour, especially when the rent is so often unpaid or unprofitable, and the labourers are so often on strike or on the dole. Here again there may often be a million individuals feeling like this; but the million has not become a mob; for a mob is a moral thing. But I will never be so unpatriotic as to suggest that the English could never conduct an agrarian war in England as the Irish did in Ireland. Generally, therefore, under this first principle, the thing would most certainly have to be preached rather like a Crusade; but it is quite untrue and unhistorical to say, as a rule, that when once the Crusade is preached, there are no Crusaders.
And my second general principle, which may seem contradictory but is confirmatory, is this. I think the thing would have to be done step by step and with patience and partial concessions. I think this, not because I have any faith whatever in the silly cult of slowness that is sometimes called evolution, but because of the peculiar circumstances of the case. First, mobs may loot and burn and rob the rich man, very much to his spiritual edification and benefit. They may not unnaturally do it, almost absentmindedly, when they are thinking of something else, such as a dislike of Jews or Huguenots. But it would never do for us to give very violent shocks to the sentiment of property, even where it is very ill-placed or ill-proportioned; for that happens to be the very sentiment we are trying to revive. As a matter of psychology, it would be foolish to insult even an unfeminine feminist in order to awaken a delicate chivalry towards females. It would be unwise to use a sacred image as a club with which to thump an Iconoclast and teach him not to touch the holy images. Where the old-fashioned feeling of property is still honest, I think it should be dealt with by degrees and with some consideration. Where the sense of property does not exist at all, as in millionaires, it might well be regarded rather differently; there it would become a question of whether property procured in certain ways is property at all. As for the case of cornering and making monopolies in restraint of trade, that falls under the first of my two principles. It is simply a question of whether we have the moral courage to punish what is certainly immoral. There is no more doubt about these operations of high finance than there is about piracy on the high seas. It is merely a case of a country being so disorderly and ill-governed that it becomes infested with pirates. I have, therefore, in this book treated of Trusts and Anti-Trust Law as a matter, not merely for the popular protest of a boycott or a strike, but for the direct action of the State against criminals. But when the criminals are stronger than the State, any attempt to punish them will be certainly called a rebellion and may rightly be called a Crusade.
Sotto questa voce ho considerato, per esempio, la possibilità di un boicottaggio organizzato dei grandi magazzini. Indubbiamente sarebbe un certo sacrificio boicottare i grandi magazzini; sarebbe un po’ complicato cercare i piccoli negozi. Ma non sarebbe neanche la centesima parte del sacrificio e della fatica che spesso hanno dimostrato masse di uomini facendo una protesta patriottica o religiosa, quando davvero volevano protestare. Sotto la stessa regola generale ho osservato che una vera vita in campagna, in cui gli uomini non solo vivono sulla terra ma ne vivono, sarebbe un’avventura che richiederebbe sia ostinazione che abnegazione. Ma non sarebbe nemmeno la metà così ascetica come l’avventura che è banale attribuire ai coloni e agli imprenditori coloniali; non è niente rispetto a quello che hanno dimostrato normalmente milioni di monaci e soldati. Solo che è vero che i monaci hanno una fede, che i soldati hanno una bandiera, e che anche gli imprenditori coloniali erano presumibilmente convinti di poter aiutare l’Impero. Ma non mi sembra del tutto inconcepibile, nelle varietà dell’esperienza religiosa, che gli uomini possano prestare tanta attenzione alla terra quanto i monaci fanno per il cielo; che la gente possa davvero credere nelle pale che creano tanto quanto nelle spade che distruggono; e che gli inglesi, che hanno colonizzato dappertutto, inizino a colonizzare l’Inghilterra.
Avendo così ammesso, o meglio insistito, che questa cosa non può essere fatta a meno che le persone non la ritengano veramente degna di essere fatta, ho poi suggerito che, anche in questi diversi settori, ci sono più persone che la ritengono degna di essere fatta di quante ne notino coloro che non la ritengono degna di nota. Così, anche tra le folle che affollano i grandi magazzini, si sente infatti un’enorme quantità di brontolii contro i grandi magazzini - non tanto perché sono grandi quanto perché sono cattivi. Ma queste critiche reali sono disconnesse, mentre le pubblicità e gli elogi irreali sono connessi, come qualsiasi altra cospirazione. Quando il milionario proprietario dei negozi viene criticato, lo è dai suoi clienti. Quando viene complimentato calorosamente, lo fa da sé. Ma quando viene maledetto, avviene nella camera interna; quando viene lodato (da sé) viene proclamato dai tetti. Questo è ciò che si intende per pubblicità - una voce abbastanza forte da soffocare qualsiasi osservazione fatta dal pubblico.
Nel caso della terra, come nel caso dei negozi, ho proseguito sottolineando che esiste, se non un’agitazione morale, almeno il materiale per un’agitazione morale. Proprio come un malcontento nei confronti dei negozi persiste anche tra coloro che stanno facendo acquisti, così un desiderio della terra persiste persino in coloro ai quali è appena permesso di camminare sul terreno. Ho dato l’esempio della popolazione dei bassifondi di Limehouse, che fu sollevata con la forza verso alti palazzi, lamentando amaramente la perdita delle buffe piccole aie che si erano costruite negli angoli del loro quartiere. Sembra assurdo dire di un paese che nessuno dei suoi abitanti possa essere contadino, quando anche i suoi londinesi cercano di esserlo. Ho inoltre notato che, nel caso della campagna, ora esiste un malcontento generale, tra proprietari terrieri e inquilini allo stesso modo. Tutto sembra indicare una vita più semplice fatta di un uomo per ogni campo, libera quanto possibile dalle complicazioni dell’affitto e del lavoro, soprattutto quando l’affitto è così spesso non pagato o poco redditizio e gli operai sono così spesso in sciopero o al sussidio. Anche qui potrebbero esserci milioni di individui che provano questo sentimento; ma il milione non si è trasformato in una folla; perché la folla è un’entità morale. Ma non sarò mai così poco patriottico da suggerire che gli inglesi non saprebbero mai condurre una guerra agraria in Inghilterra come fecero gli irlandesi in Irlanda. Generalmente, quindi, sotto questo primo principio, la cosa dovrebbe certamente essere predicata più o meno come una Crociata; ma è del tutto falso e antistorico dire che di solito, una volta predicata la Crociata, non ci sono crociati.
E il mio secondo principio generale, che può sembrare contraddittorio ma è confermativo, è questo: penso che la cosa dovrebbe essere fatta passo dopo passo e con pazienza e concessioni parziali. Penso ciò non perché io abbia alcuna fede nel ridicolo culto della lentezza talvolta chiamato evoluzione, ma a causa delle circostanze peculiari del caso. Prima di tutto, le folle possono saccheggiare e bruciare e derubare il ricco, molto a suo beneficio ed edificazione spirituale. Potrebbero farlo in modo non innaturale, quasi distrattamente, mentre pensano ad altro, come un’avversione verso gli ebrei o gli ugonotti. Ma non sarebbe mai giusto per noi dare shock molto violenti al sentimento della proprietà, anche dove è molto mal collocato o sproporzionato; perché questo accade a essere proprio il sentimento che stiamo cercando di far rivivere. Per quanto riguarda la psicologia, sarebbe sciocco insultare anche una femminista non femminile per risvegliare un delicato cavallerismo verso le donne. Sarebbe saggio usare un’immagine sacra come un bastone con cui picchiare un iconoclasta e insegnargli a non toccare le immagini sacre. Dove il vecchio sentimento della proprietà è ancora onesto, penso che dovrebbe essere affrontato gradualmente e con una certa considerazione. Dove il senso di proprietà non esiste affatto, come nei milionari, potrebbe ben essere considerato in modo diverso; lì diventerebbe questione di se la proprietà acquisita in certi modi sia davvero proprietà. Per quanto riguarda il caso dell’angolo e della creazione di monopoli a restrizione del commercio, questo rientra nel primo dei miei due principi. È semplicemente una questione di avere o meno il coraggio morale per punire ciò che è certamente immorale. Non c’è più dubbio su queste operazioni della finanza alta di quante ce ne siano sulla pirateria in alto mare. È semplicemente un caso di un paese così disordinato e mal governato da essere infestato dai pirati. Ho quindi, in questo libro, trattato i Trusts e la legge anti-Trust come una questione non solo per la protesta popolare di un boicottaggio o uno sciopero, ma per l’azione diretta dello Stato contro i criminali. Ma quando i criminali sono più forti dello Stato, qualsiasi tentativo di punirli verrà certamente chiamato ribellione e potrebbe giustamente essere chiamata una crociata.
Recurring to the second principle, however, there is another and less abstract reason for recognizing that the goal must be reached by stages. I have here had to consider several things that may bring us a stage nearer to Distributism, even if they are in themselves not very satisfactory to ardent or austere Distributists. I took the examples of a Ford car, which may be made by mass production but is used for individual adventure; for, after all, a private car is more private than a train or a tram. I also took the example of a general supply of electricity, which might lead to many little workshops having a chance for the first time. I do not claim that all Distributists would agree with me in my decision here; but on the whole I am inclined to decide that we should use these things to break up the hopeless block of concentrated capital and management, even if we urge their abandonment when they have done their work. We are concerned to produce a particular sort of men, the sort of men who will not worship machines even if they use machines. But it is essential to insist at every stage that we hold ourselves free not only to cease worshipping machines, but to cease using them. It was in this connection that I criticized certain remarks of Mr. Ford and the whole of that idea of standardization which he may be said to represent. But everywhere I recognize a difference between the methods we may use to produce a saner society and the things which that saner society might itself be sane enough to do. For instance, a people who had really found out what fun it is to make things would never want to make most of them with a machine. Sculptors do not want to turn a statue out with a lathe or painters to print off a picture as a pattern, and a craftsman who was really capable of making pots or pans would be no readier to condescend to what is called manufacturing them. It is odd, by the way, that the very word “manufacture” means the opposite of what it is supposed to mean. It is itself a testimony to a better time when it did not mean the work of a modern factory. In the strict meaning of words, a sculptor does manufacture a statue, and a factory worker does not manufacture a screw.
But, anyhow, a world in which there were many independent men would probably be a world in which there were more individual craftsmen. When we have created anything like such a world, we may trust it to feel more than the modern world does the danger of machinery deadening creation, and the value of what it deadens. And I suggested that such a world might very well make special provision about machines, as we all do about weapons; admitting them for particular purposes, but keeping watch on them in particular ways.
But all that belongs to the later stage of improvement, when the commonwealth of free men already exists; I do not think it inconsistent with using any instruments that are innocent in themselves in order to help such citizens to find a footing. I have also noted that just as I do not think machinery an immoral instrument in itself, so I do not think State action an immoral instrument in itself. The State might do a great deal in the first stages, especially by education in the new and necessary crafts and labours, by subsidy or tariff to protect distributive experiments and by special laws, such as the taxation of contracts. All these are covered by what I call the second principle, that we may use intermediate or imperfect instruments; but it goes along with the first principle, that we must be perfect not only in our patience, but in our passion and our enduring indignation.
Lastly, there are the ordinary and obvious problems like that of population, and in that connection I fully concede that the process may sooner or later involve an element of emigration. But I think the emigration must be undertaken by those who understand the new England, and not by those who want to escape from it or from the necessity of it. Men must realize the new meaning of the old phrase, “the sacredness of private property.” There must be a spirit that will make the colonist feel at home and not abroad. And there, I admit, there is a difficulty; for I confess I know only one thing that will thus give to a new soil the sanctity of something already old and full of mystical affections. And that thing is a shrine—the real presence of a sacramental religion.
Thus, unavoidably, I end on the note of another controversy— a controversy that I have no idea of pursuing here. But I should not be honest if I did not mention it, and whatever be the case in that connection it is impossible to deny that there is a doctrine behind the whole of our political position. It is not necessarily the doctrine of the religious authority which I myself receive; but it cannot be denied that it must in a sense be religious. That is to say, it must at least have some reference to an ultimate view of the universe and especially of the nature of man. Those who are thus ready to see property atrophied would ultimately be ready to see arms and legs amputated. They really believe that these could become extinct organs like the appendix. In other words, there is indeed a fundamental difference between my own view and that vision of man as a merely intermediate and changing thing—a Link, if not a Missing Link. The creature, it is claimed, once went on four legs and now goes on two legs. The obvious inference would be that the next stage of evolution will be for a man to stand on one leg. And this will be of very great value to the capitalist or bureaucratic powers that are now to take charge of him. It will mean, for one thing, that only half the number of boots need be supplied to the working classes. It will mean that all wages will be of a one-legged sort. But I would testify at the end, as at the beginning, that I believe in Man standing on two legs and requiring two boots, and that I desire them to be his own boots. You may call it conservative to want this. You may call it revolutionary to attempt to get it. But if that is conservative, I am conservative; if that is revolutionary, I am revolutionary—but too democratic to be evolutionary, anyhow.
Tornando tuttavia al secondo principio, vi è un’altra e meno astratta ragione per riconoscere che la meta deve essere raggiunta per gradi. Ho dovuto qui considerare diverse cose che possono portarci un grado più vicino al Distributismo, anche se esse in sé non sono molto soddisfacenti per i Distributisti ardenti o austeri. Ho preso gli esempi di un’automobile Ford, che può essere fatta per produzione di massa ma è usata per l’avventura individuale; poiché, dopotutto, un’automobile privata è più privata di un treno o di un tram. Ho preso anche l’esempio di una fornitura generale di elettricità, che potrebbe portare molte piccole botteghe ad avere una possibilità per la prima volta. Non pretendo che tutti i Distributisti concorderebbero con me nella mia decisione qui; ma nel complesso sono incline a decidere che dovremmo usare queste cose per spezzare il blocco senza speranza del capitale e della gestione concentrati, anche se ne sollecitiamo l’abbandono quando abbiano compiuto la loro opera. Ci sta a cuore produrre una particolare specie di uomini, la specie di uomini che non adoreranno le macchine anche se le usano. Ma è essenziale insistere a ogni stadio che ci teniamo liberi non solo di cessare di adorare le macchine, ma di cessare di usarle. Fu a questo riguardo che criticai certe osservazioni del signor Ford e l’intera idea di standardizzazione che di lui si può dire rappresenti. Ma dovunque riconosco una differenza tra i metodi che possiamo usare per produrre una società più sana e le cose che quella società più sana potrebbe essa stessa essere abbastanza sana da fare. Per esempio, un popolo che avesse davvero scoperto quanto sia divertente fare le cose non vorrebbe mai farne la maggior parte con una macchina. Gli scultori non vogliono sfornare una statua con un tornio né i pittori stampare un quadro come un motivo, e un artigiano che fosse davvero capace di fare pentole o padelle non sarebbe più disposto a degnarsi di ciò che si chiama fabbricarle. È curioso, tra l’altro, che la parola stessa «manifattura» significhi l’opposto di ciò che si suppone significhi. Essa è di per sé una testimonianza di un tempo migliore, quando non significava il lavoro di una fabbrica moderna. Nel senso stretto delle parole, uno scultore manifattura davvero una statua, e un operaio di fabbrica non manifattura una vite.
Ma, comunque sia, un mondo in cui vi fossero molti uomini indipendenti sarebbe probabilmente un mondo in cui vi fossero più artigiani individuali. Quando avremo creato qualcosa come un simile mondo, possiamo confidare che esso senta più di quanto faccia il mondo moderno il pericolo che il macchinario intorpidisca la creazione, e il valore di ciò che intorpidisce. E ho suggerito che un simile mondo potrebbe ben prendere disposizioni speciali riguardo alle macchine, come tutti facciamo riguardo alle armi; ammettendole per scopi particolari, ma tenendole d’occhio in modi particolari.
Ma tutto ciò appartiene allo stadio più avanzato del miglioramento, quando la comunità di uomini liberi già esiste; non lo ritengo incoerente con l’uso di qualsiasi strumento che sia innocente in sé al fine di aiutare tali cittadini a trovare un appiglio. Ho anche notato che, così come non ritengo il macchinario uno strumento immorale in sé, così non ritengo l’azione dello Stato uno strumento immorale in sé. Lo Stato potrebbe fare molto nei primi stadi, specialmente mediante l’istruzione nei nuovi e necessari mestieri e lavori, mediante sussidi o dazi per proteggere gli esperimenti distributivi e mediante leggi speciali, come la tassazione dei contratti. Tutte queste sono comprese in ciò che chiamo il secondo principio, che possiamo usare strumenti intermedi o imperfetti; ma esso va di pari passo col primo principio, che dobbiamo essere perfetti non solo nella nostra pazienza, ma nella nostra passione e nella nostra durevole indignazione.
Infine, vi sono i problemi ordinari e ovvi come quello della popolazione, e a questo riguardo concedo pienamente che il processo possa prima o poi comportare un elemento di emigrazione. Ma penso che l’emigrazione debba essere intrapresa da coloro che comprendono la nuova Inghilterra, e non da coloro che vogliono sfuggire a essa o alla necessità di essa. Gli uomini devono comprendere il nuovo significato della vecchia frase: «la sacralità della proprietà privata». Vi deve essere uno spirito che faccia sentire il colono a casa e non all’estero. E lì, lo ammetto, vi è una difficoltà; poiché confesso di conoscere una sola cosa che così darà a un suolo nuovo la santità di qualcosa già antico e colmo di mistici affetti. E quella cosa è un santuario—la presenza reale di una religione sacramentale.
Così, inevitabilmente, termino sulla nota di un’altra controversia—una controversia che non ho alcuna intenzione di perseguire qui. Ma non sarei onesto se non la menzionassi, e qualunque sia il caso a tale riguardo è impossibile negare che vi è una dottrina dietro l’intera nostra posizione politica. Non è necessariamente la dottrina dell’autorità religiosa che io stesso accolgo; ma non si può negare che essa debba in un certo senso essere religiosa. Vale a dire, deve almeno avere qualche riferimento a una visione ultima dell’universo e specialmente della natura dell’uomo. Coloro che sono così pronti a veder atrofizzata la proprietà sarebbero in ultima analisi pronti a veder amputati braccia e gambe. Credono davvero che queste potrebbero divenire organi estinti come l’appendice. In altre parole, vi è davvero una differenza fondamentale tra la mia stessa visione e quella visione dell’uomo come una cosa meramente intermedia e mutevole—un Anello, se non un Anello Mancante. La creatura, si sostiene, un tempo andava su quattro zampe e ora va su due gambe. L’inferenza ovvia sarebbe che il prossimo stadio dell’evoluzione sarà che l’uomo stia su una gamba sola. E questo sarà di grandissimo valore per le potenze capitaliste o burocratiche che ora devono prendersi cura di lui. Significherà, per una cosa, che occorrerà fornire alle classi lavoratrici solo la metà del numero di stivali. Significherà che tutti i salari saranno di una specie a una gamba sola. Ma testimonierei alla fine, come al principio, che credo nell’Uomo che sta su due gambe e ha bisogno di due stivali, e che desidero che essi siano i suoi propri stivali. Potete chiamare conservatore il volere questo. Potete chiamare rivoluzionario il tentare di ottenerlo. Ma se questo è conservatore, io sono conservatore; se questo è rivoluzionario, io sono rivoluzionario—ma troppo democratico per essere evoluzionista, in ogni caso.
The thing behind Bolshevism and many other modern things is a new doubt. It is not merely a doubt about God; it is rather specially a doubt about Man. The old morality, the Christian religion, the Catholic Church, differed from all this new mentality because it really believed in the rights of men. That is, it believed that ordinary men were clothed with powers and privileges and a kind of authority. Thus the ordinary man had a right to deal with dead matter, up to a given point; that is the right of property. Thus the ordinary man had a right to rule the other animals within reason; that is the objection to vegetarianism and many other things. The ordinary man had a right to judge about his own health, and what risks he would take with the ordinary things of his environment; that is the objection to Prohibition and many other things. The ordinary man had a right to judge of his children’s health, and generally to bring up children to the best of his ability; that is the objection to many interpretations of modern State education. Now in these primary things in which the old religion trusted a man, the new philosophy utterly distrusts a man. It insists that he must be a very rare sort of man to have any rights in these matters; and when he is the rare sort, he has the right to rule others even more than himself. It is this profound scepticism about the common man that is the common point in the most contradictory elements of modern thought. That is why Mr. Bernard Shaw wants to evolve a new animal that shall live longer and grow wiser than man. That is why Mr. Sidney Webb wants to herd the men that exist like sheep, or animals much more foolish than man. They are not rebelling against an abnormal tyranny; they are rebelling against what they think is a normal tyranny— the tyranny of the normal. They are not in revolt against the King. They are in revolt against the Citizen. The old revolutionist, when he stood on the roof (like the revolutionist in The Dynamiter) and looked over the city, used to say to himself, “Think how the princes and nobles revel in their palaces; think how the captains and cohorts ride the streets and trample on the people.” But the new revolutionist is not brooding on that. He is saying, “Think of all those stupid men in vulgar villas or ignorant slums. Think how badly they teach their children; think how they do the wrong thing to the dog and offend the feelings of the parrot.” In short, these sages, rightly or wrongly, cannot trust the normal man to rule in the home, and most certainly do not want him to rule in the State. They do not really want to give him any political power. They are willing to give him a vote, because they have long discovered that it need not give him any power. They are not willing to give him a house, or a wife, or a child, or a dog, or a cow, or a piece of land, because these things really do give him power.
Now we wish it to be understood that our policy is to give him power by giving him these things. We wish to insist that this is the real moral division underlying all our disputes, and perhaps the only one really worth disputing. We are far from denying, especially at this time, that there is much to be said on the other side. We alone, perhaps, are likely to insist in the full sense that the average respectable citizen ought to have something to rule. We alone, to the same extent and for the same reason, have the right to call ourselves democratic. A republic used to be called a nation of kings, and in our republic the kings really have kingdoms. All modern governments, Prussian or Russian, all modern movements, Capitalist or Socialist, are taking away that kingdom from the king. Because they dislike the independence of that kingdom, they are against property. Because they dislike the loyalty of that kingdom, they are against marriage.
It is therefore with a somewhat sad amusement that I note the soaring visions that accompany the sinking wages. I observe that the social prophets are still offering the homeless something much higher and purer than a home, and promising a supernormal superiority to people who are not allowed to be normal. I am quite content to dream of the old drudgery of democracy, by which as much as possible of a human life should be given to every human being; while the brilliant author of The First Men in the Moon will doubtless be soon deriding us in a romance called The Last Men on the Earth. And indeed I do believe that when they lose the pride of personal ownership they will lose something that belongs to their erect posture and to their footing and poise upon the planet. Meanwhile I sit amid droves of overdriven clerks and underpaid workmen in a tube or a tram; I read of the great conception of Men Like Gods and I wonder when men will be like men.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
THE END
La cosa che sta dietro il Bolscevismo e molte altre cose moderne è un nuovo dubbio. Non è semplicemente un dubbio su Dio; è piuttosto specialmente un dubbio sull’Uomo. La vecchia morale, la religione cristiana, la Chiesa Cattolica, differivano da tutta questa nuova mentalità perché credevano davvero nei diritti degli uomini. Vale a dire, credevano che gli uomini comuni fossero rivestiti di poteri e privilegi e di una sorta di autorità. Così l’uomo comune aveva il diritto di disporre della materia inerte, fino a un dato punto; questo è il diritto di proprietà. Così l’uomo comune aveva il diritto di dominare gli altri animali entro ragione; questa è l’obiezione al vegetarianismo e a molte altre cose. L’uomo comune aveva il diritto di giudicare della propria salute, e di quali rischi correre con le cose ordinarie del suo ambiente; questa è l’obiezione al Proibizionismo e a molte altre cose. L’uomo comune aveva il diritto di giudicare della salute dei propri figli, e in generale di allevare i figli al meglio delle sue capacità; questa è l’obiezione a molte interpretazioni della moderna istruzione statale. Ora, in queste cose primarie nelle quali la vecchia religione si fidava dell’uomo, la nuova filosofia diffida totalmente dell’uomo. Insiste che egli debba essere una specie di uomo assai rara per avere un qualche diritto in queste faccende; e quando è della specie rara, ha il diritto di dominare gli altri ancor più di sé stesso. È questo profondo scetticismo riguardo all’uomo comune che è il punto comune negli elementi più contraddittori del pensiero moderno. Ecco perché il signor Bernard Shaw vuole far evolvere un nuovo animale che viva più a lungo e divenga più saggio dell’uomo. Ecco perché il signor Sidney Webb vuole radunare in gregge gli uomini che esistono come pecore, o animali assai più stolti dell’uomo. Non si ribellano contro una tirannia anormale; si ribellano contro ciò che ritengono una tirannia normale—la tirannia del normale. Non sono in rivolta contro il Re. Sono in rivolta contro il Cittadino. Il vecchio rivoluzionario, quando stava sul tetto (come il rivoluzionario in The Dynamiter) e guardava sulla città, soleva dire a sé stesso: «Pensa come i principi e i nobili gozzovigliano nei loro palazzi; pensa come i capitani e le coorti cavalcano per le strade e calpestano il popolo». Ma il nuovo rivoluzionario non rimugina su questo. Egli dice: «Pensa a tutti quegli uomini stupidi in ville volgari o in tuguri ignoranti. Pensa quanto male istruiscono i loro figli; pensa come fanno la cosa sbagliata al cane e offendono i sentimenti del pappagallo». In breve, questi saggi, a torto o a ragione, non possono fidarsi che l’uomo normale governi in casa, e di certo non vogliono che governi nello Stato. Non vogliono davvero dargli alcun potere politico. Sono disposti a dargli un voto, perché hanno da tempo scoperto che esso non gli deve necessariamente dare alcun potere. Non sono disposti a dargli una casa, o una moglie, o un figlio, o un cane, o una mucca, o un pezzo di terra, perché queste cose davvero gli danno potere.
Ora, desideriamo che si comprenda che la nostra politica è dargli potere dandogli queste cose. Desideriamo insistere che questa è la vera divisione morale che sta sotto tutte le nostre dispute, e forse l’unica per cui valga davvero la pena di disputare. Siamo lungi dal negare, specialmente in questo tempo, che vi sia molto da dire dall’altra parte. Noi soli, forse, siamo propensi a insistere nel senso pieno che il cittadino rispettabile medio dovrebbe avere qualcosa su cui regnare. Noi soli, nella stessa misura e per la stessa ragione, abbiamo il diritto di dirci democratici. Una repubblica soleva essere chiamata una nazione di re, e nella nostra repubblica i re hanno davvero dei regni. Tutti i governi moderni, prussiani o russi, tutti i movimenti moderni, capitalisti o socialisti, stanno togliendo quel regno al re. Poiché avversano l’indipendenza di quel regno, sono contro la proprietà. Poiché avversano la lealtà di quel regno, sono contro il matrimonio.
È perciò con un divertimento alquanto triste che noto le visioni che si librano in alto mentre i salari sprofondano. Osservo che i profeti sociali offrono ancora ai senzatetto qualcosa di assai più alto e puro di una casa, e promettono una superiorità supernormale a gente a cui non è permesso essere normale. Sono ben contento di sognare la vecchia fatica della democrazia, secondo cui a ogni essere umano dovrebbe essere data quanta più vita umana possibile; mentre il brillante autore di The First Men in the Moon senza dubbio ci deriderà presto in un romanzo intitolato The Last Men on the Earth. E in verità credo che quando perderanno l’orgoglio della proprietà personale perderanno qualcosa che appartiene alla loro postura eretta e al loro appoggio ed equilibrio sul pianeta. Nel frattempo siedo in mezzo a frotte di impiegati sfiancati dal lavoro e operai sottopagati in una metropolitana o in un tram; leggo della grande concezione di Men Like Gods e mi domando quando gli uomini saranno simili a uomini.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
FINE