HERETICS

by

Gilbert K. Chesterton

“To My Father”

Source

Heretics was copyrighted in 1905 by the John Lane Company. This electronic text is derived from the twelfth (1919) edition published by the John Lane Company of New York City and printed by the Plimpton Press of Norwood, Massachusetts. The text carefully follows that of the published edition (including British spelling).

The Author

Gilbert Keith Chesterton was born in London, England on the 29th of May, 1874. Though he considered himself a mere “rollicking journalist,” he was actually a prolific and gifted writer in virtually every area of literature. A man of strong opinions and enormously talented at defending them, his exuberant personality nevertheless allowed him to maintain warm friendships with people—such as George Bernard Shaw and H. G. Wells—with whom he vehemently disagreed.

Chesterton had no difficulty standing up for what he believed. He was one of the few journalists to oppose the Boer War. His 1922 “Eugenics and Other Evils” attacked what was at that time the most progressive of all ideas, the idea that the human race could and should breed a superior version of itself. In the Nazi experience, history demonstrated the wisdom of his once “reactionary” views.

His poetry runs the gamut from the comic 1908 “On Running After One’s Hat” to dark and serious ballads. During the dark days of 1940, when Britain stood virtually alone against the armed might of Nazi Germany, these lines from his 1911 Ballad of the White Horse were often quoted:

I tell you naught for your comfort, Yea, naught for your desire, Save that the sky grows darker yet And the sea rises higher.

Though not written for a scholarly audience, his biographies of authors and historical figures like Charles Dickens and St. Francis of Assisi often contain brilliant insights into their subjects. His Father Brown mystery stories, written between 1911 and 1936, are still being read and adapted for television.

His politics fitted with his deep distrust of concentrated wealth and power of any sort. Along with his friend Hilaire Belloc and in books like the 1910 “What’s Wrong with the World” he advocated a view called “Distributionism” that was best summed up by his expression that every man ought to be allowed to own “three acres and a cow.” Though not known as a political thinker, his political influence has circled the world. Some see in him the father of the “small is beautiful” movement and a newspaper article by him is credited with provoking Gandhi to seek a “genuine” nationalism for India rather than one that imitated the British.

Heretics belongs to yet another area of literature at which Chesterton excelled. A fun-loving and gregarious man, he was nevertheless troubled in his adolescence by thoughts of suicide. In Christianity he found the answers to the dilemmas and paradoxes he saw in life. Other books in that same series include his 1908 Orthodoxy (written in response to attacks on this book) and his 1925 The Everlasting Man. Orthodoxy is also available as electronic text.

Chesterton died on the 14th of June, 1936 in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, England. During his life he published 69 books and at least another ten based on his writings have been published after his death. Many of those books are still in print. Ignatius Press is systematically publishing his collected writings.

Table of Contents

  1. Introductory Remarks on the Importance of Orthodoxy
  2. On the Negative Spirit
  3. On Mr. Rudyard Kipling and Making the World Small
  4. Mr. Bernard Shaw
  5. Mr. H. G. Wells and the Giants
  6. Christmas and the Esthetes
  7. Omar and the Sacred Vine
  8. The Mildness of the Yellow Press
  9. The Moods of Mr. George Moore
  10. On Sandals and Simplicity
  11. Science and the Savages
  12. Paganism and Mr. Lowes Dickinson
  13. Celts and Celtophiles
  14. On Certain Modern Writers and the Institution of the Family
  15. On Smart Novelists and the Smart Set
  16. On Mr. McCabe and a Divine Frivolity
  17. On the Wit of Whistler
  18. The Fallacy of the Young Nation
  19. Slum Novelists and the Slums
  20. Concluding Remarks on the Importance of Orthodoxy

I. Introductory Remarks on the Importance of Orthodoxy

Nothing more strangely indicates an enormous and silent evil of modern society than the extraordinary use which is made nowadays of the word “orthodox.” In former days the heretic was proud of not being a heretic. It was the kingdoms of the world and the police and the judges who were heretics. He was orthodox. He had no pride in having rebelled against them; they had rebelled against him. The armies with their cruel security, the kings with their cold faces, the decorous processes of State, the reasonable processes of law—all these like sheep had gone astray. The man was proud of being orthodox, was proud of being right. If he stood alone in a howling wilderness he was more than a man; he was a church. He was the centre of the universe; it was round him that the stars swung. All the tortures torn out of forgotten hells could not make him admit that he was heretical. But a few modern phrases have made him boast of it. He says, with a conscious laugh, “I suppose I am very heretical,” and looks round for applause. The word “heresy” not only means no longer being wrong; it practically means being clear-headed and courageous. The word “orthodoxy” not only no longer means being right; it practically means being wrong. All this can mean one thing, and one thing only. It means that people care less for whether they are philosophically right. For obviously a man ought to confess himself crazy before he confesses himself heretical. The Bohemian, with a red tie, ought to pique himself on his orthodoxy. The dynamiter, laying a bomb, ought to feel that, whatever else he is, at least he is orthodox.

It is foolish, generally speaking, for a philosopher to set fire to another philosopher in Smithfield Market because they do not agree in their theory of the universe. That was done very frequently in the last decadence of the Middle Ages, and it failed altogether in its object. But there is one thing that is infinitely more absurd and unpractical than burning a man for his philosophy. This is the habit of saying that his philosophy does not matter, and this is done universally in the twentieth century, in the decadence of the great revolutionary period. General theories are everywhere contemned; the doctrine of the Rights of Man is dismissed with the doctrine of the Fall of Man. Atheism itself is too theological for us to-day. Revolution itself is too much of a system; liberty itself is too much of a restraint. We will have no generalizations. Mr. Bernard Shaw has put the view in a perfect epigram: “The golden rule is that there is no golden rule.” We are more and more to discuss details in art, politics, literature. A man’s opinion on tramcars matters; his opinion on Botticelli matters; his opinion on all things does not matter. He may turn over and explore a million objects, but he must not find that strange object, the universe; for if he does he will have a religion, and be lost. Everything matters—except everything.

Examples are scarcely needed of this total levity on the subject of cosmic philosophy. Examples are scarcely needed to show that, whatever else we think of as affecting practical affairs, we do not think it matters whether a man is a pessimist or an optimist, a Cartesian or a Hegelian, a materialist or a spiritualist. Let me, however, take a random instance. At any innocent tea-table we may easily hear a man say, “Life is not worth living.” We regard it as we regard the statement that it is a fine day; nobody thinks that it can possibly have any serious effect on the man or on the world. And yet if that utterance were really believed, the world would stand on its head. Murderers would be given medals for saving men from life; firemen would be denounced for keeping men from death; poisons would be used as medicines; doctors would be called in when people were well; the Royal Humane Society would be rooted out like a horde of assassins. Yet we never speculate as to whether the conversational pessimist will strengthen or disorganize society; for we are convinced that theories do not matter.

This was certainly not the idea of those who introduced our freedom. When the old Liberals removed the gags from all the heresies, their idea was that religious and philosophical discoveries might thus be made. Their view was that cosmic truth was so important that every one ought to bear independent testimony. The modern idea is that cosmic truth is so unimportant that it cannot matter what any one says. The former freed inquiry as men loose a noble hound; the latter frees inquiry as men fling back into the sea a fish unfit for eating. Never has there been so little discussion about the nature of men as now, when, for the first time, any one can discuss it. The old restriction meant that only the orthodox were allowed to discuss religion. Modern liberty means that nobody is allowed to discuss it. Good taste, the last and vilest of human superstitions, has succeeded in silencing us where all the rest have failed. Sixty years ago it was bad taste to be an avowed atheist. Then came the Bradlaughites, the last religious men, the last men who cared about God; but they could not alter it. It is still bad taste to be an avowed atheist. But their agony has achieved just this—that now it is equally bad taste to be an avowed Christian. Emancipation has only locked the saint in the same tower of silence as the heresiarch. Then we talk about Lord Anglesey and the weather, and call it the complete liberty of all the creeds.

But there are some people, nevertheless—and I am one of them— who think that the most practical and important thing about a man is still his view of the universe. We think that for a landlady considering a lodger, it is important to know his income, but still more important to know his philosophy. We think that for a general about to fight an enemy, it is important to know the enemy’s numbers, but still more important to know the enemy’s philosophy. We think the question is not whether the theory of the cosmos affects matters, but whether in the long run, anything else affects them. In the fifteenth century men cross-examined and tormented a man because he preached some immoral attitude; in the nineteenth century we feted and flattered Oscar Wilde because he preached such an attitude, and then broke his heart in penal servitude because he carried it out. It may be a question which of the two methods was the more cruel; there can be no kind of question which was the more ludicrous. The age of the Inquisition has not at least the disgrace of having produced a society which made an idol of the very same man for preaching the very same things which it made him a convict for practising.

Now, in our time, philosophy or religion, our theory, that is, about ultimate things, has been driven out, more or less simultaneously, from two fields which it used to occupy. General ideals used to dominate literature. They have been driven out by the cry of “art for art’s sake.” General ideals used to dominate politics. They have been driven out by the cry of “efficiency,” which may roughly be translated as “politics for politics’ sake.” Persistently for the last twenty years the ideals of order or liberty have dwindled in our books; the ambitions of wit and eloquence have dwindled in our parliaments. Literature has purposely become less political; politics have purposely become less literary. General theories of the relation of things have thus been extruded from both; and we are in a position to ask, “What have we gained or lost by this extrusion? Is literature better, is politics better, for having discarded the moralist and the philosopher?”

When everything about a people is for the time growing weak and ineffective, it begins to talk about efficiency. So it is that when a man’s body is a wreck he begins, for the first time, to talk about health. Vigorous organisms talk not about their processes, but about their aims. There cannot be any better proof of the physical efficiency of a man than that he talks cheerfully of a journey to the end of the world. And there cannot be any better proof of the practical efficiency of a nation than that it talks constantly of a journey to the end of the world, a journey to the Judgment Day and the New Jerusalem. There can be no stronger sign of a coarse material health than the tendency to run after high and wild ideals; it is in the first exuberance of infancy that we cry for the moon. None of the strong men in the strong ages would have understood what you meant by working for efficiency. Hildebrand would have said that he was working not for efficiency, but for the Catholic Church. Danton would have said that he was working not for efficiency, but for liberty, equality, and fraternity. Even if the ideal of such men were simply the ideal of kicking a man downstairs, they thought of the end like men, not of the process like paralytics. They did not say, “Efficiently elevating my right leg, using, you will notice, the muscles of the thigh and calf, which are in excellent order, I—” Their feeling was quite different. They were so filled with the beautiful vision of the man lying flat at the foot of the staircase that in that ecstasy the rest followed in a flash. In practice, the habit of generalizing and idealizing did not by any means mean worldly weakness. The time of big theories was the time of big results. In the era of sentiment and fine words, at the end of the eighteenth century, men were really robust and effective. The sentimentalists conquered Napoleon. The cynics could not catch De Wet. A hundred years ago our affairs for good or evil were wielded triumphantly by rhetoricians. Now our affairs are hopelessly muddled by strong, silent men. And just as this repudiation of big words and big visions has brought forth a race of small men in politics, so it has brought forth a race of small men in the arts. Our modern politicians claim the colossal license of Caesar and the Superman, claim that they are too practical to be pure and too patriotic to be moral; but the upshot of it all is that a mediocrity is Chancellor of the Exchequer. Our new artistic philosophers call for the same moral license, for a freedom to wreck heaven and earth with their energy; but the upshot of it all is that a mediocrity is Poet Laureate. I do not say that there are no stronger men than these; but will any one say that there are any men stronger than those men of old who were dominated by their philosophy and steeped in their religion? Whether bondage be better than freedom may be discussed. But that their bondage came to more than our freedom it will be difficult for any one to deny.

The theory of the unmorality of art has established itself firmly in the strictly artistic classes. They are free to produce anything they like. They are free to write a “Paradise Lost” in which Satan shall conquer God. They are free to write a “Divine Comedy” in which heaven shall be under the floor of hell. And what have they done? Have they produced in their universality anything grander or more beautiful than the things uttered by the fierce Ghibbeline Catholic, by the rigid Puritan schoolmaster? We know that they have produced only a few roundels. Milton does not merely beat them at his piety, he beats them at their own irreverence. In all their little books of verse you will not find a finer defiance of God than Satan’s. Nor will you find the grandeur of paganism felt as that fiery Christian felt it who described Faranata lifting his head as in disdain of hell. And the reason is very obvious. Blasphemy is an artistic effect, because blasphemy depends upon a philosophical conviction. Blasphemy depends upon belief and is fading with it. If any one doubts this, let him sit down seriously and try to think blasphemous thoughts about Thor. I think his family will find him at the end of the day in a state of some exhaustion.

Neither in the world of politics nor that of literature, then, has the rejection of general theories proved a success. It may be that there have been many moonstruck and misleading ideals that have from time to time perplexed mankind. But assuredly there has been no ideal in practice so moonstruck and misleading as the ideal of practicality. Nothing has lost so many opportunities as the opportunism of Lord Rosebery. He is, indeed, a standing symbol of this epoch— the man who is theoretically a practical man, and practically more unpractical than any theorist. Nothing in this universe is so unwise as that kind of worship of worldly wisdom. A man who is perpetually thinking of whether this race or that race is strong, of whether this cause or that cause is promising, is the man who will never believe in anything long enough to make it succeed. The opportunist politician is like a man who should abandon billiards because he was beaten at billiards, and abandon golf because he was beaten at golf. There is nothing which is so weak for working purposes as this enormous importance attached to immediate victory. There is nothing that fails like success.

And having discovered that opportunism does fail, I have been induced to look at it more largely, and in consequence to see that it must fail. I perceive that it is far more practical to begin at the beginning and discuss theories. I see that the men who killed each other about the orthodoxy of the Homoousion were far more sensible than the people who are quarrelling about the Education Act. For the Christian dogmatists were trying to establish a reign of holiness, and trying to get defined, first of all, what was really holy. But our modern educationists are trying to bring about a religious liberty without attempting to settle what is religion or what is liberty. If the old priests forced a statement on mankind, at least they previously took some trouble to make it lucid. It has been left for the modern mobs of Anglicans and Nonconformists to persecute for a doctrine without even stating it.

For these reasons, and for many more, I for one have come to believe in going back to fundamentals. Such is the general idea of this book. I wish to deal with my most distinguished contemporaries, not personally or in a merely literary manner, but in relation to the real body of doctrine which they teach. I am not concerned with Mr. Rudyard Kipling as a vivid artist or a vigorous personality; I am concerned with him as a Heretic— that is to say, a man whose view of things has the hardihood to differ from mine. I am not concerned with Mr. Bernard Shaw as one of the most brilliant and one of the most honest men alive; I am concerned with him as a Heretic—that is to say, a man whose philosophy is quite solid, quite coherent, and quite wrong. I revert to the doctrinal methods of the thirteenth century, inspired by the general hope of getting something done.

Suppose that a great commotion arises in the street about something, let us say a lamp-post, which many influential persons desire to pull down. A grey-clad monk, who is the spirit of the Middle Ages, is approached upon the matter, and begins to say, in the arid manner of the Schoolmen, “Let us first of all consider, my brethren, the value of Light. If Light be in itself good—” At this point he is somewhat excusably knocked down. All the people make a rush for the lamp-post, the lamp-post is down in ten minutes, and they go about congratulating each other on their unmediaeval practicality. But as things go on they do not work out so easily. Some people have pulled the lamp-post down because they wanted the electric light; some because they wanted old iron; some because they wanted darkness, because their deeds were evil. Some thought it not enough of a lamp-post, some too much; some acted because they wanted to smash municipal machinery; some because they wanted to smash something. And there is war in the night, no man knowing whom he strikes. So, gradually and inevitably, to-day, to-morrow, or the next day, there comes back the conviction that the monk was right after all, and that all depends on what is the philosophy of Light. Only what we might have discussed under the gas-lamp, we now must discuss in the dark.

II. On the Negative Spirit

Much has been said, and said truly, of the monkish morbidity, of the hysteria which has often gone with the visions of hermits or nuns. But let us never forget that this visionary religion is, in one sense, necessarily more wholesome than our modern and reasonable morality. It is more wholesome for this reason, that it can contemplate the idea of success or triumph in the hopeless fight towards the ethical ideal, in what Stevenson called, with his usual startling felicity, “the lost fight of virtue.” A modern morality, on the other hand, can only point with absolute conviction to the horrors that follow breaches of law; its only certainty is a certainty of ill. It can only point to imperfection. It has no perfection to point to. But the monk meditating upon Christ or Buddha has in his mind an image of perfect health, a thing of clear colours and clean air. He may contemplate this ideal wholeness and happiness far more than he ought; he may contemplate it to the neglect or exclusion of essential things, he may contemplate it until he has become a dreamer or a driveller; but still it is wholeness and happiness that he is contemplating. He may even go mad; but he is going mad for the love of sanity. But the modern student of ethics, even if he remains sane, remains sane from an insane dread of insanity.

The anchorite rolling on the stones in a frenzy of submission is a healthier person fundamentally than many a sober man in a silk hat who is walking down Cheapside. For many such are good only through a withering knowledge of evil. I am not at this moment claiming for the devotee anything more than this primary advantage, that though he may be making himself personally weak and miserable, he is still fixing his thoughts largely on gigantic strength and happiness, on a strength that has no limits, and a happiness that has no end. Doubtless there are other objections which can be urged without unreason against the influence of gods and visions in morality, whether in the cell or street. But this advantage the mystic morality must always have—it is always jollier. A young man may keep himself from vice by continually thinking of disease. He may keep himself from it also by continually thinking of the Virgin Mary. There may be question about which method is the more reasonable, or even about which is the more efficient. But surely there can be no question about which is the more wholesome.

I remember a pamphlet by that able and sincere secularist, Mr. G. W. Foote, which contained a phrase sharply symbolizing and dividing these two methods. The pamphlet was called “Beer and Bible”, those two very noble things, all the nobler for a conjunction which Mr. Foote, in his stern old Puritan way, seemed to think sardonic, but which I confess to thinking appropriate and charming. I have not the work by me, but I remember that Mr. Foote dismissed very contemptuously any attempts to deal with the problem of strong drink by religious offices or intercessions, and said that a picture of a drunkard’s liver would be more efficacious in the matter of temperance than any prayer or praise. In that picturesque expression, it seems to me, is perfectly embodied the incurable morbidity of modern ethics. In that temple the lights are low, the crowds kneel, the solemn anthems are uplifted. But that upon the altar to which all men kneel is no longer the perfect flesh, the body and substance of the perfect man; it is still flesh, but it is diseased. It is the drunkard’s liver of the New Testament that is marred for us, which we take in remembrance of him.

Now, it is this great gap in modern ethics, the absence of vivid pictures of purity and spiritual triumph, which lies at the back of the real objection felt by so many sane men to the realistic literature of the nineteenth century. If any ordinary man ever said that he was horrified by the subjects discussed in Ibsen or Maupassant, or by the plain language in which they are spoken of, that ordinary man was lying. The average conversation of average men throughout the whole of modern civilization in every class or trade is such as Zola would never dream of printing. Nor is the habit of writing thus of these things a new habit. On the contrary, it is the Victorian prudery and silence which is new still, though it is already dying. The tradition of calling a spade a spade starts very early in our literature and comes down very late. But the truth is that the ordinary honest man, whatever vague account he may have given of his feelings, was not either disgusted or even annoyed at the candour of the moderns. What disgusted him, and very justly, was not the presence of a clear realism, but the absence of a clear idealism. Strong and genuine religious sentiment has never had any objection to realism; on the contrary, religion was the realistic thing, the brutal thing, the thing that called names. This is the great difference between some recent developments of Nonconformity and the great Puritanism of the seventeenth century. It was the whole point of the Puritans that they cared nothing for decency. Modern Nonconformist newspapers distinguish themselves by suppressing precisely those nouns and adjectives which the founders of Nonconformity distinguished themselves by flinging at kings and queens. But if it was a chief claim of religion that it spoke plainly about evil, it was the chief claim of all that it spoke plainly about good. The thing which is resented, and, as I think, rightly resented, in that great modern literature of which Ibsen is typical, is that while the eye that can perceive what are the wrong things increases in an uncanny and devouring clarity, the eye which sees what things are right is growing mistier and mistier every moment, till it goes almost blind with doubt. If we compare, let us say, the morality of the “Divine Comedy” with the morality of Ibsen’s “Ghosts”, we shall see all that modern ethics have really done. No one, I imagine, will accuse the author of the “Inferno” of an Early Victorian prudishness or a Podsnapian optimism. But Dante describes three moral instruments—Heaven, Purgatory, and Hell, the vision of perfection, the vision of improvement, and the vision of failure. Ibsen has only one—Hell. It is often said, and with perfect truth, that no one could read a play like GHOSTS and remain indifferent to the necessity of an ethical self-command. That is quite true, and the same is to be said of the most monstrous and material descriptions of the eternal fire. It is quite certain the realists like Zola do in one sense promote morality—they promote it in the sense in which the hangman promotes it, in the sense in which the devil promotes it. But they only affect that small minority which will accept any virtue as long as we do not ask them for the virtue of courage. Most healthy people dismiss these moral dangers as they dismiss the possibility of bombs or microbes. Modern realists are indeed Terrorists, like the dynamiters; and they fail just as much in their effort to create a thrill. Both realists and dynamiters are well-meaning people engaged in the task, so obviously ultimately hopeless, of using science to promote morality.

I do not wish the reader to confuse me for a moment with those vague persons who imagine that Ibsen is what they call a pessimist. There are plenty of wholesome people in Ibsen, plenty of good people, plenty of happy people, plenty of examples of men acting wisely and things ending well. That is not my meaning. My meaning is that Ibsen has throughout, and does not disguise, a certain vagueness and a changing attitude as well as a doubting attitude towards what is really wisdom and virtue in this life— a vagueness which contrasts very remarkably with the decisiveness with which he pounces on something which he perceives to be a root of evil, some convention, some deception, some ignorance. We know that the hero of “Ghosts” is mad, and we know why he is mad. We do also know that Dr. Stockman is sane; but we do not know why he is sane. Ibsen does not profess to know how virtue and happiness are brought about, in the sense that he professes to know how our modern sexual tragedies are brought about. Falsehood works ruin in “The Pillars of Society”, but truth works equal ruin in “The Wild Duck”. There are no cardinal virtues of Ibsenism. There is no ideal man of Ibsen. All this is not only admitted, but vaunted in the most valuable and thoughtful of all the eulogies upon Ibsen, Mr. Bernard Shaw’s “Quintessence of Ibsenism”. Mr. Shaw sums up Ibsen’s teaching in the phrase, “The golden rule is that there is no golden rule.” In his eyes this absence of an enduring and positive ideal, this absence of a permanent key to virtue, is the one great Ibsen merit. I am not discussing now with any fullness whether this is so or not. All I venture to point out, with an increased firmness, is that this omission, good or bad, does leave us face to face with the problem of a human consciousness filled with very definite images of evil, and with no definite image of good. To us light must be henceforward the dark thing—the thing of which we cannot speak. To us, as to Milton’s devils in Pandemonium, it is darkness that is visible. The human race, according to religion, fell once, and in falling gained knowledge of good and of evil. Now we have fallen a second time, and only the knowledge of evil remains to us.

A great silent collapse, an enormous unspoken disappointment, has in our time fallen on our Northern civilization. All previous ages have sweated and been crucified in an attempt to realize what is really the right life, what was really the good man. A definite part of the modern world has come beyond question to the conclusion that there is no answer to these questions, that the most that we can do is to set up a few notice-boards at places of obvious danger, to warn men, for instance, against drinking themselves to death, or ignoring the mere existence of their neighbours. Ibsen is the first to return from the baffled hunt to bring us the tidings of great failure.

Every one of the popular modern phrases and ideals is a dodge in order to shirk the problem of what is good. We are fond of talking about “liberty”; that, as we talk of it, is a dodge to avoid discussing what is good. We are fond of talking about “progress”; that is a dodge to avoid discussing what is good. We are fond of talking about “education”; that is a dodge to avoid discussing what is good. The modern man says, “Let us leave all these arbitrary standards and embrace liberty.” This is, logically rendered, “Let us not decide what is good, but let it be considered good not to decide it.” He says, “Away with your old moral formulae; I am for progress.” This, logically stated, means, “Let us not settle what is good; but let us settle whether we are getting more of it.” He says, “Neither in religion nor morality, my friend, lie the hopes of the race, but in education.” This, clearly expressed, means, “We cannot decide what is good, but let us give it to our children.”

Mr. H.G. Wells, that exceedingly clear-sighted man, has pointed out in a recent work that this has happened in connection with economic questions. The old economists, he says, made generalizations, and they were (in Mr. Wells’s view) mostly wrong. But the new economists, he says, seem to have lost the power of making any generalizations at all. And they cover this incapacity with a general claim to be, in specific cases, regarded as “experts,” a claim “proper enough in a hairdresser or a fashionable physician, but indecent in a philosopher or a man of science.” But in spite of the refreshing rationality with which Mr. Wells has indicated this, it must also be said that he himself has fallen into the same enormous modern error. In the opening pages of that excellent book “Mankind in the Making”, he dismisses the ideals of art, religion, abstract morality, and the rest, and says that he is going to consider men in their chief function, the function of parenthood. He is going to discuss life as a “tissue of births.” He is not going to ask what will produce satisfactory saints or satisfactory heroes, but what will produce satisfactory fathers and mothers. The whole is set forward so sensibly that it is a few moments at least before the reader realises that it is another example of unconscious shirking. What is the good of begetting a man until we have settled what is the good of being a man? You are merely handing on to him a problem you dare not settle yourself. It is as if a man were asked, “What is the use of a hammer?” and answered, “To make hammers”; and when asked, “And of those hammers, what is the use?” answered, “To make hammers again”. Just as such a man would be perpetually putting off the question of the ultimate use of carpentry, so Mr. Wells and all the rest of us are by these phrases successfully putting off the question of the ultimate value of the human life.

The case of the general talk of “progress” is, indeed, an extreme one. As enunciated today, “progress” is simply a comparative of which we have not settled the superlative. We meet every ideal of religion, patriotism, beauty, or brute pleasure with the alternative ideal of progress—that is to say, we meet every proposal of getting something that we know about, with an alternative proposal of getting a great deal more of nobody knows what. Progress, properly understood, has, indeed, a most dignified and legitimate meaning. But as used in opposition to precise moral ideals, it is ludicrous. So far from it being the truth that the ideal of progress is to be set against that of ethical or religious finality, the reverse is the truth. Nobody has any business to use the word “progress” unless he has a definite creed and a cast-iron code of morals. Nobody can be progressive without being doctrinal; I might almost say that nobody can be progressive without being infallible— at any rate, without believing in some infallibility. For progress by its very name indicates a direction; and the moment we are in the least doubtful about the direction, we become in the same degree doubtful about the progress. Never perhaps since the beginning of the world has there been an age that had less right to use the word “progress” than we. In the Catholic twelfth century, in the philosophic eighteenth century, the direction may have been a good or a bad one, men may have differed more or less about how far they went, and in what direction, but about the direction they did in the main agree, and consequently they had the genuine sensation of progress. But it is precisely about the direction that we disagree. Whether the future excellence lies in more law or less law, in more liberty or less liberty; whether property will be finally concentrated or finally cut up; whether sexual passion will reach its sanest in an almost virgin intellectualism or in a full animal freedom; whether we should love everybody with Tolstoy, or spare nobody with Nietzsche;—these are the things about which we are actually fighting most. It is not merely true that the age which has settled least what is progress is this “progressive” age. It is, moreover, true that the people who have settled least what is progress are the most “progressive” people in it. The ordinary mass, the men who have never troubled about progress, might be trusted perhaps to progress. The particular individuals who talk about progress would certainly fly to the four winds of heaven when the pistol-shot started the race. I do not, therefore, say that the word “progress” is unmeaning; I say it is unmeaning without the previous definition of a moral doctrine, and that it can only be applied to groups of persons who hold that doctrine in common. Progress is not an illegitimate word, but it is logically evident that it is illegitimate for us. It is a sacred word, a word which could only rightly be used by rigid believers and in the ages of faith.

III. On Mr. Rudyard Kipling and Making the World Small

There is no such thing on earth as an uninteresting subject; the only thing that can exist is an uninterested person. Nothing is more keenly required than a defence of bores. When Byron divided humanity into the bores and bored, he omitted to notice that the higher qualities exist entirely in the bores, the lower qualities in the bored, among whom he counted himself. The bore, by his starry enthusiasm, his solemn happiness, may, in some sense, have proved himself poetical. The bored has certainly proved himself prosaic.

We might, no doubt, find it a nuisance to count all the blades of grass or all the leaves of the trees; but this would not be because of our boldness or gaiety, but because of our lack of boldness and gaiety. The bore would go onward, bold and gay, and find the blades of grass as splendid as the swords of an army. The bore is stronger and more joyous than we are; he is a demigod—nay, he is a god. For it is the gods who do not tire of the iteration of things; to them the nightfall is always new, and the last rose as red as the first.

The sense that everything is poetical is a thing solid and absolute; it is not a mere matter of phraseology or persuasion. It is not merely true, it is ascertainable. Men may be challenged to deny it; men may be challenged to mention anything that is not a matter of poetry. I remember a long time ago a sensible sub-editor coming up to me with a book in his hand, called “Mr. Smith,” or “The Smith Family,” or some such thing. He said, “Well, you won’t get any of your damned mysticism out of this,” or words to that effect. I am happy to say that I undeceived him; but the victory was too obvious and easy. In most cases the name is unpoetical, although the fact is poetical. In the case of Smith, the name is so poetical that it must be an arduous and heroic matter for the man to live up to it. The name of Smith is the name of the one trade that even kings respected, it could claim half the glory of that arma virumque which all epics acclaimed. The spirit of the smithy is so close to the spirit of song that it has mixed in a million poems, and every blacksmith is a harmonious blacksmith.

Even the village children feel that in some dim way the smith is poetic, as the grocer and the cobbler are not poetic, when they feast on the dancing sparks and deafening blows in the cavern of that creative violence. The brute repose of Nature, the passionate cunning of man, the strongest of earthly metals, the wierdest of earthly elements, the unconquerable iron subdued by its only conqueror, the wheel and the ploughshare, the sword and the steam-hammer, the arraying of armies and the whole legend of arms, all these things are written, briefly indeed, but quite legibly, on the visiting-card of Mr. Smith. Yet our novelists call their hero “Aylmer Valence,” which means nothing, or “Vernon Raymond,” which means nothing, when it is in their power to give him this sacred name of Smith—this name made of iron and flame. It would be very natural if a certain hauteur, a certain carriage of the head, a certain curl of the lip, distinguished every one whose name is Smith. Perhaps it does; I trust so. Whoever else are parvenus, the Smiths are not parvenus. From the darkest dawn of history this clan has gone forth to battle; its trophies are on every hand; its name is everywhere; it is older than the nations, and its sign is the Hammer of Thor. But as I also remarked, it is not quite the usual case. It is common enough that common things should be poetical; it is not so common that common names should be poetical. In most cases it is the name that is the obstacle. A great many people talk as if this claim of ours, that all things are poetical, were a mere literary ingenuity, a play on words. Precisely the contrary is true. It is the idea that some things are not poetical which is literary, which is a mere product of words. The word “signal-box” is unpoetical. But the thing signal-box is not unpoetical; it is a place where men, in an agony of vigilance, light blood-red and sea-green fires to keep other men from death. That is the plain, genuine description of what it is; the prose only comes in with what it is called. The word “pillar-box” is unpoetical. But the thing pillar-box is not unpoetical; it is the place to which friends and lovers commit their messages, conscious that when they have done so they are sacred, and not to be touched, not only by others, but even (religious touch!) by themselves. That red turret is one of the last of the temples. Posting a letter and getting married are among the few things left that are entirely romantic; for to be entirely romantic a thing must be irrevocable. We think a pillar-box prosaic, because there is no rhyme to it. We think a pillar-box unpoetical, because we have never seen it in a poem. But the bold fact is entirely on the side of poetry. A signal-box is only called a signal-box; it is a house of life and death. A pillar-box is only called a pillar-box; it is a sanctuary of human words. If you think the name of “Smith” prosaic, it is not because you are practical and sensible; it is because you are too much affected with literary refinements. The name shouts poetry at you. If you think of it otherwise, it is because you are steeped and sodden with verbal reminiscences, because you remember everything in Punch or Comic Cuts about Mr. Smith being drunk or Mr. Smith being henpecked. All these things were given to you poetical. It is only by a long and elaborate process of literary effort that you have made them prosaic.

Now, the first and fairest thing to say about Rudyard Kipling is that he has borne a brilliant part in thus recovering the lost provinces of poetry. He has not been frightened by that brutal materialistic air which clings only to words; he has pierced through to the romantic, imaginative matter of the things themselves. He has perceived the significance and philosophy of steam and of slang. Steam may be, if you like, a dirty by-product of science. Slang may be, if you like, a dirty by-product of language. But at least he has been among the few who saw the divine parentage of these things, and knew that where there is smoke there is fire—that is, that wherever there is the foulest of things, there also is the purest. Above all, he has had something to say, a definite view of things to utter, and that always means that a man is fearless and faces everything. For the moment we have a view of the universe, we possess it.

Now, the message of Rudyard Kipling, that upon which he has really concentrated, is the only thing worth worrying about in him or in any other man. He has often written bad poetry, like Wordsworth. He has often said silly things, like Plato. He has often given way to mere political hysteria, like Gladstone. But no one can reasonably doubt that he means steadily and sincerely to say something, and the only serious question is, What is that which he has tried to say? Perhaps the best way of stating this fairly will be to begin with that element which has been most insisted by himself and by his opponents—I mean his interest in militarism. But when we are seeking for the real merits of a man it is unwise to go to his enemies, and much more foolish to go to himself.

Now, Mr. Kipling is certainly wrong in his worship of militarism, but his opponents are, generally speaking, quite as wrong as he. The evil of militarism is not that it shows certain men to be fierce and haughty and excessively warlike. The evil of militarism is that it shows most men to be tame and timid and excessively peaceable. The professional soldier gains more and more power as the general courage of a community declines. Thus the Pretorian guard became more and more important in Rome as Rome became more and more luxurious and feeble. The military man gains the civil power in proportion as the civilian loses the military virtues. And as it was in ancient Rome so it is in contemporary Europe. There never was a time when nations were more militarist. There never was a time when men were less brave. All ages and all epics have sung of arms and the man; but we have effected simultaneously the deterioration of the man and the fantastic perfection of the arms. Militarism demonstrated the decadence of Rome, and it demonstrates the decadence of Prussia.

And unconsciously Mr. Kipling has proved this, and proved it admirably. For in so far as his work is earnestly understood the military trade does not by any means emerge as the most important or attractive. He has not written so well about soldiers as he has about railway men or bridge builders, or even journalists. The fact is that what attracts Mr. Kipling to militarism is not the idea of courage, but the idea of discipline. There was far more courage to the square mile in the Middle Ages, when no king had a standing army, but every man had a bow or sword. But the fascination of the standing army upon Mr. Kipling is not courage, which scarcely interests him, but discipline, which is, when all is said and done, his primary theme. The modern army is not a miracle of courage; it has not enough opportunities, owing to the cowardice of everybody else. But it is really a miracle of organization, and that is the truly Kiplingite ideal. Kipling’s subject is not that valour which properly belongs to war, but that interdependence and efficiency which belongs quite as much to engineers, or sailors, or mules, or railway engines. And thus it is that when he writes of engineers, or sailors, or mules, or steam-engines, he writes at his best. The real poetry, the “true romance” which Mr. Kipling has taught, is the romance of the division of labour and the discipline of all the trades. He sings the arts of peace much more accurately than the arts of war. And his main contention is vital and valuable. Every thing is military in the sense that everything depends upon obedience. There is no perfectly epicurean corner; there is no perfectly irresponsible place. Everywhere men have made the way for us with sweat and submission. We may fling ourselves into a hammock in a fit of divine carelessness. But we are glad that the net-maker did not make the hammock in a fit of divine carelessness. We may jump upon a child’s rocking-horse for a joke. But we are glad that the carpenter did not leave the legs of it unglued for a joke. So far from having merely preached that a soldier cleaning his side-arm is to be adored because he is military, Kipling at his best and clearest has preached that the baker baking loaves and the tailor cutting coats is as military as anybody.

Being devoted to this multitudinous vision of duty, Mr. Kipling is naturally a cosmopolitan. He happens to find his examples in the British Empire, but almost any other empire would do as well, or, indeed, any other highly civilized country. That which he admires in the British army he would find even more apparent in the German army; that which he desires in the British police he would find flourishing in the French police. The ideal of discipline is not the whole of life, but it is spread over the whole of the world. And the worship of it tends to confirm in Mr. Kipling a certain note of worldly wisdom, of the experience of the wanderer, which is one of the genuine charms of his best work.

The great gap in his mind is what may be roughly called the lack of patriotism—that is to say, he lacks altogether the faculty of attaching himself to any cause or community finally and tragically; for all finality must be tragic. He admires England, but he does not love her; for we admire things with reasons, but love them without reasons. He admires England because she is strong, not because she is English. There is no harshness in saying this, for, to do him justice, he avows it with his usual picturesque candour. In a very interesting poem, he says that—

“If England was what England seems”

—that is, weak and inefficient; if England were not what (as he believes) she is—that is, powerful and practical—

“How quick we’d chuck ‘er! But she ain’t!”

He admits, that is, that his devotion is the result of a criticism, and this is quite enough to put it in another category altogether from the patriotism of the Boers, whom he hounded down in South Africa. In speaking of the really patriotic peoples, such as the Irish, he has some difficulty in keeping a shrill irritation out of his language. The frame of mind which he really describes with beauty and nobility is the frame of mind of the cosmopolitan man who has seen men and cities.

“For to admire and for to see, For to be’old this world so wide.”

He is a perfect master of that light melancholy with which a man looks back on having been the citizen of many communities, of that light melancholy with which a man looks back on having been the lover of many women. He is the philanderer of the nations. But a man may have learnt much about women in flirtations, and still be ignorant of first love; a man may have known as many lands as Ulysses, and still be ignorant of patriotism.

Mr. Rudyard Kipling has asked in a celebrated epigram what they can know of England who know England only. It is a far deeper and sharper question to ask, “What can they know of England who know only the world?” for the world does not include England any more than it includes the Church. The moment we care for anything deeply, the world—that is, all the other miscellaneous interests—becomes our enemy. Christians showed it when they talked of keeping one’s self “unspotted from the world;” but lovers talk of it just as much when they talk of the “world well lost.” Astronomically speaking, I understand that England is situated on the world; similarly, I suppose that the Church was a part of the world, and even the lovers inhabitants of that orb. But they all felt a certain truth— the truth that the moment you love anything the world becomes your foe. Thus Mr. Kipling does certainly know the world; he is a man of the world, with all the narrowness that belongs to those imprisoned in that planet. He knows England as an intelligent English gentleman knows Venice. He has been to England a great many times; he has stopped there for long visits. But he does not belong to it, or to any place; and the proof of it is this, that he thinks of England as a place. The moment we are rooted in a place, the place vanishes. We live like a tree with the whole strength of the universe.

The globe-trotter lives in a smaller world than the peasant. He is always breathing an air of locality. London is a place, to be compared to Chicago; Chicago is a place, to be compared to Timbuctoo. But Timbuctoo is not a place, since there, at least, live men who regard it as the universe, and breathe, not an air of locality, but the winds of the world. The man in the saloon steamer has seen all the races of men, and he is thinking of the things that divide men—diet, dress, decorum, rings in the nose as in Africa, or in the ears as in Europe, blue paint among the ancients, or red paint among the modern Britons. The man in the cabbage field has seen nothing at all; but he is thinking of the things that unite men— hunger and babies, and the beauty of women, and the promise or menace of the sky. Mr. Kipling, with all his merits, is the globe-trotter; he has not the patience to become part of anything. So great and genuine a man is not to be accused of a merely cynical cosmopolitanism; still, his cosmopolitanism is his weakness. That weakness is splendidly expressed in one of his finest poems, “The Sestina of the Tramp Royal,” in which a man declares that he can endure anything in the way of hunger or horror, but not permanent presence in one place. In this there is certainly danger. The more dead and dry and dusty a thing is the more it travels about; dust is like this and the thistle-down and the High Commissioner in South Africa. Fertile things are somewhat heavier, like the heavy fruit trees on the pregnant mud of the Nile. In the heated idleness of youth we were all rather inclined to quarrel with the implication of that proverb which says that a rolling stone gathers no moss. We were inclined to ask, “Who wants to gather moss, except silly old ladies?” But for all that we begin to perceive that the proverb is right. The rolling stone rolls echoing from rock to rock; but the rolling stone is dead. The moss is silent because the moss is alive.

The truth is that exploration and enlargement make the world smaller. The telegraph and the steamboat make the world smaller. The telescope makes the world smaller; it is only the microscope that makes it larger. Before long the world will be cloven with a war between the telescopists and the microscopists. The first study large things and live in a small world; the second study small things and live in a large world. It is inspiriting without doubt to whizz in a motor-car round the earth, to feel Arabia as a whirl of sand or China as a flash of rice-fields. But Arabia is not a whirl of sand and China is not a flash of rice-fields. They are ancient civilizations with strange virtues buried like treasures. If we wish to understand them it must not be as tourists or inquirers, it must be with the loyalty of children and the great patience of poets. To conquer these places is to lose them. The man standing in his own kitchen-garden, with fairyland opening at the gate, is the man with large ideas. His mind creates distance; the motor-car stupidly destroys it. Moderns think of the earth as a globe, as something one can easily get round, the spirit of a schoolmistress. This is shown in the odd mistake perpetually made about Cecil Rhodes. His enemies say that he may have had large ideas, but he was a bad man. His friends say that he may have been a bad man, but he certainly had large ideas. The truth is that he was not a man essentially bad, he was a man of much geniality and many good intentions, but a man with singularly small views. There is nothing large about painting the map red; it is an innocent game for children. It is just as easy to think in continents as to think in cobble-stones. The difficulty comes in when we seek to know the substance of either of them. Rhodes’ prophecies about the Boer resistance are an admirable comment on how the “large ideas” prosper when it is not a question of thinking in continents but of understanding a few two-legged men. And under all this vast illusion of the cosmopolitan planet, with its empires and its Reuter’s agency, the real life of man goes on concerned with this tree or that temple, with this harvest or that drinking-song, totally uncomprehended, totally untouched. And it watches from its splendid parochialism, possibly with a smile of amusement, motor-car civilization going its triumphant way, outstripping time, consuming space, seeing all and seeing nothing, roaring on at last to the capture of the solar system, only to find the sun cockney and the stars suburban.

IV. Mr. Bernard Shaw

In the glad old days, before the rise of modern morbidities, when genial old Ibsen filled the world with wholesome joy, and the kindly tales of the forgotten Emile Zola kept our firesides merry and pure, it used to be thought a disadvantage to be misunderstood. It may be doubted whether it is always or even generally a disadvantage. The man who is misunderstood has always this advantage over his enemies, that they do not know his weak point or his plan of campaign. They go out against a bird with nets and against a fish with arrows. There are several modern examples of this situation. Mr. Chamberlain, for instance, is a very good one. He constantly eludes or vanquishes his opponents because his real powers and deficiencies are quite different to those with which he is credited, both by friends and foes. His friends depict him as a strenuous man of action; his opponents depict him as a coarse man of business; when, as a fact, he is neither one nor the other, but an admirable romantic orator and romantic actor. He has one power which is the soul of melodrama—the power of pretending, even when backed by a huge majority, that he has his back to the wall. For all mobs are so far chivalrous that their heroes must make some show of misfortune—that sort of hypocrisy is the homage that strength pays to weakness. He talks foolishly and yet very finely about his own city that has never deserted him. He wears a flaming and fantastic flower, like a decadent minor poet. As for his bluffness and toughness and appeals to common sense, all that is, of course, simply the first trick of rhetoric. He fronts his audiences with the venerable affectation of Mark Antony

“I am no orator, as Brutus is; But as you know me all, a plain blunt man.”

It is the whole difference between the aim of the orator and the aim of any other artist, such as the poet or the sculptor. The aim of the sculptor is to convince us that he is a sculptor; the aim of the orator, is to convince us that he is not an orator. Once let Mr. Chamberlain be mistaken for a practical man, and his game is won. He has only to compose a theme on empire, and people will say that these plain men say great things on great occasions. He has only to drift in the large loose notions common to all artists of the second rank, and people will say that business men have the biggest ideals after all. All his schemes have ended in smoke; he has touched nothing that he did not confuse. About his figure there is a Celtic pathos; like the Gaels in Matthew Arnold’s quotation, “he went forth to battle, but he always fell.” He is a mountain of proposals, a mountain of failures; but still a mountain. And a mountain is always romantic.

There is another man in the modern world who might be called the antithesis of Mr. Chamberlain in every point, who is also a standing monument of the advantage of being misunderstood. Mr. Bernard Shaw is always represented by those who disagree with him, and, I fear, also (if such exist) by those who agree with him, as a capering humorist, a dazzling acrobat, a quick-change artist. It is said that he cannot be taken seriously, that he will defend anything or attack anything, that he will do anything to startle and amuse. All this is not only untrue, but it is, glaringly, the opposite of the truth; it is as wild as to say that Dickens had not the boisterous masculinity of Jane Austen. The whole force and triumph of Mr. Bernard Shaw lie in the fact that he is a thoroughly consistent man. So far from his power consisting in jumping through hoops or standing on his head, his power consists in holding his own fortress night and day. He puts the Shaw test rapidly and rigorously to everything that happens in heaven or earth. His standard never varies. The thing which weak-minded revolutionists and weak-minded Conservatives really hate (and fear) in him, is exactly this, that his scales, such as they are, are held even, and that his law, such as it is, is justly enforced. You may attack his principles, as I do; but I do not know of any instance in which you can attack their application. If he dislikes lawlessness, he dislikes the lawlessness of Socialists as much as that of Individualists. If he dislikes the fever of patriotism, he dislikes it in Boers and Irishmen as well as in Englishmen. If he dislikes the vows and bonds of marriage, he dislikes still more the fiercer bonds and wilder vows that are made by lawless love. If he laughs at the authority of priests, he laughs louder at the pomposity of men of science. If he condemns the irresponsibility of faith, he condemns with a sane consistency the equal irresponsibility of art. He has pleased all the bohemians by saying that women are equal to men; but he has infuriated them by suggesting that men are equal to women. He is almost mechanically just; he has something of the terrible quality of a machine. The man who is really wild and whirling, the man who is really fantastic and incalculable, is not Mr. Shaw, but the average Cabinet Minister. It is Sir Michael Hicks-Beach who jumps through hoops. It is Sir Henry Fowler who stands on his head. The solid and respectable statesman of that type does really leap from position to position; he is really ready to defend anything or nothing; he is really not to be taken seriously. I know perfectly well what Mr. Bernard Shaw will be saying thirty years hence; he will be saying what he has always said. If thirty years hence I meet Mr. Shaw, a reverent being with a silver beard sweeping the earth, and say to him, “One can never, of course, make a verbal attack upon a lady,” the patriarch will lift his aged hand and fell me to the earth. We know, I say, what Mr. Shaw will be, saying thirty years hence. But is there any one so darkly read in stars and oracles that he will dare to predict what Mr. Asquith will be saying thirty years hence?

The truth is, that it is quite an error to suppose that absence of definite convictions gives the mind freedom and agility. A man who believes something is ready and witty, because he has all his weapons about him. He can apply his test in an instant. The man engaged in conflict with a man like Mr. Bernard Shaw may fancy he has ten faces; similarly a man engaged against a brilliant duellist may fancy that the sword of his foe has turned to ten swords in his hand. But this is not really because the man is playing with ten swords, it is because he is aiming very straight with one. Moreover, a man with a definite belief always appears bizarre, because he does not change with the world; he has climbed into a fixed star, and the earth whizzes below him like a zoetrope. Millions of mild black-coated men call themselves sane and sensible merely because they always catch the fashionable insanity, because they are hurried into madness after madness by the maelstrom of the world.

People accuse Mr. Shaw and many much sillier persons of “proving that black is white.” But they never ask whether the current colour-language is always correct. Ordinary sensible phraseology sometimes calls black white, it certainly calls yellow white and green white and reddish-brown white. We call wine “white wine” which is as yellow as a Blue-coat boy’s legs. We call grapes “white grapes” which are manifestly pale green. We give to the European, whose complexion is a sort of pink drab, the horrible title of a “white man”—a picture more blood-curdling than any spectre in Poe.

Now, it is undoubtedly true that if a man asked a waiter in a restaurant for a bottle of yellow wine and some greenish-yellow grapes, the waiter would think him mad. It is undoubtedly true that if a Government official, reporting on the Europeans in Burma, said, “There are only two thousand pinkish men here” he would be accused of cracking jokes, and kicked out of his post. But it is equally obvious that both men would have come to grief through telling the strict truth. That too truthful man in the restaurant; that too truthful man in Burma, is Mr. Bernard Shaw. He appears eccentric and grotesque because he will not accept the general belief that white is yellow. He has based all his brilliancy and solidity upon the hackneyed, but yet forgotten, fact that truth is stranger than fiction. Truth, of course, must of necessity be stranger than fiction, for we have made fiction to suit ourselves.

So much then a reasonable appreciation will find in Mr. Shaw to be bracing and excellent. He claims to see things as they are; and some things, at any rate, he does see as they are, which the whole of our civilization does not see at all. But in Mr. Shaw’s realism there is something lacking, and that thing which is lacking is serious.

Mr. Shaw’s old and recognized philosophy was that powerfully presented in “The Quintessence of Ibsenism.” It was, in brief, that conservative ideals were bad, not because they were conservative, but because they were ideals. Every ideal prevented men from judging justly the particular case; every moral generalization oppressed the individual; the golden rule was there was no golden rule. And the objection to this is simply that it pretends to free men, but really restrains them from doing the only thing that men want to do. What is the good of telling a community that it has every liberty except the liberty to make laws? The liberty to make laws is what constitutes a free people. And what is the good of telling a man (or a philosopher) that he has every liberty except the liberty to make generalizations. Making generalizations is what makes him a man. In short, when Mr. Shaw forbids men to have strict moral ideals, he is acting like one who should forbid them to have children. The saying that “the golden rule is that there is no golden rule,” can, indeed, be simply answered by being turned round. That there is no golden rule is itself a golden rule, or rather it is much worse than a golden rule. It is an iron rule; a fetter on the first movement of a man.

But the sensation connected with Mr. Shaw in recent years has been his sudden development of the religion of the Superman. He who had to all appearance mocked at the faiths in the forgotten past discovered a new god in the unimaginable future. He who had laid all the blame on ideals set up the most impossible of all ideals, the ideal of a new creature. But the truth, nevertheless, is that any one who knows Mr. Shaw’s mind adequately, and admires it properly, must have guessed all this long ago.

For the truth is that Mr. Shaw has never seen things as they really are. If he had he would have fallen on his knees before them. He has always had a secret ideal that has withered all the things of this world. He has all the time been silently comparing humanity with something that was not human, with a monster from Mars, with the Wise Man of the Stoics, with the Economic Man of the Fabians, with Julius Caesar, with Siegfried, with the Superman. Now, to have this inner and merciless standard may be a very good thing, or a very bad one, it may be excellent or unfortunate, but it is not seeing things as they are. It is not seeing things as they are to think first of a Briareus with a hundred hands, and then call every man a cripple for only having two. It is not seeing things as they are to start with a vision of Argus with his hundred eyes, and then jeer at every man with two eyes as if he had only one. And it is not seeing things as they are to imagine a demigod of infinite mental clarity, who may or may not appear in the latter days of the earth, and then to see all men as idiots. And this is what Mr. Shaw has always in some degree done. When we really see men as they are, we do not criticise, but worship; and very rightly. For a monster with mysterious eyes and miraculous thumbs, with strange dreams in his skull, and a queer tenderness for this place or that baby, is truly a wonderful and unnerving matter. It is only the quite arbitrary and priggish habit of comparison with something else which makes it possible to be at our ease in front of him. A sentiment of superiority keeps us cool and practical; the mere facts would make our knees knock under as with religious fear. It is the fact that every instant of conscious life is an unimaginable prodigy. It is the fact that every face in the street has the incredible unexpectedness of a fairy-tale. The thing which prevents a man from realizing this is not any clear-sightedness or experience, it is simply a habit of pedantic and fastidious comparisons between one thing and another. Mr. Shaw, on the practical side perhaps the most humane man alive, is in this sense inhumane. He has even been infected to some extent with the primary intellectual weakness of his new master, Nietzsche, the strange notion that the greater and stronger a man was the more he would despise other things. The greater and stronger a man is the more he would be inclined to prostrate himself before a periwinkle. That Mr. Shaw keeps a lifted head and a contemptuous face before the colossal panorama of empires and civilizations, this does not in itself convince one that he sees things as they are. I should be most effectively convinced that he did if I found him staring with religious astonishment at his own feet. “What are those two beautiful and industrious beings,” I can imagine him murmuring to himself, “whom I see everywhere, serving me I know not why? What fairy godmother bade them come trotting out of elfland when I was born? What god of the borderland, what barbaric god of legs, must I propitiate with fire and wine, lest they run away with me?”

The truth is, that all genuine appreciation rests on a certain mystery of humility and almost of darkness. The man who said, “Blessed is he that expecteth nothing, for he shall not be disappointed,” put the eulogy quite inadequately and even falsely. The truth “Blessed is he that expecteth nothing, for he shall be gloriously surprised.” The man who expects nothing sees redder roses than common men can see, and greener grass, and a more startling sun. Blessed is he that expecteth nothing, for he shall possess the cities and the mountains; blessed is the meek, for he shall inherit the earth. Until we realize that things might not be we cannot realize that things are. Until we see the background of darkness we cannot admire the light as a single and created thing. As soon as we have seen that darkness, all light is lightening, sudden, blinding, and divine. Until we picture nonentity we underrate the victory of God, and can realize none of the trophies of His ancient war. It is one of the million wild jests of truth that we know nothing until we know nothing.

Now this is, I say deliberately, the only defect in the greatness of Mr. Shaw, the only answer to his claim to be a great man, that he is not easily pleased. He is an almost solitary exception to the general and essential maxim, that little things please great minds. And from this absence of that most uproarious of all things, humility, comes incidentally the peculiar insistence on the Superman. After belabouring a great many people for a great many years for being unprogressive, Mr. Shaw has discovered, with characteristic sense, that it is very doubtful whether any existing human being with two legs can be progressive at all. Having come to doubt whether humanity can be combined with progress, most people, easily pleased, would have elected to abandon progress and remain with humanity. Mr. Shaw, not being easily pleased, decides to throw over humanity with all its limitations and go in for progress for its own sake. If man, as we know him, is incapable of the philosophy of progress, Mr. Shaw asks, not for a new kind of philosophy, but for a new kind of man. It is rather as if a nurse had tried a rather bitter food for some years on a baby, and on discovering that it was not suitable, should not throw away the food and ask for a new food, but throw the baby out of window, and ask for a new baby. Mr. Shaw cannot understand that the thing which is valuable and lovable in our eyes is man—the old beer-drinking, creed-making, fighting, failing, sensual, respectable man. And the things that have been founded on this creature immortally remain; the things that have been founded on the fancy of the Superman have died with the dying civilizations which alone have given them birth. When Christ at a symbolic moment was establishing His great society, He chose for its comer-stone neither the brilliant Paul nor the mystic John, but a shuffler, a snob, a coward—in a word, a man. And upon this rock He has built His Church, and the gates of Hell have not prevailed against it. All the empires and the kingdoms have failed, because of this inherent and continual weakness, that they were founded by strong men and upon strong men. But this one thing, the historic Christian Church, was founded on a weak man, and for that reason it is indestructible. For no chain is stronger than its weakest link.

V. Mr. H. G. Wells and the Giants

We ought to see far enough into a hypocrite to see even his sincerity. We ought to be interested in that darkest and most real part of a man in which dwell not the vices that he does not display, but the virtues that he cannot. And the more we approach the problems of human history with this keen and piercing charity, the smaller and smaller space we shall allow to pure hypocrisy of any kind. The hypocrites shall not deceive us into thinking them saints; but neither shall they deceive us into thinking them hypocrites. And an increasing number of cases will crowd into our field of inquiry, cases in which there is really no question of hypocrisy at all, cases in which people were so ingenuous that they seemed absurd, and so absurd that they seemed disingenuous.

There is one striking instance of an unfair charge of hypocrisy. It is always urged against the religious in the past, as a point of inconsistency and duplicity, that they combined a profession of almost crawling humility with a keen struggle for earthly success and considerable triumph in attaining it. It is felt as a piece of humbug, that a man should be very punctilious in calling himself a miserable sinner, and also very punctilious in calling himself King of France. But the truth is that there is no more conscious inconsistency between the humility of a Christian and the rapacity of a Christian than there is between the humility of a lover and the rapacity of a lover. The truth is that there are no things for which men will make such herculean efforts as the things of which they know they are unworthy. There never was a man in love who did not declare that, if he strained every nerve to breaking, he was going to have his desire. And there never was a man in love who did not declare also that he ought not to have it. The whole secret of the practical success of Christendom lies in the Christian humility, however imperfectly fulfilled. For with the removal of all question of merit or payment, the soul is suddenly released for incredible voyages. If we ask a sane man how much he merits, his mind shrinks instinctively and instantaneously. It is doubtful whether he merits six feet of earth. But if you ask him what he can conquer—he can conquer the stars. Thus comes the thing called Romance, a purely Christian product. A man cannot deserve adventures; he cannot earn dragons and hippogriffs. The mediaeval Europe which asserted humility gained Romance; the civilization which gained Romance has gained the habitable globe. How different the Pagan and Stoical feeling was from this has been admirably expressed in a famous quotation. Addison makes the great Stoic say—

“‘Tis not in mortals to command success; But we’ll do more, Sempronius, we’ll deserve it.”

But the spirit of Romance and Christendom, the spirit which is in every lover, the spirit which has bestridden the earth with European adventure, is quite opposite. ‘Tis not in mortals to deserve success. But we’ll do more, Sempronius; we’ll obtain it.

And this gay humility, this holding of ourselves lightly and yet ready for an infinity of unmerited triumphs, this secret is so simple that every one has supposed that it must be something quite sinister and mysterious. Humility is so practical a virtue that men think it must be a vice. Humility is so successful that it is mistaken for pride. It is mistaken for it all the more easily because it generally goes with a certain simple love of splendour which amounts to vanity. Humility will always, by preference, go clad in scarlet and gold; pride is that which refuses to let gold and scarlet impress it or please it too much. In a word, the failure of this virtue actually lies in its success; it is too successful as an investment to be believed in as a virtue. Humility is not merely too good for this world; it is too practical for this world; I had almost said it is too worldly for this world.

The instance most quoted in our day is the thing called the humility of the man of science; and certainly it is a good instance as well as a modern one. Men find it extremely difficult to believe that a man who is obviously uprooting mountains and dividing seas, tearing down temples and stretching out hands to the stars, is really a quiet old gentleman who only asks to be allowed to indulge his harmless old hobby and follow his harmless old nose. When a man splits a grain of sand and the universe is turned upside down in consequence, it is difficult to realize that to the man who did it, the splitting of the grain is the great affair, and the capsizing of the cosmos quite a small one. It is hard to enter into the feelings of a man who regards a new heaven and a new earth in the light of a by-product. But undoubtedly it was to this almost eerie innocence of the intellect that the great men of the great scientific period, which now appears to be closing, owed their enormous power and triumph. If they had brought the heavens down like a house of cards their plea was not even that they had done it on principle; their quite unanswerable plea was that they had done it by accident. Whenever there was in them the least touch of pride in what they had done, there was a good ground for attacking them; but so long as they were wholly humble, they were wholly victorious. There were possible answers to Huxley; there was no answer possible to Darwin. He was convincing because of his unconsciousness; one might almost say because of his dulness. This childlike and prosaic mind is beginning to wane in the world of science. Men of science are beginning to see themselves, as the fine phrase is, in the part; they are beginning to be proud of their humility. They are beginning to be aesthetic, like the rest of the world, beginning to spell truth with a capital T, beginning to talk of the creeds they imagine themselves to have destroyed, of the discoveries that their forbears made. Like the modern English, they are beginning to be soft about their own hardness. They are becoming conscious of their own strength—that is, they are growing weaker. But one purely modern man has emerged in the strictly modern decades who does carry into our world the clear personal simplicity of the old world of science. One man of genius we have who is an artist, but who was a man of science, and who seems to be marked above all things with this great scientific humility. I mean Mr. H. G. Wells. And in his case, as in the others above spoken of, there must be a great preliminary difficulty in convincing the ordinary person that such a virtue is predicable of such a man. Mr. Wells began his literary work with violent visions—visions of the last pangs of this planet; can it be that a man who begins with violent visions is humble? He went on to wilder and wilder stories about carving beasts into men and shooting angels like birds. Is the man who shoots angels and carves beasts into men humble? Since then he has done something bolder than either of these blasphemies; he has prophesied the political future of all men; prophesied it with aggressive authority and a ringing decision of detail. Is the prophet of the future of all men humble? It will indeed be difficult, in the present condition of current thought about such things as pride and humility, to answer the query of how a man can be humble who does such big things and such bold things. For the only answer is the answer which I gave at the beginning of this essay. It is the humble man who does the big things. It is the humble man who does the bold things. It is the humble man who has the sensational sights vouchsafed to him, and this for three obvious reasons: first, that he strains his eyes more than any other men to see them; second, that he is more overwhelmed and uplifted with them when they come; third, that he records them more exactly and sincerely and with less adulteration from his more commonplace and more conceited everyday self. Adventures are to those to whom they are most unexpected— that is, most romantic. Adventures are to the shy: in this sense adventures are to the unadventurous.

Now, this arresting, mental humility in Mr. H. G. Wells may be, like a great many other things that are vital and vivid, difficult to illustrate by examples, but if I were asked for an example of it, I should have no difficulty about which example to begin with. The most interesting thing about Mr. H. G. Wells is that he is the only one of his many brilliant contemporaries who has not stopped growing. One can lie awake at night and hear him grow. Of this growth the most evident manifestation is indeed a gradual change of opinions; but it is no mere change of opinions. It is not a perpetual leaping from one position to another like that of Mr. George Moore. It is a quite continuous advance along a quite solid road in a quite definable direction. But the chief proof that it is not a piece of fickleness and vanity is the fact that it has been upon the whole in advance from more startling opinions to more humdrum opinions. It has been even in some sense an advance from unconventional opinions to conventional opinions. This fact fixes Mr. Wells’s honesty and proves him to be no poseur. Mr. Wells once held that the upper classes and the lower classes would be so much differentiated in the future that one class would eat the other. Certainly no paradoxical charlatan who had once found arguments for so startling a view would ever have deserted it except for something yet more startling. Mr. Wells has deserted it in favour of the blameless belief that both classes will be ultimately subordinated or assimilated to a sort of scientific middle class, a class of engineers. He has abandoned the sensational theory with the same honourable gravity and simplicity with which he adopted it. Then he thought it was true; now he thinks it is not true. He has come to the most dreadful conclusion a literary man can come to, the conclusion that the ordinary view is the right one. It is only the last and wildest kind of courage that can stand on a tower before ten thousand people and tell them that twice two is four.

Mr. H. G. Wells exists at present in a gay and exhilarating progress of conservativism. He is finding out more and more that conventions, though silent, are alive. As good an example as any of this humility and sanity of his may be found in his change of view on the subject of science and marriage. He once held, I believe, the opinion which some singular sociologists still hold, that human creatures could successfully be paired and bred after the manner of dogs or horses. He no longer holds that view. Not only does he no longer hold that view, but he has written about it in “Mankind in the Making” with such smashing sense and humour, that I find it difficult to believe that anybody else can hold it either. It is true that his chief objection to the proposal is that it is physically impossible, which seems to me a very slight objection, and almost negligible compared with the others. The one objection to scientific marriage which is worthy of final attention is simply that such a thing could only be imposed on unthinkable slaves and cowards. I do not know whether the scientific marriage-mongers are right (as they say) or wrong (as Mr. Wells says) in saying that medical supervision would produce strong and healthy men. I am only certain that if it did, the first act of the strong and healthy men would be to smash the medical supervision.

The mistake of all that medical talk lies in the very fact that it connects the idea of health with the idea of care. What has health to do with care? Health has to do with carelessness. In special and abnormal cases it is necessary to have care. When we are peculiarly unhealthy it may be necessary to be careful in order to be healthy. But even then we are only trying to be healthy in order to be careless. If we are doctors we are speaking to exceptionally sick men, and they ought to be told to be careful. But when we are sociologists we are addressing the normal man, we are addressing humanity. And humanity ought to be told to be recklessness itself. For all the fundamental functions of a healthy man ought emphatically to be performed with pleasure and for pleasure; they emphatically ought not to be performed with precaution or for precaution. A man ought to eat because he has a good appetite to satisfy, and emphatically not because he has a body to sustain. A man ought to take exercise not because he is too fat, but because he loves foils or horses or high mountains, and loves them for their own sake. And a man ought to marry because he has fallen in love, and emphatically not because the world requires to be populated. The food will really renovate his tissues as long as he is not thinking about his tissues. The exercise will really get him into training so long as he is thinking about something else. And the marriage will really stand some chance of producing a generous-blooded generation if it had its origin in its own natural and generous excitement. It is the first law of health that our necessities should not be accepted as necessities; they should be accepted as luxuries. Let us, then, be careful about the small things, such as a scratch or a slight illness, or anything that can be managed with care. But in the name of all sanity, let us be careless about the important things, such as marriage, or the fountain of our very life will fail.

Mr. Wells, however, is not quite clear enough of the narrower scientific outlook to see that there are some things which actually ought not to be scientific. He is still slightly affected with the great scientific fallacy; I mean the habit of beginning not with the human soul, which is the first thing a man learns about, but with some such thing as protoplasm, which is about the last. The one defect in his splendid mental equipment is that he does not sufficiently allow for the stuff or material of men. In his new Utopia he says, for instance, that a chief point of the Utopia will be a disbelief in original sin. If he had begun with the human soul—that is, if he had begun on himself—he would have found original sin almost the first thing to be believed in. He would have found, to put the matter shortly, that a permanent possibility of selfishness arises from the mere fact of having a self, and not from any accidents of education or ill-treatment. And the weakness of all Utopias is this, that they take the greatest difficulty of man and assume it to be overcome, and then give an elaborate account of the overcoming of the smaller ones. They first assume that no man will want more than his share, and then are very ingenious in explaining whether his share will be delivered by motor-car or balloon. And an even stronger example of Mr. Wells’s indifference to the human psychology can be found in his cosmopolitanism, the abolition in his Utopia of all patriotic boundaries. He says in his innocent way that Utopia must be a world-state, or else people might make war on it. It does not seem to occur to him that, for a good many of us, if it were a world-state we should still make war on it to the end of the world. For if we admit that there must be varieties in art or opinion what sense is there in thinking there will not be varieties in government? The fact is very simple. Unless you are going deliberately to prevent a thing being good, you cannot prevent it being worth fighting for. It is impossible to prevent a possible conflict of civilizations, because it is impossible to prevent a possible conflict between ideals. If there were no longer our modern strife between nations, there would only be a strife between Utopias. For the highest thing does not tend to union only; the highest thing tends also to differentiation. You can often get men to fight for the union; but you can never prevent them from fighting also for the differentiation. This variety in the highest thing is the meaning of the fierce patriotism, the fierce nationalism of the great European civilization. It is also, incidentally, the meaning of the doctrine of the Trinity.

But I think the main mistake of Mr. Wells’s philosophy is a somewhat deeper one, one that he expresses in a very entertaining manner in the introductory part of the new Utopia. His philosophy in some sense amounts to a denial of the possibility of philosophy itself. At least, he maintains that there are no secure and reliable ideas upon which we can rest with a final mental satisfaction. It will be both clearer, however, and more amusing to quote Mr. Wells himself.

He says, “Nothing endures, nothing is precise and certain (except the mind of a pedant)… . Being indeed!—there is no being, but a universal becoming of individualities, and Plato turned his back on truth when he turned towards his museum of specific ideals.” Mr. Wells says, again, “There is no abiding thing in what we know. We change from weaker to stronger lights, and each more powerful light pierces our hitherto opaque foundations and reveals fresh and different opacities below.” Now, when Mr. Wells says things like this, I speak with all respect when I say that he does not observe an evident mental distinction. It CANNOT be true that there is nothing abiding in what we know. For if that were so we should not know it all and should not call it knowledge. Our mental state may be very different from that of somebody else some thousands of years back; but it cannot be entirely different, or else we should not be conscious of a difference. Mr. Wells must surely realize the first and simplest of the paradoxes that sit by the springs of truth. He must surely see that the fact of two things being different implies that they are similar. The hare and the tortoise may differ in the quality of swiftness, but they must agree in the quality of motion. The swiftest hare cannot be swifter than an isosceles triangle or the idea of pinkness. When we say the hare moves faster, we say that the tortoise moves. And when we say of a thing that it moves, we say, without need of other words, that there are things that do not move. And even in the act of saying that things change, we say that there is something unchangeable.

But certainly the best example of Mr. Wells’s fallacy can be found in the example which he himself chooses. It is quite true that we see a dim light which, compared with a darker thing, is light, but which, compared with a stronger light, is darkness. But the quality of light remains the same thing, or else we should not call it a stronger light or recognize it as such. If the character of light were not fixed in the mind, we should be quite as likely to call a denser shadow a stronger light, or vice versa. If the character of light became even for an instant unfixed, if it became even by a hair’s-breadth doubtful, if, for example, there crept into our idea of light some vague idea of blueness, then in that flash we have become doubtful whether the new light has more light or less. In brief, the progress may be as varying as a cloud, but the direction must be as rigid as a French road. North and South are relative in the sense that I am North of Bournemouth and South of Spitzbergen. But if there be any doubt of the position of the North Pole, there is in equal degree a doubt of whether I am South of Spitzbergen at all. The absolute idea of light may be practically unattainable. We may not be able to procure pure light. We may not be able to get to the North Pole. But because the North Pole is unattainable, it does not follow that it is indefinable. And it is only because the North Pole is not indefinable that we can make a satisfactory map of Brighton and Worthing.

In other words, Plato turned his face to truth but his back on Mr. H. G. Wells, when he turned to his museum of specified ideals. It is precisely here that Plato shows his sense. It is not true that everything changes; the things that change are all the manifest and material things. There is something that does not change; and that is precisely the abstract quality, the invisible idea. Mr. Wells says truly enough, that a thing which we have seen in one connection as dark we may see in another connection as light. But the thing common to both incidents is the mere idea of light— which we have not seen at all. Mr. Wells might grow taller and taller for unending aeons till his head was higher than the loneliest star. I can imagine his writing a good novel about it. In that case he would see the trees first as tall things and then as short things; he would see the clouds first as high and then as low. But there would remain with him through the ages in that starry loneliness the idea of tallness; he would have in the awful spaces for companion and comfort the definite conception that he was growing taller and not (for instance) growing fatter.

And now it comes to my mind that Mr. H. G. Wells actually has written a very delightful romance about men growing as tall as trees; and that here, again, he seems to me to have been a victim of this vague relativism. “The Food of the Gods” is, like Mr. Bernard Shaw’s play, in essence a study of the Superman idea. And it lies, I think, even through the veil of a half-pantomimic allegory, open to the same intellectual attack. We cannot be expected to have any regard for a great creature if he does not in any manner conform to our standards. For unless he passes our standard of greatness we cannot even call him great. Nietszche summed up all that is interesting in the Superman idea when he said, “Man is a thing which has to be surpassed.” But the very word “surpass” implies the existence of a standard common to us and the thing surpassing us. If the Superman is more manly than men are, of course they will ultimately deify him, even if they happen to kill him first. But if he is simply more supermanly, they may be quite indifferent to him as they would be to another seemingly aimless monstrosity. He must submit to our test even in order to overawe us. Mere force or size even is a standard; but that alone will never make men think a man their superior. Giants, as in the wise old fairy-tales, are vermin. Supermen, if not good men, are vermin.

“The Food of the Gods” is the tale of “Jack the Giant-Killer” told from the point of view of the giant. This has not, I think, been done before in literature; but I have little doubt that the psychological substance of it existed in fact. I have little doubt that the giant whom Jack killed did regard himself as the Superman. It is likely enough that he considered Jack a narrow and parochial person who wished to frustrate a great forward movement of the life-force. If (as not unfrequently was the case) he happened to have two heads, he would point out the elementary maxim which declares them to be better than one. He would enlarge on the subtle modernity of such an equipment, enabling a giant to look at a subject from two points of view, or to correct himself with promptitude. But Jack was the champion of the enduring human standards, of the principle of one man one head and one man one conscience, of the single head and the single heart and the single eye. Jack was quite unimpressed by the question of whether the giant was a particularly gigantic giant. All he wished to know was whether he was a good giant—that is, a giant who was any good to us. What were the giant’s religious views; what his views on politics and the duties of the citizen? Was he fond of children— or fond of them only in a dark and sinister sense? To use a fine phrase for emotional sanity, was his heart in the right place? Jack had sometimes to cut him up with a sword in order to find out. The old and correct story of Jack the Giant-Killer is simply the whole story of man; if it were understood we should need no Bibles or histories. But the modern world in particular does not seem to understand it at all. The modern world, like Mr. Wells, is on the side of the giants; the safest place, and therefore the meanest and the most prosaic. The modern world, when it praises its little Caesars, talks of being strong and brave: but it does not seem to see the eternal paradox involved in the conjunction of these ideas. The strong cannot be brave. Only the weak can be brave; and yet again, in practice, only those who can be brave can be trusted, in time of doubt, to be strong. The only way in which a giant could really keep himself in training against the inevitable Jack would be by continually fighting other giants ten times as big as himself. That is, by ceasing to be a giant and becoming a Jack. Thus that sympathy with the small or the defeated as such, with which we Liberals and Nationalists have been often reproached, is not a useless sentimentalism at all, as Mr. Wells and his friends fancy. It is the first law of practical courage. To be in the weakest camp is to be in the strongest school. Nor can I imagine anything that would do humanity more good than the advent of a race of Supermen, for them to fight like dragons. If the Superman is better than we, of course we need not fight him; but in that case, why not call him the Saint? But if he is merely stronger (whether physically, mentally, or morally stronger, I do not care a farthing), then he ought to have to reckon with us at least for all the strength we have. It we are weaker than he, that is no reason why we should be weaker than ourselves. If we are not tall enough to touch the giant’s knees, that is no reason why we should become shorter by falling on our own. But that is at bottom the meaning of all modern hero-worship and celebration of the Strong Man, the Caesar, the Superman. That he may be something more than man, WE must be something less.

Doubtless there is an older and better hero-worship than this. But the old hero was a being who, like Achilles, was more human than humanity itself. Nietzsche’s Superman is cold and friendless. Achilles is so foolishly fond of his friend that he slaughters armies in the agony of his bereavement. Mr. Shaw’s sad Caesar says in his desolate pride, “He who has never hoped can never despair.” The Man-God of old answers from his awful hill, “Was ever sorrow like unto my sorrow?” A great man is not a man so strong that he feels less than other men; he is a man so strong that he feels more. And when Nietszche says, “A new commandment I give to you, ‘be hard,’” he is really saying, “A new commandment I give to you, ‘be dead.’” Sensibility is the definition of life.

I recur for a last word to Jack the Giant-Killer. I have dwelt on this matter of Mr. Wells and the giants, not because it is specially prominent in his mind; I know that the Superman does not bulk so large in his cosmos as in that of Mr. Bernard Shaw. I have dwelt on it for the opposite reason; because this heresy of immoral hero-worship has taken, I think, a slighter hold of him, and may perhaps still be prevented from perverting one of the best thinkers of the day. In the course of “The New Utopia” Mr. Wells makes more than one admiring allusion to Mr. W. E. Henley. That clever and unhappy man lived in admiration of a vague violence, and was always going back to rude old tales and rude old ballads, to strong and primitive literatures, to find the praise of strength and the justification of tyranny. But he could not find it. It is not there. The primitive literature is shown in the tale of Jack the Giant-Killer. The strong old literature is all in praise of the weak. The rude old tales are as tender to minorities as any modern political idealist. The rude old ballads are as sentimentally concerned for the under-dog as the Aborigines Protection Society. When men were tough and raw, when they lived amid hard knocks and hard laws, when they knew what fighting really was, they had only two kinds of songs. The first was a rejoicing that the weak had conquered the strong, the second a lamentation that the strong had, for once in a way, conquered the weak. For this defiance of the statu quo, this constant effort to alter the existing balance, this premature challenge to the powerful, is the whole nature and inmost secret of the psychological adventure which is called man. It is his strength to disdain strength. The forlorn hope is not only a real hope, it is the only real hope of mankind. In the coarsest ballads of the greenwood men are admired most when they defy, not only the king, but what is more to the point, the hero. The moment Robin Hood becomes a sort of Superman, that moment the chivalrous chronicler shows us Robin thrashed by a poor tinker whom he thought to thrust aside. And the chivalrous chronicler makes Robin Hood receive the thrashing in a glow of admiration. This magnanimity is not a product of modern humanitarianism; it is not a product of anything to do with peace. This magnanimity is merely one of the lost arts of war. The Henleyites call for a sturdy and fighting England, and they go back to the fierce old stories of the sturdy and fighting English. And the thing that they find written across that fierce old literature everywhere, is “the policy of Majuba.”

VI. Christmas and the Aesthetes

The world is round, so round that the schools of optimism and pessimism have been arguing from the beginning whether it is the right way up. The difficulty does not arise so much from the mere fact that good and evil are mingled in roughly equal proportions; it arises chiefly from the fact that men always differ about what parts are good and what evil. Hence the difficulty which besets “undenominational religions.” They profess to include what is beautiful in all creeds, but they appear to many to have collected all that is dull in them. All the colours mixed together in purity ought to make a perfect white. Mixed together on any human paint-box, they make a thing like mud, and a thing very like many new religions. Such a blend is often something much worse than any one creed taken separately, even the creed of the Thugs. The error arises from the difficulty of detecting what is really the good part and what is really the bad part of any given religion. And this pathos falls rather heavily on those persons who have the misfortune to think of some religion or other, that the parts commonly counted good are bad, and the parts commonly counted bad are good.

It is tragic to admire and honestly admire a human group, but to admire it in a photographic negative. It is difficult to congratulate all their whites on being black and all their blacks on their whiteness. This will often happen to us in connection with human religions. Take two institutions which bear witness to the religious energy of the nineteenth century. Take the Salvation Army and the philosophy of Auguste Comte.

The usual verdict of educated people on the Salvation Army is expressed in some such words as these: “I have no doubt they do a great deal of good, but they do it in a vulgar and profane style; their aims are excellent, but their methods are wrong.” To me, unfortunately, the precise reverse of this appears to be the truth. I do not know whether the aims of the Salvation Army are excellent, but I am quite sure their methods are admirable. Their methods are the methods of all intense and hearty religions; they are popular like all religion, military like all religion, public and sensational like all religion. They are not reverent any more than Roman Catholics are reverent, for reverence in the sad and delicate meaning of the term reverence is a thing only possible to infidels. That beautiful twilight you will find in Euripides, in Renan, in Matthew Arnold; but in men who believe you will not find it—you will find only laughter and war. A man cannot pay that kind of reverence to truth solid as marble; they can only be reverent towards a beautiful lie. And the Salvation Army, though their voice has broken out in a mean environment and an ugly shape, are really the old voice of glad and angry faith, hot as the riots of Dionysus, wild as the gargoyles of Catholicism, not to be mistaken for a philosophy. Professor Huxley, in one of his clever phrases, called the Salvation Army “corybantic Christianity.” Huxley was the last and noblest of those Stoics who have never understood the Cross. If he had understood Christianity he would have known that there never has been, and never can be, any Christianity that is not corybantic.

And there is this difference between the matter of aims and the matter of methods, that to judge of the aims of a thing like the Salvation Army is very difficult, to judge of their ritual and atmosphere very easy. No one, perhaps, but a sociologist can see whether General Booth’s housing scheme is right. But any healthy person can see that banging brass cymbals together must be right. A page of statistics, a plan of model dwellings, anything which is rational, is always difficult for the lay mind. But the thing which is irrational any one can understand. That is why religion came so early into the world and spread so far, while science came so late into the world and has not spread at all. History unanimously attests the fact that it is only mysticism which stands the smallest chance of being understanded of the people. Common sense has to be kept as an esoteric secret in the dark temple of culture. And so while the philanthropy of the Salvationists and its genuineness may be a reasonable matter for the discussion of the doctors, there can be no doubt about the genuineness of their brass bands, for a brass band is purely spiritual, and seeks only to quicken the internal life. The object of philanthropy is to do good; the object of religion is to be good, if only for a moment, amid a crash of brass.

And the same antithesis exists about another modern religion— I mean the religion of Comte, generally known as Positivism, or the worship of humanity. Such men as Mr. Frederic Harrison, that brilliant and chivalrous philosopher, who still, by his mere personality, speaks for the creed, would tell us that he offers us the philosophy of Comte, but not all Comte’s fantastic proposals for pontiffs and ceremonials, the new calendar, the new holidays and saints’ days. He does not mean that we should dress ourselves up as priests of humanity or let off fireworks because it is Milton’s birthday. To the solid English Comtist all this appears, he confesses, to be a little absurd. To me it appears the only sensible part of Comtism. As a philosophy it is unsatisfactory. It is evidently impossible to worship humanity, just as it is impossible to worship the Savile Club; both are excellent institutions to which we may happen to belong. But we perceive clearly that the Savile Club did not make the stars and does not fill the universe. And it is surely unreasonable to attack the doctrine of the Trinity as a piece of bewildering mysticism, and then to ask men to worship a being who is ninety million persons in one God, neither confounding the persons nor dividing the substance.

But if the wisdom of Comte was insufficient, the folly of Comte was wisdom. In an age of dusty modernity, when beauty was thought of as something barbaric and ugliness as something sensible, he alone saw that men must always have the sacredness of mummery. He saw that while the brutes have all the useful things, the things that are truly human are the useless ones. He saw the falsehood of that almost universal notion of to-day, the notion that rites and forms are something artificial, additional, and corrupt. Ritual is really much older than thought; it is much simpler and much wilder than thought. A feeling touching the nature of things does not only make men feel that there are certain proper things to say; it makes them feel that there are certain proper things to do. The more agreeable of these consist of dancing, building temples, and shouting very loud; the less agreeable, of wearing green carnations and burning other philosophers alive. But everywhere the religious dance came before the religious hymn, and man was a ritualist before he could speak. If Comtism had spread the world would have been converted, not by the Comtist philosophy, but by the Comtist calendar. By discouraging what they conceive to be the weakness of their master, the English Positivists have broken the strength of their religion. A man who has faith must be prepared not only to be a martyr, but to be a fool. It is absurd to say that a man is ready to toil and die for his convictions when he is not even ready to wear a wreath round his head for them. I myself, to take a corpus vile, am very certain that I would not read the works of Comte through for any consideration whatever. But I can easily imagine myself with the greatest enthusiasm lighting a bonfire on Darwin Day.

That splendid effort failed, and nothing in the style of it has succeeded. There has been no rationalist festival, no rationalist ecstasy. Men are still in black for the death of God. When Christianity was heavily bombarded in the last century upon no point was it more persistently and brilliantly attacked than upon that of its alleged enmity to human joy. Shelley and Swinburne and all their armies have passed again and again over the ground, but they have not altered it. They have not set up a single new trophy or ensign for the world’s merriment to rally to. They have not given a name or a new occasion of gaiety. Mr. Swinburne does not hang up his stocking on the eve of the birthday of Victor Hugo. Mr. William Archer does not sing carols descriptive of the infancy of Ibsen outside people’s doors in the snow. In the round of our rational and mournful year one festival remains out of all those ancient gaieties that once covered the whole earth. Christmas remains to remind us of those ages, whether Pagan or Christian, when the many acted poetry instead of the few writing it. In all the winter in our woods there is no tree in glow but the holly.

The strange truth about the matter is told in the very word “holiday.” A bank holiday means presumably a day which bankers regard as holy. A half-holiday means, I suppose, a day on which a schoolboy is only partially holy. It is hard to see at first sight why so human a thing as leisure and larkiness should always have a religious origin. Rationally there appears no reason why we should not sing and give each other presents in honour of anything—the birth of Michael Angelo or the opening of Euston Station. But it does not work. As a fact, men only become greedily and gloriously material about something spiritualistic. Take away the Nicene Creed and similar things, and you do some strange wrong to the sellers of sausages. Take away the strange beauty of the saints, and what has remained to us is the far stranger ugliness of Wandsworth. Take away the supernatural, and what remains is the unnatural.

And now I have to touch upon a very sad matter. There are in the modern world an admirable class of persons who really make protest on behalf of that antiqua pulchritudo of which Augustine spoke, who do long for the old feasts and formalities of the childhood of the world. William Morris and his followers showed how much brighter were the dark ages than the age of Manchester. Mr. W. B. Yeats frames his steps in prehistoric dances, but no man knows and joins his voice to forgotten choruses that no one but he can hear. Mr. George Moore collects every fragment of Irish paganism that the forgetfulness of the Catholic Church has left or possibly her wisdom preserved. There are innumerable persons with eye-glasses and green garments who pray for the return of the maypole or the Olympian games. But there is about these people a haunting and alarming something which suggests that it is just possible that they do not keep Christmas. It is painful to regard human nature in such a light, but it seems somehow possible that Mr. George Moore does not wave his spoon and shout when the pudding is set alight. It is even possible that Mr. W. B. Yeats never pulls crackers. If so, where is the sense of all their dreams of festive traditions? Here is a solid and ancient festive tradition still plying a roaring trade in the streets, and they think it vulgar. if this is so, let them be very certain of this, that they are the kind of people who in the time of the maypole would have thought the maypole vulgar; who in the time of the Canterbury pilgrimage would have thought the Canterbury pilgrimage vulgar; who in the time of the Olympian games would have thought the Olympian games vulgar. Nor can there be any reasonable doubt that they were vulgar. Let no man deceive himself; if by vulgarity we mean coarseness of speech, rowdiness of behaviour, gossip, horseplay, and some heavy drinking, vulgarity there always was wherever there was joy, wherever there was faith in the gods. Wherever you have belief you will have hilarity, wherever you have hilarity you will have some dangers. And as creed and mythology produce this gross and vigorous life, so in its turn this gross and vigorous life will always produce creed and mythology. If we ever get the English back on to the English land they will become again a religious people, if all goes well, a superstitious people. The absence from modern life of both the higher and lower forms of faith is largely due to a divorce from nature and the trees and clouds. If we have no more turnip ghosts it is chiefly from the lack of turnips.

VII. Omar and the Sacred Vine

A new morality has burst upon us with some violence in connection with the problem of strong drink; and enthusiasts in the matter range from the man who is violently thrown out at 12.30, to the lady who smashes American bars with an axe. In these discussions it is almost always felt that one very wise and moderate position is to say that wine or such stuff should only be drunk as a medicine. With this I should venture to disagree with a peculiar ferocity. The one genuinely dangerous and immoral way of drinking wine is to drink it as a medicine. And for this reason: If a man drinks wine in order to obtain pleasure, he is trying to obtain something exceptional, something he does not expect every hour of the day, something which, unless he is a little insane, he will not try to get every hour of the day. But if a man drinks wine in order to obtain health, he is trying to get something natural; something, that is, that he ought not to be without; something that he may find it difficult to reconcile himself to being without. The man may not be seduced who has seen the ecstasy of being ecstatic; it is more dazzling to catch a glimpse of the ecstasy of being ordinary. If there were a magic ointment, and we took it to a strong man, and said, “This will enable you to jump off the Monument,” doubtless he would jump off the Monument, but he would not jump off the Monument all day long to the delight of the City. But if we took it to a blind man, saying, “This will enable you to see,” he would be under a heavier temptation. It would be hard for him not to rub it on his eyes whenever he heard the hoof of a noble horse or the birds singing at daybreak. It is easy to deny one’s self festivity; it is difficult to deny one’s self normality. Hence comes the fact which every doctor knows, that it is often perilous to give alcohol to the sick even when they need it. I need hardly say that I do not mean that I think the giving of alcohol to the sick for stimulus is necessarily unjustifiable. But I do mean that giving it to the healthy for fun is the proper use of it, and a great deal more consistent with health.

The sound rule in the matter would appear to be like many other sound rules—a paradox. Drink because you are happy, but never because you are miserable. Never drink when you are wretched without it, or you will be like the grey-faced gin-drinker in the slum; but drink when you would be happy without it, and you will be like the laughing peasant of Italy. Never drink because you need it, for this is rational drinking, and the way to death and hell. But drink because you do not need it, for this is irrational drinking, and the ancient health of the world.

For more than thirty years the shadow and glory of a great Eastern figure has lain upon our English literature. Fitzgerald’s translation of Omar Khayyam concentrated into an immortal poignancy all the dark and drifting hedonism of our time. Of the literary splendour of that work it would be merely banal to speak; in few other of the books of men has there been anything so combining the gay pugnacity of an epigram with the vague sadness of a song. But of its philosophical, ethical, and religious influence which has been almost as great as its brilliancy, I should like to say a word, and that word, I confess, one of uncompromising hostility. There are a great many things which might be said against the spirit of the Rubaiyat, and against its prodigious influence. But one matter of indictment towers ominously above the rest— a genuine disgrace to it, a genuine calamity to us. This is the terrible blow that this great poem has struck against sociability and the joy of life. Some one called Omar “the sad, glad old Persian.” Sad he is; glad he is not, in any sense of the word whatever. He has been a worse foe to gladness than the Puritans.

A pensive and graceful Oriental lies under the rose-tree with his wine-pot and his scroll of poems. It may seem strange that any one’s thoughts should, at the moment of regarding him, fly back to the dark bedside where the doctor doles out brandy. It may seem stranger still that they should go back to the grey wastrel shaking with gin in Houndsditch. But a great philosophical unity links the three in an evil bond. Omar Khayyam’s wine-bibbing is bad, not because it is wine-bibbing. It is bad, and very bad, because it is medical wine-bibbing. It is the drinking of a man who drinks because he is not happy. His is the wine that shuts out the universe, not the wine that reveals it. It is not poetical drinking, which is joyous and instinctive; it is rational drinking, which is as prosaic as an investment, as unsavoury as a dose of camomile. Whole heavens above it, from the point of view of sentiment, though not of style, rises the splendour of some old English drinking-song

“Then pass the bowl, my comrades all, And let the zider vlow.”

For this song was caught up by happy men to express the worth of truly worthy things, of brotherhood and garrulity, and the brief and kindly leisure of the poor. Of course, the great part of the more stolid reproaches directed against the Omarite morality are as false and babyish as such reproaches usually are. One critic, whose work I have read, had the incredible foolishness to call Omar an atheist and a materialist. It is almost impossible for an Oriental to be either; the East understands metaphysics too well for that. Of course, the real objection which a philosophical Christian would bring against the religion of Omar, is not that he gives no place to God, it is that he gives too much place to God. His is that terrible theism which can imagine nothing else but deity, and which denies altogether the outlines of human personality and human will.

“The ball no question makes of Ayes or Noes, But Here or There as strikes the Player goes; And He that tossed you down into the field, He knows about it all—he knows—he knows.”

A Christian thinker such as Augustine or Dante would object to this because it ignores free-will, which is the valour and dignity of the soul. The quarrel of the highest Christianity with this scepticism is not in the least that the scepticism denies the existence of God; it is that it denies the existence of man.

In this cult of the pessimistic pleasure-seeker the Rubaiyat stands first in our time; but it does not stand alone. Many of the most brilliant intellects of our time have urged us to the same self-conscious snatching at a rare delight. Walter Pater said that we were all under sentence of death, and the only course was to enjoy exquisite moments simply for those moments’ sake. The same lesson was taught by the very powerful and very desolate philosophy of Oscar Wilde. It is the carpe diem religion; but the carpe diem religion is not the religion of happy people, but of very unhappy people. Great joy does not gather the rosebuds while it may; its eyes are fixed on the immortal rose which Dante saw. Great joy has in it the sense of immortality; the very splendour of youth is the sense that it has all space to stretch its legs in. In all great comic literature, in “Tristram Shandy” or “Pickwick,” there is this sense of space and incorruptibility; we feel the characters are deathless people in an endless tale.

It is true enough, of course, that a pungent happiness comes chiefly in certain passing moments; but it is not true that we should think of them as passing, or enjoy them simply “for those moments’ sake.” To do this is to rationalize the happiness, and therefore to destroy it. Happiness is a mystery like religion, and should never be rationalized. Suppose a man experiences a really splendid moment of pleasure. I do not mean something connected with a bit of enamel, I mean something with a violent happiness in it—an almost painful happiness. A man may have, for instance, a moment of ecstasy in first love, or a moment of victory in battle. The lover enjoys the moment, but precisely not for the moment’s sake. He enjoys it for the woman’s sake, or his own sake. The warrior enjoys the moment, but not for the sake of the moment; he enjoys it for the sake of the flag. The cause which the flag stands for may be foolish and fleeting; the love may be calf-love, and last a week. But the patriot thinks of the flag as eternal; the lover thinks of his love as something that cannot end. These moments are filled with eternity; these moments are joyful because they do not seem momentary. Once look at them as moments after Pater’s manner, and they become as cold as Pater and his style. Man cannot love mortal things. He can only love immortal things for an instant.

Pater’s mistake is revealed in his most famous phrase. He asks us to burn with a hard, gem-like flame. Flames are never hard and never gem-like—they cannot be handled or arranged. So human emotions are never hard and never gem-like; they are always dangerous, like flames, to touch or even to examine. There is only one way in which our passions can become hard and gem-like, and that is by becoming as cold as gems. No blow then has ever been struck at the natural loves and laughter of men so sterilizing as this carpe diem of the aesthetes. For any kind of pleasure a totally different spirit is required; a certain shyness, a certain indeterminate hope, a certain boyish expectation. Purity and simplicity are essential to passions— yes even to evil passions. Even vice demands a sort of virginity.

Omar’s (or Fitzgerald’s) effect upon the other world we may let go, his hand upon this world has been heavy and paralyzing. The Puritans, as I have said, are far jollier than he. The new ascetics who follow Thoreau or Tolstoy are much livelier company; for, though the surrender of strong drink and such luxuries may strike us as an idle negation, it may leave a man with innumerable natural pleasures, and, above all, with man’s natural power of happiness. Thoreau could enjoy the sunrise without a cup of coffee. If Tolstoy cannot admire marriage, at least he is healthy enough to admire mud. Nature can be enjoyed without even the most natural luxuries. A good bush needs no wine. But neither nature nor wine nor anything else can be enjoyed if we have the wrong attitude towards happiness, and Omar (or Fitzgerald) did have the wrong attitude towards happiness. He and those he has influenced do not see that if we are to be truly gay, we must believe that there is some eternal gaiety in the nature of things. We cannot enjoy thoroughly even a pas-de-quatre at a subscription dance unless we believe that the stars are dancing to the same tune. No one can be really hilarious but the serious man. “Wine,” says the Scripture, “maketh glad the heart of man,” but only of the man who has a heart. The thing called high spirits is possible only to the spiritual. Ultimately a man cannot rejoice in anything except the nature of things. Ultimately a man can enjoy nothing except religion. Once in the world’s history men did believe that the stars were dancing to the tune of their temples, and they danced as men have never danced since. With this old pagan eudaemonism the sage of the Rubaiyat has quite as little to do as he has with any Christian variety. He is no more a Bacchanal than he is a saint. Dionysus and his church was grounded on a serious joie-de-vivre like that of Walt Whitman. Dionysus made wine, not a medicine, but a sacrament. Jesus Christ also made wine, not a medicine, but a sacrament. But Omar makes it, not a sacrament, but a medicine. He feasts because life is not joyful; he revels because he is not glad. “Drink,” he says, “for you know not whence you come nor why. Drink, for you know not when you go nor where. Drink, because the stars are cruel and the world as idle as a humming-top. Drink, because there is nothing worth trusting, nothing worth fighting for. Drink, because all things are lapsed in a base equality and an evil peace.” So he stands offering us the cup in his hand. And at the high altar of Christianity stands another figure, in whose hand also is the cup of the vine. “Drink” he says “for the whole world is as red as this wine, with the crimson of the love and wrath of God. Drink, for the trumpets are blowing for battle and this is the stirrup-cup. Drink, for this my blood of the new testament that is shed for you. Drink, for I know of whence you come and why. Drink, for I know of when you go and where.”

VIII. The Mildness of the Yellow Press

There is a great deal of protest made from one quarter or another nowadays against the influence of that new journalism which is associated with the names of Sir Alfred Harmsworth and Mr. Pearson. But almost everybody who attacks it attacks on the ground that it is very sensational, very violent and vulgar and startling. I am speaking in no affected contrariety, but in the simplicity of a genuine personal impression, when I say that this journalism offends as being not sensational or violent enough. The real vice is not that it is startling, but that it is quite insupportably tame. The whole object is to keep carefully along a certain level of the expected and the commonplace; it may be low, but it must take care also to be flat. Never by any chance in it is there any of that real plebeian pungency which can be heard from the ordinary cabman in the ordinary street. We have heard of a certain standard of decorum which demands that things should be funny without being vulgar, but the standard of this decorum demands that if things are vulgar they shall be vulgar without being funny. This journalism does not merely fail to exaggerate life—it positively underrates it; and it has to do so because it is intended for the faint and languid recreation of men whom the fierceness of modern life has fatigued. This press is not the yellow press at all; it is the drab press. Sir Alfred Harmsworth must not address to the tired clerk any observation more witty than the tired clerk might be able to address to Sir Alfred Harmsworth. It must not expose anybody (anybody who is powerful, that is), it must not offend anybody, it must not even please anybody, too much. A general vague idea that in spite of all this, our yellow press is sensational, arises from such external accidents as large type or lurid headlines. It is quite true that these editors print everything they possibly can in large capital letters. But they do this, not because it is startling, but because it is soothing. To people wholly weary or partly drunk in a dimly lighted train, it is a simplification and a comfort to have things presented in this vast and obvious manner. The editors use this gigantic alphabet in dealing with their readers, for exactly the same reason that parents and governesses use a similar gigantic alphabet in teaching children to spell. The nursery authorities do not use an A as big as a horseshoe in order to make the child jump; on the contrary, they use it to put the child at his ease, to make things smoother and more evident. Of the same character is the dim and quiet dame school which Sir Alfred Harmsworth and Mr. Pearson keep. All their sentiments are spelling-book sentiments—that is to say, they are sentiments with which the pupil is already respectfully familiar. All their wildest posters are leaves torn from a copy-book.

Of real sensational journalism, as it exists in France, in Ireland, and in America, we have no trace in this country. When a journalist in Ireland wishes to create a thrill, he creates a thrill worth talking about. He denounces a leading Irish member for corruption, or he charges the whole police system with a wicked and definite conspiracy. When a French journalist desires a frisson there is a frisson; he discovers, let us say, that the President of the Republic has murdered three wives. Our yellow journalists invent quite as unscrupulously as this; their moral condition is, as regards careful veracity, about the same. But it is their mental calibre which happens to be such that they can only invent calm and even reassuring things. The fictitious version of the massacre of the envoys of Pekin was mendacious, but it was not interesting, except to those who had private reasons for terror or sorrow. It was not connected with any bold and suggestive view of the Chinese situation. It revealed only a vague idea that nothing could be impressive except a great deal of blood. Real sensationalism, of which I happen to be very fond, may be either moral or immoral. But even when it is most immoral, it requires moral courage. For it is one of the most dangerous things on earth genuinely to surprise anybody. If you make any sentient creature jump, you render it by no means improbable that it will jump on you. But the leaders of this movement have no moral courage or immoral courage; their whole method consists in saying, with large and elaborate emphasis, the things which everybody else says casually, and without remembering what they have said. When they brace themselves up to attack anything, they never reach the point of attacking anything which is large and real, and would resound with the shock. They do not attack the army as men do in France, or the judges as men do in Ireland, or the democracy itself as men did in England a hundred years ago. They attack something like the War Office—something, that is, which everybody attacks and nobody bothers to defend, something which is an old joke in fourth-rate comic papers. Just as a man shows he has a weak voice by straining it to shout, so they show the hopelessly unsensational nature of their minds when they really try to be sensational. With the whole world full of big and dubious institutions, with the whole wickedness of civilization staring them in the face, their idea of being bold and bright is to attack the War Office. They might as well start a campaign against the weather, or form a secret society in order to make jokes about mothers-in-law. Nor is it only from the point of view of particular amateurs of the sensational such as myself, that it is permissible to say, in the words of Cowper’s Alexander Selkirk, that “their tameness is shocking to me.” The whole modern world is pining for a genuinely sensational journalism. This has been discovered by that very able and honest journalist, Mr. Blatchford, who started his campaign against Christianity, warned on all sides, I believe, that it would ruin his paper, but who continued from an honourable sense of intellectual responsibility. He discovered, however, that while he had undoubtedly shocked his readers, he had also greatly advanced his newspaper. It was bought—first, by all the people who agreed with him and wanted to read it; and secondly, by all the people who disagreed with him, and wanted to write him letters. Those letters were voluminous (I helped, I am glad to say, to swell their volume), and they were generally inserted with a generous fulness. Thus was accidentally discovered (like the steam-engine) the great journalistic maxim— that if an editor can only make people angry enough, they will write half his newspaper for him for nothing.

Some hold that such papers as these are scarcely the proper objects of so serious a consideration; but that can scarcely be maintained from a political or ethical point of view. In this problem of the mildness and tameness of the Harmsworth mind there is mirrored the outlines of a much larger problem which is akin to it.

The Harmsworthian journalist begins with a worship of success and violence, and ends in sheer timidity and mediocrity. But he is not alone in this, nor does he come by this fate merely because he happens personally to be stupid. Every man, however brave, who begins by worshipping violence, must end in mere timidity. Every man, however wise, who begins by worshipping success, must end in mere mediocrity. This strange and paradoxical fate is involved, not in the individual, but in the philosophy, in the point of view. It is not the folly of the man which brings about this necessary fall; it is his wisdom. The worship of success is the only one out of all possible worships of which this is true, that its followers are foredoomed to become slaves and cowards. A man may be a hero for the sake of Mrs. Gallup’s ciphers or for the sake of human sacrifice, but not for the sake of success. For obviously a man may choose to fail because he loves Mrs. Gallup or human sacrifice; but he cannot choose to fail because he loves success. When the test of triumph is men’s test of everything, they never endure long enough to triumph at all. As long as matters are really hopeful, hope is a mere flattery or platitude; it is only when everything is hopeless that hope begins to be a strength at all. Like all the Christian virtues, it is as unreasonable as it is indispensable.

It was through this fatal paradox in the nature of things that all these modern adventurers come at last to a sort of tedium and acquiescence. They desired strength; and to them to desire strength was to admire strength; to admire strength was simply to admire the statu quo. They thought that he who wished to be strong ought to respect the strong. They did not realize the obvious verity that he who wishes to be strong must despise the strong. They sought to be everything, to have the whole force of the cosmos behind them, to have an energy that would drive the stars. But they did not realize the two great facts—first, that in the attempt to be everything the first and most difficult step is to be something; second, that the moment a man is something, he is essentially defying everything. The lower animals, say the men of science, fought their way up with a blind selfishness. If this be so, the only real moral of it is that our unselfishness, if it is to triumph, must be equally blind. The mammoth did not put his head on one side and wonder whether mammoths were a little out of date. Mammoths were at least as much up to date as that individual mammoth could make them. The great elk did not say, “Cloven hoofs are very much worn now.” He polished his own weapons for his own use. But in the reasoning animal there has arisen a more horrible danger, that he may fail through perceiving his own failure. When modern sociologists talk of the necessity of accommodating one’s self to the trend of the time, they forget that the trend of the time at its best consists entirely of people who will not accommodate themselves to anything. At its worst it consists of many millions of frightened creatures all accommodating themselves to a trend that is not there. And that is becoming more and more the situation of modern England. Every man speaks of public opinion, and means by public opinion, public opinion minus his opinion. Every man makes his contribution negative under the erroneous impression that the next man’s contribution is positive. Every man surrenders his fancy to a general tone which is itself a surrender. And over all the heartless and fatuous unity spreads this new and wearisome and platitudinous press, incapable of invention, incapable of audacity, capable only of a servility all the more contemptible because it is not even a servility to the strong. But all who begin with force and conquest will end in this.

The chief characteristic of the “New journalism” is simply that it is bad journalism. It is beyond all comparison the most shapeless, careless, and colourless work done in our day.

I read yesterday a sentence which should be written in letters of gold and adamant; it is the very motto of the new philosophy of Empire. I found it (as the reader has already eagerly guessed) in Pearson’s Magazine, while I was communing (soul to soul) with Mr. C. Arthur Pearson, whose first and suppressed name I am afraid is Chilperic. It occurred in an article on the American Presidential Election. This is the sentence, and every one should read it carefully, and roll it on the tongue, till all the honey be tasted.

“A little sound common sense often goes further with an audience of American working-men than much high-flown argument. A speaker who, as he brought forward his points, hammered nails into a board, won hundreds of votes for his side at the last Presidential Election.”

I do not wish to soil this perfect thing with comment; the words of Mercury are harsh after the songs of Apollo. But just think for a moment of the mind, the strange inscrutable mind, of the man who wrote that, of the editor who approved it, of the people who are probably impressed by it, of the incredible American working-man, of whom, for all I know, it may be true. Think what their notion of “common sense” must be! It is delightful to realize that you and I are now able to win thousands of votes should we ever be engaged in a Presidential Election, by doing something of this kind. For I suppose the nails and the board are not essential to the exhibition of “common sense;” there may be variations. We may read—

“A little common sense impresses American working-men more than high-flown argument. A speaker who, as he made his points, pulled buttons off his waistcoat, won thousands of votes for his side.” Or, “Sound common sense tells better in America than high-flown argument. Thus Senator Budge, who threw his false teeth in the air every time he made an epigram, won the solid approval of American working-men.” Or again, “The sound common sense of a gentleman from Earlswood, who stuck straws in his hair during the progress of his speech, assured the victory of Mr. Roosevelt.”

There are many other elements in this article on which I should love to linger. But the matter which I wish to point out is that in that sentence is perfectly revealed the whole truth of what our Chamberlainites, hustlers, bustlers, Empire-builders, and strong, silent men, really mean by “common sense.” They mean knocking, with deafening noise and dramatic effect, meaningless bits of iron into a useless bit of wood. A man goes on to an American platform and behaves like a mountebank fool with a board and a hammer; well, I do not blame him; I might even admire him. He may be a dashing and quite decent strategist. He may be a fine romantic actor, like Burke flinging the dagger on the floor. He may even (for all I know) be a sublime mystic, profoundly impressed with the ancient meaning of the divine trade of the Carpenter, and offering to the people a parable in the form of a ceremony. All I wish to indicate is the abyss of mental confusion in which such wild ritualism can be called “sound common sense.” And it is in that abyss of mental confusion, and in that alone, that the new Imperialism lives and moves and has its being. The whole glory and greatness of Mr. Chamberlain consists in this: that if a man hits the right nail on the head nobody cares where he hits it to or what it does. They care about the noise of the hammer, not about the silent drip of the nail. Before and throughout the African war, Mr. Chamberlain was always knocking in nails, with ringing decisiveness. But when we ask, “But what have these nails held together? Where is your carpentry? Where are your contented Outlanders? Where is your free South Africa? Where is your British prestige? What have your nails done?” then what answer is there? We must go back (with an affectionate sigh) to our Pearson for the answer to the question of what the nails have done: “The speaker who hammered nails into a board won thousands of votes.”

Now the whole of this passage is admirably characteristic of the new journalism which Mr. Pearson represents, the new journalism which has just purchased the Standard. To take one instance out of hundreds, the incomparable man with the board and nails is described in the Pearson’s article as calling out (as he smote the symbolic nail), “Lie number one. Nailed to the Mast! Nailed to the Mast!” In the whole office there was apparently no compositor or office-boy to point out that we speak of lies being nailed to the counter, and not to the mast. Nobody in the office knew that Pearson’s Magazine was falling into a stale Irish bull, which must be as old as St. Patrick. This is the real and essential tragedy of the sale of the Standard. It is not merely that journalism is victorious over literature. It is that bad journalism is victorious over good journalism.

It is not that one article which we consider costly and beautiful is being ousted by another kind of article which we consider common or unclean. It is that of the same article a worse quality is preferred to a better. If you like popular journalism (as I do), you will know that Pearson’s Magazine is poor and weak popular journalism. You will know it as certainly as you know bad butter. You will know as certainly that it is poor popular journalism as you know that the Strand, in the great days of Sherlock Holmes, was good popular journalism. Mr. Pearson has been a monument of this enormous banality. About everything he says and does there is something infinitely weak-minded. He clamours for home trades and employs foreign ones to print his paper. When this glaring fact is pointed out, he does not say that the thing was an oversight, like a sane man. He cuts it off with scissors, like a child of three. His very cunning is infantile. And like a child of three, he does not cut it quite off. In all human records I doubt if there is such an example of a profound simplicity in deception. This is the sort of intelligence which now sits in the seat of the sane and honourable old Tory journalism. If it were really the triumph of the tropical exuberance of the Yankee press, it would be vulgar, but still tropical. But it is not. We are delivered over to the bramble, and from the meanest of the shrubs comes the fire upon the cedars of Lebanon.

The only question now is how much longer the fiction will endure that journalists of this order represent public opinion. It may be doubted whether any honest and serious Tariff Reformer would for a moment maintain that there was any majority for Tariff Reform in the country comparable to the ludicrous preponderance which money has given it among the great dailies. The only inference is that for purposes of real public opinion the press is now a mere plutocratic oligarchy. Doubtless the public buys the wares of these men, for one reason or another. But there is no more reason to suppose that the public admires their politics than that the public admires the delicate philosophy of Mr. Crosse or the darker and sterner creed of Mr. Blackwell. If these men are merely tradesmen, there is nothing to say except that there are plenty like them in the Battersea Park Road, and many much better. But if they make any sort of attempt to be politicians, we can only point out to them that they are not as yet even good journalists.

IX. The Moods of Mr. George Moore

Mr. George Moore began his literary career by writing his personal confessions; nor is there any harm in this if he had not continued them for the remainder of his life. He is a man of genuinely forcible mind and of great command over a kind of rhetorical and fugitive conviction which excites and pleases. He is in a perpetual state of temporary honesty. He has admired all the most admirable modern eccentrics until they could stand it no longer. Everything he writes, it is to be fully admitted, has a genuine mental power. His account of his reason for leaving the Roman Catholic Church is possibly the most admirable tribute to that communion which has been written of late years. For the fact of the matter is, that the weakness which has rendered barren the many brilliancies of Mr. Moore is actually that weakness which the Roman Catholic Church is at its best in combating. Mr. Moore hates Catholicism because it breaks up the house of looking-glasses in which he lives. Mr. Moore does not dislike so much being asked to believe in the spiritual existence of miracles or sacraments, but he does fundamentally dislike being asked to believe in the actual existence of other people. Like his master Pater and all the aesthetes, his real quarrel with life is that it is not a dream that can be moulded by the dreamer. It is not the dogma of the reality of the other world that troubles him, but the dogma of the reality of this world.

The truth is that the tradition of Christianity (which is still the only coherent ethic of Europe) rests on two or three paradoxes or mysteries which can easily be impugned in argument and as easily justified in life. One of them, for instance, is the paradox of hope or faith— that the more hopeless is the situation the more hopeful must be the man. Stevenson understood this, and consequently Mr. Moore cannot understand Stevenson. Another is the paradox of charity or chivalry that the weaker a thing is the more it should be respected, that the more indefensible a thing is the more it should appeal to us for a certain kind of defence. Thackeray understood this, and therefore Mr. Moore does not understand Thackeray. Now, one of these very practical and working mysteries in the Christian tradition, and one which the Roman Catholic Church, as I say, has done her best work in singling out, is the conception of the sinfulness of pride. Pride is a weakness in the character; it dries up laughter, it dries up wonder, it dries up chivalry and energy. The Christian tradition understands this; therefore Mr. Moore does not understand the Christian tradition.

For the truth is much stranger even than it appears in the formal doctrine of the sin of pride. It is not only true that humility is a much wiser and more vigorous thing than pride. It is also true that vanity is a much wiser and more vigorous thing than pride. Vanity is social—it is almost a kind of comradeship; pride is solitary and uncivilized. Vanity is active; it desires the applause of infinite multitudes; pride is passive, desiring only the applause of one person, which it already has. Vanity is humorous, and can enjoy the joke even of itself; pride is dull, and cannot even smile. And the whole of this difference is the difference between Stevenson and Mr. George Moore, who, as he informs us, has “brushed Stevenson aside.” I do not know where he has been brushed to, but wherever it is I fancy he is having a good time, because he had the wisdom to be vain, and not proud. Stevenson had a windy vanity; Mr. Moore has a dusty egoism. Hence Stevenson could amuse himself as well as us with his vanity; while the richest effects of Mr. Moore’s absurdity are hidden from his eyes.

If we compare this solemn folly with the happy folly with which Stevenson belauds his own books and berates his own critics, we shall not find it difficult to guess why it is that Stevenson at least found a final philosophy of some sort to live by, while Mr. Moore is always walking the world looking for a new one. Stevenson had found that the secret of life lies in laughter and humility. Self is the gorgon. Vanity sees it in the mirror of other men and lives. Pride studies it for itself and is turned to stone.

It is necessary to dwell on this defect in Mr. Moore, because it is really the weakness of work which is not without its strength. Mr. Moore’s egoism is not merely a moral weakness, it is a very constant and influential aesthetic weakness as well. We should really be much more interested in Mr. Moore if he were not quite so interested in himself. We feel as if we were being shown through a gallery of really fine pictures, into each of which, by some useless and discordant convention, the artist had represented the same figure in the same attitude. “The Grand Canal with a distant view of Mr. Moore,” “Effect of Mr. Moore through a Scotch Mist,” “Mr. Moore by Firelight,” “Ruins of Mr. Moore by Moonlight,” and so on, seems to be the endless series. He would no doubt reply that in such a book as this he intended to reveal himself. But the answer is that in such a book as this he does not succeed. One of the thousand objections to the sin of pride lies precisely in this, that self-consciousness of necessity destroys self-revelation. A man who thinks a great deal about himself will try to be many-sided, attempt a theatrical excellence at all points, will try to be an encyclopaedia of culture, and his own real personality will be lost in that false universalism. Thinking about himself will lead to trying to be the universe; trying to be the universe will lead to ceasing to be anything. If, on the other hand, a man is sensible enough to think only about the universe; he will think about it in his own individual way. He will keep virgin the secret of God; he will see the grass as no other man can see it, and look at a sun that no man has ever known. This fact is very practically brought out in Mr. Moore’s “Confessions.” In reading them we do not feel the presence of a clean-cut personality like that of Thackeray and Matthew Arnold. We only read a number of quite clever and largely conflicting opinions which might be uttered by any clever person, but which we are called upon to admire specifically, because they are uttered by Mr. Moore. He is the only thread that connects Catholicism and Protestantism, realism and mysticism—he or rather his name. He is profoundly absorbed even in views he no longer holds, and he expects us to be. And he intrudes the capital “I” even where it need not be intruded—even where it weakens the force of a plain statement. Where another man would say, “It is a fine day,” Mr. Moore says, “Seen through my temperament, the day appeared fine.” Where another man would say “Milton has obviously a fine style,” Mr. Moore would say, “As a stylist Milton had always impressed me.” The Nemesis of this self-centred spirit is that of being totally ineffectual. Mr. Moore has started many interesting crusades, but he has abandoned them before his disciples could begin. Even when he is on the side of the truth he is as fickle as the children of falsehood. Even when he has found reality he cannot find rest. One Irish quality he has which no Irishman was ever without—pugnacity; and that is certainly a great virtue, especially in the present age. But he has not the tenacity of conviction which goes with the fighting spirit in a man like Bernard Shaw. His weakness of introspection and selfishness in all their glory cannot prevent him fighting; but they will always prevent him winning.

X. On Sandals and Simplicity

The great misfortune of the modern English is not at all that they are more boastful than other people (they are not); it is that they are boastful about those particular things which nobody can boast of without losing them. A Frenchman can be proud of being bold and logical, and still remain bold and logical. A German can be proud of being reflective and orderly, and still remain reflective and orderly. But an Englishman cannot be proud of being simple and direct, and still remain simple and direct. In the matter of these strange virtues, to know them is to kill them. A man may be conscious of being heroic or conscious of being divine, but he cannot (in spite of all the Anglo-Saxon poets) be conscious of being unconscious.

Now, I do not think that it can be honestly denied that some portion of this impossibility attaches to a class very different in their own opinion, at least, to the school of Anglo-Saxonism. I mean that school of the simple life, commonly associated with Tolstoy. If a perpetual talk about one’s own robustness leads to being less robust, it is even more true that a perpetual talking about one’s own simplicity leads to being less simple. One great complaint, I think, must stand against the modern upholders of the simple life— the simple life in all its varied forms, from vegetarianism to the honourable consistency of the Doukhobors. This complaint against them stands, that they would make us simple in the unimportant things, but complex in the important things. They would make us simple in the things that do not matter— that is, in diet, in costume, in etiquette, in economic system. But they would make us complex in the things that do matter— in philosophy, in loyalty, in spiritual acceptance, and spiritual rejection. It does not so very much matter whether a man eats a grilled tomato or a plain tomato; it does very much matter whether he eats a plain tomato with a grilled mind. The only kind of simplicity worth preserving is the simplicity of the heart, the simplicity which accepts and enjoys. There may be a reasonable doubt as to what system preserves this; there can surely be no doubt that a system of simplicity destroys it. There is more simplicity in the man who eats caviar on impulse than in the man who eats grape-nuts on principle. The chief error of these people is to be found in the very phrase to which they are most attached—“plain living and high thinking.” These people do not stand in need of, will not be improved by, plain living and high thinking. They stand in need of the contrary. They would be improved by high living and plain thinking. A little high living (I say, having a full sense of responsibility, a little high living) would teach them the force and meaning of the human festivities, of the banquet that has gone on from the beginning of the world. It would teach them the historic fact that the artificial is, if anything, older than the natural. It would teach them that the loving-cup is as old as any hunger. It would teach them that ritualism is older than any religion. And a little plain thinking would teach them how harsh and fanciful are the mass of their own ethics, how very civilized and very complicated must be the brain of the Tolstoyan who really believes it to be evil to love one’s country and wicked to strike a blow.

A man approaches, wearing sandals and simple raiment, a raw tomato held firmly in his right hand, and says, “The affections of family and country alike are hindrances to the fuller development of human love;” but the plain thinker will only answer him, with a wonder not untinged with admiration, “What a great deal of trouble you must have taken in order to feel like that.” High living will reject the tomato. Plain thinking will equally decisively reject the idea of the invariable sinfulness of war. High living will convince us that nothing is more materialistic than to despise a pleasure as purely material. And plain thinking will convince us that nothing is more materialistic than to reserve our horror chiefly for material wounds.

The only simplicity that matters is the simplicity of the heart. If that be gone, it can be brought back by no turnips or cellular clothing; but only by tears and terror and the fires that are not quenched. If that remain, it matters very little if a few Early Victorian armchairs remain along with it. Let us put a complex entree into a simple old gentleman; let us not put a simple entree into a complex old gentleman. So long as human society will leave my spiritual inside alone, I will allow it, with a comparative submission, to work its wild will with my physical interior. I will submit to cigars. I will meekly embrace a bottle of Burgundy. I will humble myself to a hansom cab. If only by this means I may preserve to myself the virginity of the spirit, which enjoys with astonishment and fear. I do not say that these are the only methods of preserving it. I incline to the belief that there are others. But I will have nothing to do with simplicity which lacks the fear, the astonishment, and the joy alike. I will have nothing to do with the devilish vision of a child who is too simple to like toys.

The child is, indeed, in these, and many other matters, the best guide. And in nothing is the child so righteously childlike, in nothing does he exhibit more accurately the sounder order of simplicity, than in the fact that he sees everything with a simple pleasure, even the complex things. The false type of naturalness harps always on the distinction between the natural and the artificial. The higher kind of naturalness ignores that distinction. To the child the tree and the lamp-post are as natural and as artificial as each other; or rather, neither of them are natural but both supernatural. For both are splendid and unexplained. The flower with which God crowns the one, and the flame with which Sam the lamplighter crowns the other, are equally of the gold of fairy-tales. In the middle of the wildest fields the most rustic child is, ten to one, playing at steam-engines. And the only spiritual or philosophical objection to steam-engines is not that men pay for them or work at them, or make them very ugly, or even that men are killed by them; but merely that men do not play at them. The evil is that the childish poetry of clockwork does not remain. The wrong is not that engines are too much admired, but that they are not admired enough. The sin is not that engines are mechanical, but that men are mechanical.

In this matter, then, as in all the other matters treated in this book, our main conclusion is that it is a fundamental point of view, a philosophy or religion which is needed, and not any change in habit or social routine. The things we need most for immediate practical purposes are all abstractions. We need a right view of the human lot, a right view of the human society; and if we were living eagerly and angrily in the enthusiasm of those things, we should, ipso facto, be living simply in the genuine and spiritual sense. Desire and danger make every one simple. And to those who talk to us with interfering eloquence about Jaeger and the pores of the skin, and about Plasmon and the coats of the stomach, at them shall only be hurled the words that are hurled at fops and gluttons, “Take no thought what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink, or wherewithal ye shall be clothed. For after all these things do the Gentiles seek. But seek first the kingdom of God and His righteousness, and all these things shall be added unto you.” Those amazing words are not only extraordinarily good, practical politics; they are also superlatively good hygiene. The one supreme way of making all those processes go right, the processes of health, and strength, and grace, and beauty, the one and only way of making certain of their accuracy, is to think about something else. If a man is bent on climbing into the seventh heaven, he may be quite easy about the pores of his skin. If he harnesses his waggon to a star, the process will have a most satisfactory effect upon the coats of his stomach. For the thing called “taking thought,” the thing for which the best modern word is “rationalizing,” is in its nature, inapplicable to all plain and urgent things. Men take thought and ponder rationalistically, touching remote things— things that only theoretically matter, such as the transit of Venus. But only at their peril can men rationalize about so practical a matter as health.

XI. Science and the Savages

A permanent disadvantage of the study of folk-lore and kindred subjects is that the man of science can hardly be in the nature of things very frequently a man of the world. He is a student of nature; he is scarcely ever a student of human nature. And even where this difficulty is overcome, and he is in some sense a student of human nature, this is only a very faint beginning of the painful progress towards being human. For the study of primitive race and religion stands apart in one important respect from all, or nearly all, the ordinary scientific studies. A man can understand astronomy only by being an astronomer; he can understand entomology only by being an entomologist (or, perhaps, an insect); but he can understand a great deal of anthropology merely by being a man. He is himself the animal which he studies. Hence arises the fact which strikes the eye everywhere in the records of ethnology and folk-lore— the fact that the same frigid and detached spirit which leads to success in the study of astronomy or botany leads to disaster in the study of mythology or human origins. It is necessary to cease to be a man in order to do justice to a microbe; it is not necessary to cease to be a man in order to do justice to men. That same suppression of sympathies, that same waving away of intuitions or guess-work which make a man preternaturally clever in dealing with the stomach of a spider, will make him preternaturally stupid in dealing with the heart of man. He is making himself inhuman in order to understand humanity. An ignorance of the other world is boasted by many men of science; but in this matter their defect arises, not from ignorance of the other world, but from ignorance of this world. For the secrets about which anthropologists concern themselves can be best learnt, not from books or voyages, but from the ordinary commerce of man with man. The secret of why some savage tribe worships monkeys or the moon is not to be found even by travelling among those savages and taking down their answers in a note-book, although the cleverest man may pursue this course. The answer to the riddle is in England; it is in London; nay, it is in his own heart. When a man has discovered why men in Bond Street wear black hats he will at the same moment have discovered why men in Timbuctoo wear red feathers. The mystery in the heart of some savage war-dance should not be studied in books of scientific travel; it should be studied at a subscription ball. If a man desires to find out the origins of religions, let him not go to the Sandwich Islands; let him go to church. If a man wishes to know the origin of human society, to know what society, philosophically speaking, really is, let him not go into the British Museum; let him go into society.

This total misunderstanding of the real nature of ceremonial gives rise to the most awkward and dehumanized versions of the conduct of men in rude lands or ages. The man of science, not realizing that ceremonial is essentially a thing which is done without a reason, has to find a reason for every sort of ceremonial, and, as might be supposed, the reason is generally a very absurd one—absurd because it originates not in the simple mind of the barbarian, but in the sophisticated mind of the professor. The teamed man will say, for instance, “The natives of Mumbojumbo Land believe that the dead man can eat and will require food upon his journey to the other world. This is attested by the fact that they place food in the grave, and that any family not complying with this rite is the object of the anger of the priests and the tribe.” To any one acquainted with humanity this way of talking is topsy-turvy. It is like saying, “The English in the twentieth century believed that a dead man could smell. This is attested by the fact that they always covered his grave with lilies, violets, or other flowers. Some priestly and tribal terrors were evidently attached to the neglect of this action, as we have records of several old ladies who were very much disturbed in mind because their wreaths had not arrived in time for the funeral.” It may be of course that savages put food with a dead man because they think that a dead man can eat, or weapons with a dead man because they think that a dead man can fight. But personally I do not believe that they think anything of the kind. I believe they put food or weapons on the dead for the same reason that we put flowers, because it is an exceedingly natural and obvious thing to do. We do not understand, it is true, the emotion which makes us think it obvious and natural; but that is because, like all the important emotions of human existence, it is essentially irrational. We do not understand the savage for the same reason that the savage does not understand himself. And the savage does not understand himself for the same reason that we do not understand ourselves either.

The obvious truth is that the moment any matter has passed through the human mind it is finally and for ever spoilt for all purposes of science. It has become a thing incurably mysterious and infinite; this mortal has put on immortality. Even what we call our material desires are spiritual, because they are human. Science can analyse a pork-chop, and say how much of it is phosphorus and how much is protein; but science cannot analyse any man’s wish for a pork-chop, and say how much of it is hunger, how much custom, how much nervous fancy, how much a haunting love of the beautiful. The man’s desire for the pork-chop remains literally as mystical and ethereal as his desire for heaven. All attempts, therefore, at a science of any human things, at a science of history, a science of folk-lore, a science of sociology, are by their nature not merely hopeless, but crazy. You can no more be certain in economic history that a man’s desire for money was merely a desire for money than you can be certain in hagiology that a saint’s desire for God was merely a desire for God. And this kind of vagueness in the primary phenomena of the study is an absolutely final blow to anything in the nature of a science. Men can construct a science with very few instruments, or with very plain instruments; but no one on earth could construct a science with unreliable instruments. A man might work out the whole of mathematics with a handful of pebbles, but not with a handful of clay which was always falling apart into new fragments, and falling together into new combinations. A man might measure heaven and earth with a reed, but not with a growing reed.

As one of the enormous follies of folk-lore, let us take the case of the transmigration of stories, and the alleged unity of their source. Story after story the scientific mythologists have cut out of its place in history, and pinned side by side with similar stories in their museum of fables. The process is industrious, it is fascinating, and the whole of it rests on one of the plainest fallacies in the world. That a story has been told all over the place at some time or other, not only does not prove that it never really happened; it does not even faintly indicate or make slightly more probable that it never happened. That a large number of fishermen have falsely asserted that they have caught a pike two feet long, does not in the least affect the question of whether any one ever really did so. That numberless journalists announce a Franco-German war merely for money is no evidence one way or the other upon the dark question of whether such a war ever occurred. Doubtless in a few hundred years the innumerable Franco-German wars that did not happen will have cleared the scientific mind of any belief in the legendary war of ‘70 which did. But that will be because if folk-lore students remain at all, their nature win be unchanged; and their services to folk-lore will be still as they are at present, greater than they know. For in truth these men do something far more godlike than studying legends; they create them.

There are two kinds of stories which the scientists say cannot be true, because everybody tells them. The first class consists of the stories which are told everywhere, because they are somewhat odd or clever; there is nothing in the world to prevent their having happened to somebody as an adventure any more than there is anything to prevent their having occurred, as they certainly did occur, to somebody as an idea. But they are not likely to have happened to many people. The second class of their “myths” consist of the stories that are told everywhere for the simple reason that they happen everywhere. Of the first class, for instance, we might take such an example as the story of William Tell, now generally ranked among legends upon the sole ground that it is found in the tales of other peoples. Now, it is obvious that this was told everywhere because whether true or fictitious it is what is called “a good story;” it is odd, exciting, and it has a climax. But to suggest that some such eccentric incident can never have happened in the whole history of archery, or that it did not happen to any particular person of whom it is told, is stark impudence. The idea of shooting at a mark attached to some valuable or beloved person is an idea doubtless that might easily have occurred to any inventive poet. But it is also an idea that might easily occur to any boastful archer. It might be one of the fantastic caprices of some story-teller. It might equally well be one of the fantastic caprices of some tyrant. It might occur first in real life and afterwards occur in legends. Or it might just as well occur first in legends and afterwards occur in real life. If no apple has ever been shot off a boy’s head from the beginning of the world, it may be done tomorrow morning, and by somebody who has never heard of William Tell.

This type of tale, indeed, may be pretty fairly paralleled with the ordinary anecdote terminating in a repartee or an Irish bull. Such a retort as the famous “Je ne vois pas la necessite” we have all seen attributed to Talleyrand, to Voltaire, to Henri Quatre, to an anonymous judge, and so on. But this variety does not in any way make it more likely that the thing was never said at all. It is highly likely that it was really said by somebody unknown. It is highly likely that it was really said by Talleyrand. In any case, it is not any more difficult to believe that the mot might have occurred to a man in conversation than to a man writing memoirs. It might have occurred to any of the men I have mentioned. But there is this point of distinction about it, that it is not likely to have occurred to all of them. And this is where the first class of so-called myth differs from the second to which I have previously referred. For there is a second class of incident found to be common to the stories of five or six heroes, say to Sigurd, to Hercules, to Rustem, to the Cid, and so on. And the peculiarity of this myth is that not only is it highly reasonable to imagine that it really happened to one hero, but it is highly reasonable to imagine that it really happened to all of them. Such a story, for instance, is that of a great man having his strength swayed or thwarted by the mysterious weakness of a woman. The anecdotal story, the story of William Tell, is as I have said, popular, because it is peculiar. But this kind of story, the story of Samson and Delilah, of Arthur and Guinevere, is obviously popular because it is not peculiar. It is popular as good, quiet fiction is popular, because it tells the truth about people. If the ruin of Samson by a woman, and the ruin of Hercules by a woman, have a common legendary origin, it is gratifying to know that we can also explain, as a fable, the ruin of Nelson by a woman and the ruin of Parnell by a woman. And, indeed, I have no doubt whatever that, some centuries hence, the students of folk-lore will refuse altogether to believe that Elizabeth Barrett eloped with Robert Browning, and will prove their point up to the hilt by the unquestionable fact that the whole fiction of the period was full of such elopements from end to end.

Possibly the most pathetic of all the delusions of the modern students of primitive belief is the notion they have about the thing they call anthropomorphism. They believe that primitive men attributed phenomena to a god in human form in order to explain them, because his mind in its sullen limitation could not reach any further than his own clownish existence. The thunder was called the voice of a man, the lightning the eyes of a man, because by this explanation they were made more reasonable and comfortable. The final cure for all this kind of philosophy is to walk down a lane at night. Any one who does so will discover very quickly that men pictured something semi-human at the back of all things, not because such a thought was natural, but because it was supernatural; not because it made things more comprehensible, but because it made them a hundred times more incomprehensible and mysterious. For a man walking down a lane at night can see the conspicuous fact that as long as nature keeps to her own course, she has no power with us at all. As long as a tree is a tree, it is a top-heavy monster with a hundred arms, a thousand tongues, and only one leg. But so long as a tree is a tree, it does not frighten us at all. It begins to be something alien, to be something strange, only when it looks like ourselves. When a tree really looks like a man our knees knock under us. And when the whole universe looks like a man we fall on our faces.

XII. Paganism and Mr. Lowes Dickinson

Of the New Paganism (or neo-Paganism), as it was preached flamboyantly by Mr. Swinburne or delicately by Walter Pater, there is no necessity to take any very grave account, except as a thing which left behind it incomparable exercises in the English language. The New Paganism is no longer new, and it never at any time bore the smallest resemblance to Paganism. The ideas about the ancient civilization which it has left loose in the public mind are certainly extraordinary enough. The term “pagan” is continually used in fiction and light literature as meaning a man without any religion, whereas a pagan was generally a man with about half a dozen. The pagans, according to this notion, were continually crowning themselves with flowers and dancing about in an irresponsible state, whereas, if there were two things that the best pagan civilization did honestly believe in, they were a rather too rigid dignity and a much too rigid responsibility. Pagans are depicted as above all things inebriate and lawless, whereas they were above all things reasonable and respectable. They are praised as disobedient when they had only one great virtue— civic obedience. They are envied and admired as shamelessly happy when they had only one great sin—despair.

Mr. Lowes Dickinson, the most pregnant and provocative of recent writers on this and similar subjects, is far too solid a man to have fallen into this old error of the mere anarchy of Paganism. In order to make hay of that Hellenic enthusiasm which has as its ideal mere appetite and egotism, it is not necessary to know much philosophy, but merely to know a little Greek. Mr. Lowes Dickinson knows a great deal of philosophy, and also a great deal of Greek, and his error, if error he has, is not that of the crude hedonist. But the contrast which he offers between Christianity and Paganism in the matter of moral ideals—a contrast which he states very ably in a paper called “How long halt ye?” which appeared in the Independent Review—does, I think, contain an error of a deeper kind. According to him, the ideal of Paganism was not, indeed, a mere frenzy of lust and liberty and caprice, but was an ideal of full and satisfied humanity. According to him, the ideal of Christianity was the ideal of asceticism. When I say that I think this idea wholly wrong as a matter of philosophy and history, I am not talking for the moment about any ideal Christianity of my own, or even of any primitive Christianity undefiled by after events. I am not, like so many modern Christian idealists, basing my case upon certain things which Christ said. Neither am I, like so many other Christian idealists, basing my case upon certain things that Christ forgot to say. I take historic Christianity with all its sins upon its head; I take it, as I would take Jacobinism, or Mormonism, or any other mixed or unpleasing human product, and I say that the meaning of its action was not to be found in asceticism. I say that its point of departure from Paganism was not asceticism. I say that its point of difference with the modern world was not asceticism. I say that St. Simeon Stylites had not his main inspiration in asceticism. I say that the main Christian impulse cannot be described as asceticism, even in the ascetics.

Let me set about making the matter clear. There is one broad fact about the relations of Christianity and Paganism which is so simple that many will smile at it, but which is so important that all moderns forget it. The primary fact about Christianity and Paganism is that one came after the other. Mr. Lowes Dickinson speaks of them as if they were parallel ideals—even speaks as if Paganism were the newer of the two, and the more fitted for a new age. He suggests that the Pagan ideal will be the ultimate good of man; but if that is so, we must at least ask with more curiosity than he allows for, why it was that man actually found his ultimate good on earth under the stars, and threw it away again. It is this extraordinary enigma to which I propose to attempt an answer.

There is only one thing in the modern world that has been face to face with Paganism; there is only one thing in the modern world which in that sense knows anything about Paganism: and that is Christianity. That fact is really the weak point in the whole of that hedonistic neo-Paganism of which I have spoken. All that genuinely remains of the ancient hymns or the ancient dances of Europe, all that has honestly come to us from the festivals of Phoebus or Pan, is to be found in the festivals of the Christian Church. If any one wants to hold the end of a chain which really goes back to the heathen mysteries, he had better take hold of a festoon of flowers at Easter or a string of sausages at Christmas. Everything else in the modern world is of Christian origin, even everything that seems most anti-Christian. The French Revolution is of Christian origin. The newspaper is of Christian origin. The anarchists are of Christian origin. Physical science is of Christian origin. The attack on Christianity is of Christian origin. There is one thing, and one thing only, in existence at the present day which can in any sense accurately be said to be of pagan origin, and that is Christianity.

The real difference between Paganism and Christianity is perfectly summed up in the difference between the pagan, or natural, virtues, and those three virtues of Christianity which the Church of Rome calls virtues of grace. The pagan, or rational, virtues are such things as justice and temperance, and Christianity has adopted them. The three mystical virtues which Christianity has not adopted, but invented, are faith, hope, and charity. Now much easy and foolish Christian rhetoric could easily be poured out upon those three words, but I desire to confine myself to the two facts which are evident about them. The first evident fact (in marked contrast to the delusion of the dancing pagan)—the first evident fact, I say, is that the pagan virtues, such as justice and temperance, are the sad virtues, and that the mystical virtues of faith, hope, and charity are the gay and exuberant virtues. And the second evident fact, which is even more evident, is the fact that the pagan virtues are the reasonable virtues, and that the Christian virtues of faith, hope, and charity are in their essence as unreasonable as they can be.

As the word “unreasonable” is open to misunderstanding, the matter may be more accurately put by saying that each one of these Christian or mystical virtues involves a paradox in its own nature, and that this is not true of any of the typically pagan or rationalist virtues. Justice consists in finding out a certain thing due to a certain man and giving it to him. Temperance consists in finding out the proper limit of a particular indulgence and adhering to that. But charity means pardoning what is unpardonable, or it is no virtue at all. Hope means hoping when things are hopeless, or it is no virtue at all. And faith means believing the incredible, or it is no virtue at all.

It is somewhat amusing, indeed, to notice the difference between the fate of these three paradoxes in the fashion of the modern mind. Charity is a fashionable virtue in our time; it is lit up by the gigantic firelight of Dickens. Hope is a fashionable virtue to-day; our attention has been arrested for it by the sudden and silver trumpet of Stevenson. But faith is unfashionable, and it is customary on every side to cast against it the fact that it is a paradox. Everybody mockingly repeats the famous childish definition that faith is “the power of believing that which we know to be untrue.” Yet it is not one atom more paradoxical than hope or charity. Charity is the power of defending that which we know to be indefensible. Hope is the power of being cheerful in circumstances which we know to be desperate. It is true that there is a state of hope which belongs to bright prospects and the morning; but that is not the virtue of hope. The virtue of hope exists only in earthquake and eclipse. It is true that there is a thing crudely called charity, which means charity to the deserving poor; but charity to the deserving is not charity at all, but justice. It is the undeserving who require it, and the ideal either does not exist at all, or exists wholly for them. For practical purposes it is at the hopeless moment that we require the hopeful man, and the virtue either does not exist at all, or begins to exist at that moment. Exactly at the instant when hope ceases to be reasonable it begins to be useful. Now the old pagan world went perfectly straightforward until it discovered that going straightforward is an enormous mistake. It was nobly and beautifully reasonable, and discovered in its death-pang this lasting and valuable truth, a heritage for the ages, that reasonableness will not do. The pagan age was truly an Eden or golden age, in this essential sense, that it is not to be recovered. And it is not to be recovered in this sense again that, while we are certainly jollier than the pagans, and much more right than the pagans, there is not one of us who can, by the utmost stretch of energy, be so sensible as the pagans. That naked innocence of the intellect cannot be recovered by any man after Christianity; and for this excellent reason, that every man after Christianity knows it to be misleading. Let me take an example, the first that occurs to the mind, of this impossible plainness in the pagan point of view. The greatest tribute to Christianity in the modern world is Tennyson’s “Ulysses.” The poet reads into the story of Ulysses the conception of an incurable desire to wander. But the real Ulysses does not desire to wander at all. He desires to get home. He displays his heroic and unconquerable qualities in resisting the misfortunes which baulk him; but that is all. There is no love of adventure for its own sake; that is a Christian product. There is no love of Penelope for her own sake; that is a Christian product. Everything in that old world would appear to have been clean and obvious. A good man was a good man; a bad man was a bad man. For this reason they had no charity; for charity is a reverent agnosticism towards the complexity of the soul. For this reason they had no such thing as the art of fiction, the novel; for the novel is a creation of the mystical idea of charity. For them a pleasant landscape was pleasant, and an unpleasant landscape unpleasant. Hence they had no idea of romance; for romance consists in thinking a thing more delightful because it is dangerous; it is a Christian idea. In a word, we cannot reconstruct or even imagine the beautiful and astonishing pagan world. It was a world in which common sense was really common.

My general meaning touching the three virtues of which I have spoken will now, I hope, be sufficiently clear. They are all three paradoxical, they are all three practical, and they are all three paradoxical because they are practical. it is the stress of ultimate need, and a terrible knowledge of things as they are, which led men to set up these riddles, and to die for them. Whatever may be the meaning of the contradiction, it is the fact that the only kind of hope that is of any use in a battle is a hope that denies arithmetic. Whatever may be the meaning of the contradiction, it is the fact that the only kind of charity which any weak spirit wants, or which any generous spirit feels, is the charity which forgives the sins that are like scarlet. Whatever may be the meaning of faith, it must always mean a certainty about something we cannot prove. Thus, for instance, we believe by faith in the existence of other people.

But there is another Christian virtue, a virtue far more obviously and historically connected with Christianity, which will illustrate even better the connection between paradox and practical necessity. This virtue cannot be questioned in its capacity as a historical symbol; certainly Mr. Lowes Dickinson will not question it. It has been the boast of hundreds of the champions of Christianity. It has been the taunt of hundreds of the opponents of Christianity. It is, in essence, the basis of Mr. Lowes Dickinson’s whole distinction between Christianity and Paganism. I mean, of course, the virtue of humility. I admit, of course, most readily, that a great deal of false Eastern humility (that is, of strictly ascetic humility) mixed itself with the main stream of European Christianity. We must not forget that when we speak of Christianity we are speaking of a whole continent for about a thousand years. But of this virtue even more than of the other three, I would maintain the general proposition adopted above. Civilization discovered Christian humility for the same urgent reason that it discovered faith and charity— that is, because Christian civilization had to discover it or die.

The great psychological discovery of Paganism, which turned it into Christianity, can be expressed with some accuracy in one phrase. The pagan set out, with admirable sense, to enjoy himself. By the end of his civilization he had discovered that a man cannot enjoy himself and continue to enjoy anything else. Mr. Lowes Dickinson has pointed out in words too excellent to need any further elucidation, the absurd shallowness of those who imagine that the pagan enjoyed himself only in a materialistic sense. Of course, he enjoyed himself, not only intellectually even, he enjoyed himself morally, he enjoyed himself spiritually. But it was himself that he was enjoying; on the face of it, a very natural thing to do. Now, the psychological discovery is merely this, that whereas it had been supposed that the fullest possible enjoyment is to be found by extending our ego to infinity, the truth is that the fullest possible enjoyment is to be found by reducing our ego to zero.

Humility is the thing which is for ever renewing the earth and the stars. It is humility, and not duty, which preserves the stars from wrong, from the unpardonable wrong of casual resignation; it is through humility that the most ancient heavens for us are fresh and strong. The curse that came before history has laid on us all a tendency to be weary of wonders. If we saw the sun for the first time it would be the most fearful and beautiful of meteors. Now that we see it for the hundredth time we call it, in the hideous and blasphemous phrase of Wordsworth, “the light of common day.” We are inclined to increase our claims. We are inclined to demand six suns, to demand a blue sun, to demand a green sun. Humility is perpetually putting us back in the primal darkness. There all light is lightning, startling and instantaneous. Until we understand that original dark, in which we have neither sight nor expectation, we can give no hearty and childlike praise to the splendid sensationalism of things. The terms “pessimism” and “optimism,” like most modern terms, are unmeaning. But if they can be used in any vague sense as meaning something, we may say that in this great fact pessimism is the very basis of optimism. The man who destroys himself creates the universe. To the humble man, and to the humble man alone, the sun is really a sun; to the humble man, and to the humble man alone, the sea is really a sea. When he looks at all the faces in the street, he does not only realize that men are alive, he realizes with a dramatic pleasure that they are not dead.

I have not spoken of another aspect of the discovery of humility as a psychological necessity, because it is more commonly insisted on, and is in itself more obvious. But it is equally clear that humility is a permanent necessity as a condition of effort and self-examination. It is one of the deadly fallacies of Jingo politics that a nation is stronger for despising other nations. As a matter of fact, the strongest nations are those, like Prussia or Japan, which began from very mean beginnings, but have not been too proud to sit at the feet of the foreigner and learn everything from him. Almost every obvious and direct victory has been the victory of the plagiarist. This is, indeed, only a very paltry by-product of humility, but it is a product of humility, and, therefore, it is successful. Prussia had no Christian humility in its internal arrangements; hence its internal arrangements were miserable. But it had enough Christian humility slavishly to copy France (even down to Frederick the Great’s poetry), and that which it had the humility to copy it had ultimately the honour to conquer. The case of the Japanese is even more obvious; their only Christian and their only beautiful quality is that they have humbled themselves to be exalted. All this aspect of humility, however, as connected with the matter of effort and striving for a standard set above us, I dismiss as having been sufficiently pointed out by almost all idealistic writers.

It may be worth while, however, to point out the interesting disparity in the matter of humility between the modern notion of the strong man and the actual records of strong men. Carlyle objected to the statement that no man could be a hero to his valet. Every sympathy can be extended towards him in the matter if he merely or mainly meant that the phrase was a disparagement of hero-worship. Hero-worship is certainly a generous and human impulse; the hero may be faulty, but the worship can hardly be. It may be that no man would be a hero to his valet. But any man would be a valet to his hero. But in truth both the proverb itself and Carlyle’s stricture upon it ignore the most essential matter at issue. The ultimate psychological truth is not that no man is a hero to his valet. The ultimate psychological truth, the foundation of Christianity, is that no man is a hero to himself. Cromwell, according to Carlyle, was a strong man. According to Cromwell, he was a weak one.

The weak point in the whole of Carlyle’s case for aristocracy lies, indeed, in his most celebrated phrase. Carlyle said that men were mostly fools. Christianity, with a surer and more reverent realism, says that they are all fools. This doctrine is sometimes called the doctrine of original sin. It may also be described as the doctrine of the equality of men. But the essential point of it is merely this, that whatever primary and far-reaching moral dangers affect any man, affect all men. All men can be criminals, if tempted; all men can be heroes, if inspired. And this doctrine does away altogether with Carlyle’s pathetic belief (or any one else’s pathetic belief) in “the wise few.” There are no wise few. Every aristocracy that has ever existed has behaved, in all essential points, exactly like a small mob. Every oligarchy is merely a knot of men in the street— that is to say, it is very jolly, but not infallible. And no oligarchies in the world’s history have ever come off so badly in practical affairs as the very proud oligarchies— the oligarchy of Poland, the oligarchy of Venice. And the armies that have most swiftly and suddenly broken their enemies in pieces have been the religious armies—the Moslem Armies, for instance, or the Puritan Armies. And a religious army may, by its nature, be defined as an army in which every man is taught not to exalt but to abase himself. Many modern Englishmen talk of themselves as the sturdy descendants of their sturdy Puritan fathers. As a fact, they would run away from a cow. If you asked one of their Puritan fathers, if you asked Bunyan, for instance, whether he was sturdy, he would have answered, with tears, that he was as weak as water. And because of this he would have borne tortures. And this virtue of humility, while being practical enough to win battles, will always be paradoxical enough to puzzle pedants. It is at one with the virtue of charity in this respect. Every generous person will admit that the one kind of sin which charity should cover is the sin which is inexcusable. And every generous person will equally agree that the one kind of pride which is wholly damnable is the pride of the man who has something to be proud of. The pride which, proportionally speaking, does not hurt the character, is the pride in things which reflect no credit on the person at all. Thus it does a man no harm to be proud of his country, and comparatively little harm to be proud of his remote ancestors. It does him more harm to be proud of having made money, because in that he has a little more reason for pride. It does him more harm still to be proud of what is nobler than money—intellect. And it does him most harm of all to value himself for the most valuable thing on earth—goodness. The man who is proud of what is really creditable to him is the Pharisee, the man whom Christ Himself could not forbear to strike.

My objection to Mr. Lowes Dickinson and the reassertors of the pagan ideal is, then, this. I accuse them of ignoring definite human discoveries in the moral world, discoveries as definite, though not as material, as the discovery of the circulation of the blood. We cannot go back to an ideal of reason and sanity. For mankind has discovered that reason does not lead to sanity. We cannot go back to an ideal of pride and enjoyment. For mankind has discovered that pride does not lead to enjoyment. I do not know by what extraordinary mental accident modern writers so constantly connect the idea of progress with the idea of independent thinking. Progress is obviously the antithesis of independent thinking. For under independent or individualistic thinking, every man starts at the beginning, and goes, in all probability, just as far as his father before him. But if there really be anything of the nature of progress, it must mean, above all things, the careful study and assumption of the whole of the past. I accuse Mr. Lowes Dickinson and his school of reaction in the only real sense. If he likes, let him ignore these great historic mysteries—the mystery of charity, the mystery of chivalry, the mystery of faith. If he likes, let him ignore the plough or the printing-press. But if we do revive and pursue the pagan ideal of a simple and rational self-completion we shall end—where Paganism ended. I do not mean that we shall end in destruction. I mean that we shall end in Christianity.

XIII. Celts and Celtophiles

Science in the modern world has many uses; its chief use, however, is to provide long words to cover the errors of the rich. The word “kleptomania” is a vulgar example of what I mean. It is on a par with that strange theory, always advanced when a wealthy or prominent person is in the dock, that exposure is more of a punishment for the rich than for the poor. Of course, the very reverse is the truth. Exposure is more of a punishment for the poor than for the rich. The richer a man is the easier it is for him to be a tramp. The richer a man is the easier it is for him to be popular and generally respected in the Cannibal Islands. But the poorer a man is the more likely it is that he will have to use his past life whenever he wants to get a bed for the night. Honour is a luxury for aristocrats, but it is a necessity for hall-porters. This is a secondary matter, but it is an example of the general proposition I offer—the proposition that an enormous amount of modern ingenuity is expended on finding defences for the indefensible conduct of the powerful. As I have said above, these defences generally exhibit themselves most emphatically in the form of appeals to physical science. And of all the forms in which science, or pseudo-science, has come to the rescue of the rich and stupid, there is none so singular as the singular invention of the theory of races.

When a wealthy nation like the English discovers the perfectly patent fact that it is making a ludicrous mess of the government of a poorer nation like the Irish, it pauses for a moment in consternation, and then begins to talk about Celts and Teutons. As far as I can understand the theory, the Irish are Celts and the English are Teutons. Of course, the Irish are not Celts any more than the English are Teutons. I have not followed the ethnological discussion with much energy, but the last scientific conclusion which I read inclined on the whole to the summary that the English were mainly Celtic and the Irish mainly Teutonic. But no man alive, with even the glimmering of a real scientific sense, would ever dream of applying the terms “Celtic” or “Teutonic” to either of them in any positive or useful sense.

That sort of thing must be left to people who talk about the Anglo-Saxon race, and extend the expression to America. How much of the blood of the Angles and Saxons (whoever they were) there remains in our mixed British, Roman, German, Dane, Norman, and Picard stock is a matter only interesting to wild antiquaries. And how much of that diluted blood can possibly remain in that roaring whirlpool of America into which a cataract of Swedes, Jews, Germans, Irishmen, and Italians is perpetually pouring, is a matter only interesting to lunatics. It would have been wiser for the English governing class to have called upon some other god. All other gods, however weak and warring, at least boast of being constant. But science boasts of being in a flux for ever; boasts of being unstable as water.

And England and the English governing class never did call on this absurd deity of race until it seemed, for an instant, that they had no other god to call on. All the most genuine Englishmen in history would have yawned or laughed in your face if you had begun to talk about Anglo-Saxons. If you had attempted to substitute the ideal of race for the ideal of nationality, I really do not like to think what they would have said. I certainly should not like to have been the officer of Nelson who suddenly discovered his French blood on the eve of Trafalgar. I should not like to have been the Norfolk or Suffolk gentleman who had to expound to Admiral Blake by what demonstrable ties of genealogy he was irrevocably bound to the Dutch. The truth of the whole matter is very simple. Nationality exists, and has nothing in the world to do with race. Nationality is a thing like a church or a secret society; it is a product of the human soul and will; it is a spiritual product. And there are men in the modern world who would think anything and do anything rather than admit that anything could be a spiritual product.

A nation, however, as it confronts the modern world, is a purely spiritual product. Sometimes it has been born in independence, like Scotland. Sometimes it has been born in dependence, in subjugation, like Ireland. Sometimes it is a large thing cohering out of many smaller things, like Italy. Sometimes it is a small thing breaking away from larger things, like Poland. But in each and every case its quality is purely spiritual, or, if you will, purely psychological. It is a moment when five men become a sixth man. Every one knows it who has ever founded a club. It is a moment when five places become one place. Every one must know it who has ever had to repel an invasion. Mr. Timothy Healy, the most serious intellect in the present House of Commons, summed up nationality to perfection when he simply called it something for which people will die. As he excellently said in reply to Lord Hugh Cecil, “No one, not even the noble lord, would die for the meridian of Greenwich.” And that is the great tribute to its purely psychological character. It is idle to ask why Greenwich should not cohere in this spiritual manner while Athens or Sparta did. It is like asking why a man falls in love with one woman and not with another.

Now, of this great spiritual coherence, independent of external circumstances, or of race, or of any obvious physical thing, Ireland is the most remarkable example. Rome conquered nations, but Ireland has conquered races. The Norman has gone there and become Irish, the Scotchman has gone there and become Irish, the Spaniard has gone there and become Irish, even the bitter soldier of Cromwell has gone there and become Irish. Ireland, which did not exist even politically, has been stronger than all the races that existed scientifically. The purest Germanic blood, the purest Norman blood, the purest blood of the passionate Scotch patriot, has not been so attractive as a nation without a flag. Ireland, unrecognized and oppressed, has easily absorbed races, as such trifles are easily absorbed. She has easily disposed of physical science, as such superstitions are easily disposed of. Nationality in its weakness has been stronger than ethnology in its strength. Five triumphant races have been absorbed, have been defeated by a defeated nationality.

This being the true and strange glory of Ireland, it is impossible to hear without impatience of the attempt so constantly made among her modern sympathizers to talk about Celts and Celticism. Who were the Celts? I defy anybody to say. Who are the Irish? I defy any one to be indifferent, or to pretend not to know. Mr. W. B. Yeats, the great Irish genius who has appeared in our time, shows his own admirable penetration in discarding altogether the argument from a Celtic race. But he does not wholly escape, and his followers hardly ever escape, the general objection to the Celtic argument. The tendency of that argument is to represent the Irish or the Celts as a strange and separate race, as a tribe of eccentrics in the modern world immersed in dim legends and fruitless dreams. Its tendency is to exhibit the Irish as odd, because they see the fairies. Its trend is to make the Irish seem weird and wild because they sing old songs and join in strange dances. But this is quite an error; indeed, it is the opposite of the truth. It is the English who are odd because they do not see the fairies. It is the inhabitants of Kensington who are weird and wild because they do not sing old songs and join in strange dances. In all this the Irish are not in the least strange and separate, are not in the least Celtic, as the word is commonly and popularly used. In all this the Irish are simply an ordinary sensible nation, living the life of any other ordinary and sensible nation which has not been either sodden with smoke or oppressed by money-lenders, or otherwise corrupted with wealth and science. There is nothing Celtic about having legends. It is merely human. The Germans, who are (I suppose) Teutonic, have hundreds of legends, wherever it happens that the Germans are human. There is nothing Celtic about loving poetry; the English loved poetry more, perhaps, than any other people before they came under the shadow of the chimney-pot and the shadow of the chimney-pot hat. It is not Ireland which is mad and mystic; it is Manchester which is mad and mystic, which is incredible, which is a wild exception among human things. Ireland has no need to play the silly game of the science of races; Ireland has no need to pretend to be a tribe of visionaries apart. In the matter of visions, Ireland is more than a nation, it is a model nation.

XIV. On Certain Modern Writers and the Institution of the Family

The family may fairly be considered, one would think, an ultimate human institution. Every one would admit that it has been the main cell and central unit of almost all societies hitherto, except, indeed, such societies as that of Lacedaemon, which went in for “efficiency,” and has, therefore, perished, and left not a trace behind. Christianity, even enormous as was its revolution, did not alter this ancient and savage sanctity; it merely reversed it. It did not deny the trinity of father, mother, and child. It merely read it backwards, making it run child, mother, father. This it called, not the family, but the Holy Family, for many things are made holy by being turned upside down. But some sages of our own decadence have made a serious attack on the family. They have impugned it, as I think wrongly; and its defenders have defended it, and defended it wrongly. The common defence of the family is that, amid the stress and fickleness of life, it is peaceful, pleasant, and at one. But there is another defence of the family which is possible, and to me evident; this defence is that the family is not peaceful and not pleasant and not at one.

It is not fashionable to say much nowadays of the advantages of the small community. We are told that we must go in for large empires and large ideas. There is one advantage, however, in the small state, the city, or the village, which only the wilfully blind can overlook. The man who lives in a small community lives in a much larger world. He knows much more of the fierce varieties and uncompromising divergences of men. The reason is obvious. In a large community we can choose our companions. In a small community our companions are chosen for us. Thus in all extensive and highly civilized societies groups come into existence founded upon what is called sympathy, and shut out the real world more sharply than the gates of a monastery. There is nothing really narrow about the clan; the thing which is really narrow is the clique. The men of the clan live together because they all wear the same tartan or are all descended from the same sacred cow; but in their souls, by the divine luck of things, there will always be more colours than in any tartan. But the men of the clique live together because they have the same kind of soul, and their narrowness is a narrowness of spiritual coherence and contentment, like that which exists in hell. A big society exists in order to form cliques. A big society is a society for the promotion of narrowness. It is a machinery for the purpose of guarding the solitary and sensitive individual from all experience of the bitter and bracing human compromises. It is, in the most literal sense of the words, a society for the prevention of Christian knowledge.

We can see this change, for instance, in the modern transformation of the thing called a club. When London was smaller, and the parts of London more self-contained and parochial, the club was what it still is in villages, the opposite of what it is now in great cities. Then the club was valued as a place where a man could be sociable. Now the club is valued as a place where a man can be unsociable. The more the enlargement and elaboration of our civilization goes on the more the club ceases to be a place where a man can have a noisy argument, and becomes more and more a place where a man can have what is somewhat fantastically called a quiet chop. Its aim is to make a man comfortable, and to make a man comfortable is to make him the opposite of sociable. Sociability, like all good things, is full of discomforts, dangers, and renunciations. The club tends to produce the most degraded of all combinations— the luxurious anchorite, the man who combines the self-indulgence of Lucullus with the insane loneliness of St. Simeon Stylites.

If we were to-morrow morning snowed up in the street in which we live, we should step suddenly into a much larger and much wilder world than we have ever known. And it is the whole effort of the typically modern person to escape from the street in which he lives. First he invents modern hygiene and goes to Margate. Then he invents modern culture and goes to Florence. Then he invents modern imperialism and goes to Timbuctoo. He goes to the fantastic borders of the earth. He pretends to shoot tigers. He almost rides on a camel. And in all this he is still essentially fleeing from the street in which he was born; and of this flight he is always ready with his own explanation. He says he is fleeing from his street because it is dull; he is lying. He is really fleeing from his street because it is a great deal too exciting. It is exciting because it is exacting; it is exacting because it is alive. He can visit Venice because to him the Venetians are only Venetians; the people in his own street are men. He can stare at the Chinese because for him the Chinese are a passive thing to be stared at; if he stares at the old lady in the next garden, she becomes active. He is forced to flee, in short, from the too stimulating society of his equals— of free men, perverse, personal, deliberately different from himself. The street in Brixton is too glowing and overpowering. He has to soothe and quiet himself among tigers and vultures, camels and crocodiles. These creatures are indeed very different from himself. But they do not put their shape or colour or custom into a decisive intellectual competition with his own. They do not seek to destroy his principles and assert their own; the stranger monsters of the suburban street do seek to do this. The camel does not contort his features into a fine sneer because Mr. Robinson has not got a hump; the cultured gentleman at No. 5 does exhibit a sneer because Robinson has not got a dado. The vulture will not roar with laughter because a man does not fly; but the major at No. 9 will roar with laughter because a man does not smoke. The complaint we commonly have to make of our neighbours is that they will not, as we express it, mind their own business. We do not really mean that they will not mind their own business. If our neighbours did not mind their own business they would be asked abruptly for their rent, and would rapidly cease to be our neighbours. What we really mean when we say that they cannot mind their own business is something much deeper. We do not dislike them because they have so little force and fire that they cannot be interested in themselves. We dislike them because they have so much force and fire that they can be interested in us as well. What we dread about our neighbours, in short, is not the narrowness of their horizon, but their superb tendency to broaden it. And all aversions to ordinary humanity have this general character. They are not aversions to its feebleness (as is pretended), but to its energy. The misanthropes pretend that they despise humanity for its weakness. As a matter of fact, they hate it for its strength.

Of course, this shrinking from the brutal vivacity and brutal variety of common men is a perfectly reasonable and excusable thing as long as it does not pretend to any point of superiority. It is when it calls itself aristocracy or aestheticism or a superiority to the bourgeoisie that its inherent weakness has in justice to be pointed out. Fastidiousness is the most pardonable of vices; but it is the most unpardonable of virtues. Nietzsche, who represents most prominently this pretentious claim of the fastidious, has a description somewhere— a very powerful description in the purely literary sense— of the disgust and disdain which consume him at the sight of the common people with their common faces, their common voices, and their common minds. As I have said, this attitude is almost beautiful if we may regard it as pathetic. Nietzsche’s aristocracy has about it all the sacredness that belongs to the weak. When he makes us feel that he cannot endure the innumerable faces, the incessant voices, the overpowering omnipresence which belongs to the mob, he will have the sympathy of anybody who has ever been sick on a steamer or tired in a crowded omnibus. Every man has hated mankind when he was less than a man. Every man has had humanity in his eyes like a blinding fog, humanity in his nostrils like a suffocating smell. But when Nietzsche has the incredible lack of humour and lack of imagination to ask us to believe that his aristocracy is an aristocracy of strong muscles or an aristocracy of strong wills, it is necessary to point out the truth. It is an aristocracy of weak nerves.

We make our friends; we make our enemies; but God makes our next-door neighbour. Hence he comes to us clad in all the careless terrors of nature; he is as strange as the stars, as reckless and indifferent as the rain. He is Man, the most terrible of the beasts. That is why the old religions and the old scriptural language showed so sharp a wisdom when they spoke, not of one’s duty towards humanity, but one’s duty towards one’s neighbour. The duty towards humanity may often take the form of some choice which is personal or even pleasurable. That duty may be a hobby; it may even be a dissipation. We may work in the East End because we are peculiarly fitted to work in the East End, or because we think we are; we may fight for the cause of international peace because we are very fond of fighting. The most monstrous martyrdom, the most repulsive experience, may be the result of choice or a kind of taste. We may be so made as to be particularly fond of lunatics or specially interested in leprosy. We may love negroes because they are black or German Socialists because they are pedantic. But we have to love our neighbour because he is there— a much more alarming reason for a much more serious operation. He is the sample of humanity which is actually given us. Precisely because he may be anybody he is everybody. He is a symbol because he is an accident.

Doubtless men flee from small environments into lands that are very deadly. But this is natural enough; for they are not fleeing from death. They are fleeing from life. And this principle applies to ring within ring of the social system of humanity. It is perfectly reasonable that men should seek for some particular variety of the human type, so long as they are seeking for that variety of the human type, and not for mere human variety. It is quite proper that a British diplomatist should seek the society of Japanese generals, if what he wants is Japanese generals. But if what he wants is people different from himself, he had much better stop at home and discuss religion with the housemaid. It is quite reasonable that the village genius should come up to conquer London if what he wants is to conquer London. But if he wants to conquer something fundamentally and symbolically hostile and also very strong, he had much better remain where he is and have a row with the rector. The man in the suburban street is quite right if he goes to Ramsgate for the sake of Ramsgate—a difficult thing to imagine. But if, as he expresses it, he goes to Ramsgate “for a change,” then he would have a much more romantic and even melodramatic change if he jumped over the wall into his neighbours garden. The consequences would be bracing in a sense far beyond the possibilities of Ramsgate hygiene.

Now, exactly as this principle applies to the empire, to the nation within the empire, to the city within the nation, to the street within the city, so it applies to the home within the street. The institution of the family is to be commended for precisely the same reasons that the institution of the nation, or the institution of the city, are in this matter to be commended. It is a good thing for a man to live in a family for the same reason that it is a good thing for a man to be besieged in a city. It is a good thing for a man to live in a family in the same sense that it is a beautiful and delightful thing for a man to be snowed up in a street. They all force him to realize that life is not a thing from outside, but a thing from inside. Above all, they all insist upon the fact that life, if it be a truly stimulating and fascinating life, is a thing which, of its nature, exists in spite of ourselves. The modern writers who have suggested, in a more or less open manner, that the family is a bad institution, have generally confined themselves to suggesting, with much sharpness, bitterness, or pathos, that perhaps the family is not always very congenial. Of course the family is a good institution because it is uncongenial. It is wholesome precisely because it contains so many divergencies and varieties. It is, as the sentimentalists say, like a little kingdom, and, like most other little kingdoms, is generally in a state of something resembling anarchy. It is exactly because our brother George is not interested in our religious difficulties, but is interested in the Trocadero Restaurant, that the family has some of the bracing qualities of the commonwealth. It is precisely because our uncle Henry does not approve of the theatrical ambitions of our sister Sarah that the family is like humanity. The men and women who, for good reasons and bad, revolt against the family, are, for good reasons and bad, simply revolting against mankind. Aunt Elizabeth is unreasonable, like mankind. Papa is excitable, like mankind. Our youngest brother is mischievous, like mankind. Grandpapa is stupid, like the world; he is old, like the world.

Those who wish, rightly or wrongly, to step out of all this, do definitely wish to step into a narrower world. They are dismayed and terrified by the largeness and variety of the family. Sarah wishes to find a world wholly consisting of private theatricals; George wishes to think the Trocadero a cosmos. I do not say, for a moment, that the flight to this narrower life may not be the right thing for the individual, any more than I say the same thing about flight into a monastery. But I do say that anything is bad and artificial which tends to make these people succumb to the strange delusion that they are stepping into a world which is actually larger and more varied than their own. The best way that a man could test his readiness to encounter the common variety of mankind would be to climb down a chimney into any house at random, and get on as well as possible with the people inside. And that is essentially what each one of us did on the day that he was born.

This is, indeed, the sublime and special romance of the family. It is romantic because it is a toss-up. It is romantic because it is everything that its enemies call it. It is romantic because it is arbitrary. It is romantic because it is there. So long as you have groups of men chosen rationally, you have some special or sectarian atmosphere. It is when you have groups of men chosen irrationally that you have men. The element of adventure begins to exist; for an adventure is, by its nature, a thing that comes to us. It is a thing that chooses us, not a thing that we choose. Falling in love has been often regarded as the supreme adventure, the supreme romantic accident. In so much as there is in it something outside ourselves, something of a sort of merry fatalism, this is very true. Love does take us and transfigure and torture us. It does break our hearts with an unbearable beauty, like the unbearable beauty of music. But in so far as we have certainly something to do with the matter; in so far as we are in some sense prepared to fall in love and in some sense jump into it; in so far as we do to some extent choose and to some extent even judge— in all this falling in love is not truly romantic, is not truly adventurous at all. In this degree the supreme adventure is not falling in love. The supreme adventure is being born. There we do walk suddenly into a splendid and startling trap. There we do see something of which we have not dreamed before. Our father and mother do lie in wait for us and leap out on us, like brigands from a bush. Our uncle is a surprise. Our aunt is, in the beautiful common expression, a bolt from the blue. When we step into the family, by the act of being born, we do step into a world which is incalculable, into a world which has its own strange laws, into a world which could do without us, into a world that we have not made. In other words, when we step into the family we step into a fairy-tale.

This colour as of a fantastic narrative ought to cling to the family and to our relations with it throughout life. Romance is the deepest thing in life; romance is deeper even than reality. For even if reality could be proved to be misleading, it still could not be proved to be unimportant or unimpressive. Even if the facts are false, they are still very strange. And this strangeness of life, this unexpected and even perverse element of things as they fall out, remains incurably interesting. The circumstances we can regulate may become tame or pessimistic; but the “circumstances over which we have no control” remain god-like to those who, like Mr. Micawber, can call on them and renew their strength. People wonder why the novel is the most popular form of literature; people wonder why it is read more than books of science or books of metaphysics. The reason is very simple; it is merely that the novel is more true than they are. Life may sometimes legitimately appear as a book of science. Life may sometimes appear, and with a much greater legitimacy, as a book of metaphysics. But life is always a novel. Our existence may cease to be a song; it may cease even to be a beautiful lament. Our existence may not be an intelligible justice, or even a recognizable wrong. But our existence is still a story. In the fiery alphabet of every sunset is written, “to be continued in our next.” If we have sufficient intellect, we can finish a philosophical and exact deduction, and be certain that we are finishing it right. With the adequate brain-power we could finish any scientific discovery, and be certain that we were finishing it right. But not with the most gigantic intellect could we finish the simplest or silliest story, and be certain that we were finishing it right. That is because a story has behind it, not merely intellect which is partly mechanical, but will, which is in its essence divine. The narrative writer can send his hero to the gallows if he likes in the last chapter but one. He can do it by the same divine caprice whereby he, the author, can go to the gallows himself, and to hell afterwards if he chooses. And the same civilization, the chivalric European civilization which asserted freewill in the thirteenth century, produced the thing called “fiction” in the eighteenth. When Thomas Aquinas asserted the spiritual liberty of man, he created all the bad novels in the circulating libraries.

But in order that life should be a story or romance to us, it is necessary that a great part of it, at any rate, should be settled for us without our permission. If we wish life to be a system, this may be a nuisance; but if we wish it to be a drama, it is an essential. It may often happen, no doubt, that a drama may be written by somebody else which we like very little. But we should like it still less if the author came before the curtain every hour or so, and forced on us the whole trouble of inventing the next act. A man has control over many things in his life; he has control over enough things to be the hero of a novel. But if he had control over everything, there would be so much hero that there would be no novel. And the reason why the lives of the rich are at bottom so tame and uneventful is simply that they can choose the events. They are dull because they are omnipotent. They fail to feel adventures because they can make the adventures. The thing which keeps life romantic and full of fiery possibilities is the existence of these great plain limitations which force all of us to meet the things we do not like or do not expect. It is vain for the supercilious moderns to talk of being in uncongenial surroundings. To be in a romance is to be in uncongenial surroundings. To be born into this earth is to be born into uncongenial surroundings, hence to be born into a romance. Of all these great limitations and frameworks which fashion and create the poetry and variety of life, the family is the most definite and important. Hence it is misunderstood by the moderns, who imagine that romance would exist most perfectly in a complete state of what they call liberty. They think that if a man makes a gesture it would be a startling and romantic matter that the sun should fall from the sky. But the startling and romantic thing about the sun is that it does not fall from the sky. They are seeking under every shape and form a world where there are no limitations—that is, a world where there are no outlines; that is, a world where there are no shapes. There is nothing baser than that infinity. They say they wish to be as strong as the universe, but they really wish the whole universe as weak as themselves.

XV. On Smart Novelists and the Smart Set

In one sense, at any rate, it is more valuable to read bad literature than good literature. Good literature may tell us the mind of one man; but bad literature may tell us the mind of many men. A good novel tells us the truth about its hero; but a bad novel tells us the truth about its author. It does much more than that, it tells us the truth about its readers; and, oddly enough, it tells us this all the more the more cynical and immoral be the motive of its manufacture. The more dishonest a book is as a book the more honest it is as a public document. A sincere novel exhibits the simplicity of one particular man; an insincere novel exhibits the simplicity of mankind. The pedantic decisions and definable readjustments of man may be found in scrolls and statute books and scriptures; but men’s basic assumptions and everlasting energies are to be found in penny dreadfuls and halfpenny novelettes. Thus a man, like many men of real culture in our day, might learn from good literature nothing except the power to appreciate good literature. But from bad literature he might learn to govern empires and look over the map of mankind.

There is one rather interesting example of this state of things in which the weaker literature is really the stronger and the stronger the weaker. It is the case of what may be called, for the sake of an approximate description, the literature of aristocracy; or, if you prefer the description, the literature of snobbishness. Now if any one wishes to find a really effective and comprehensible and permanent case for aristocracy well and sincerely stated, let him read, not the modern philosophical conservatives, not even Nietzsche, let him read the Bow Bells Novelettes. Of the case of Nietzsche I am confessedly more doubtful. Nietzsche and the Bow Bells Novelettes have both obviously the same fundamental character; they both worship the tall man with curling moustaches and herculean bodily power, and they both worship him in a manner which is somewhat feminine and hysterical. Even here, however, the Novelette easily maintains its philosophical superiority, because it does attribute to the strong man those virtues which do commonly belong to him, such virtues as laziness and kindliness and a rather reckless benevolence, and a great dislike of hurting the weak. Nietzsche, on the other hand, attributes to the strong man that scorn against weakness which only exists among invalids. It is not, however, of the secondary merits of the great German philosopher, but of the primary merits of the Bow Bells Novelettes, that it is my present affair to speak. The picture of aristocracy in the popular sentimental novelette seems to me very satisfactory as a permanent political and philosophical guide. It may be inaccurate about details such as the title by which a baronet is addressed or the width of a mountain chasm which a baronet can conveniently leap, but it is not a bad description of the general idea and intention of aristocracy as they exist in human affairs. The essential dream of aristocracy is magnificence and valour; and if the Family Herald Supplement sometimes distorts or exaggerates these things, at least, it does not fall short in them. It never errs by making the mountain chasm too narrow or the title of the baronet insufficiently impressive. But above this sane reliable old literature of snobbishness there has arisen in our time another kind of literature of snobbishness which, with its much higher pretensions, seems to me worthy of very much less respect. Incidentally (if that matters), it is much better literature. But it is immeasurably worse philosophy, immeasurably worse ethics and politics, immeasurably worse vital rendering of aristocracy and humanity as they really are. From such books as those of which I wish now to speak we can discover what a clever man can do with the idea of aristocracy. But from the Family Herald Supplement literature we can learn what the idea of aristocracy can do with a man who is not clever. And when we know that we know English history.

This new aristocratic fiction must have caught the attention of everybody who has read the best fiction for the last fifteen years. It is that genuine or alleged literature of the Smart Set which represents that set as distinguished, not only by smart dresses, but by smart sayings. To the bad baronet, to the good baronet, to the romantic and misunderstood baronet who is supposed to be a bad baronet, but is a good baronet, this school has added a conception undreamed of in the former years— the conception of an amusing baronet. The aristocrat is not merely to be taller than mortal men and stronger and handsomer, he is also to be more witty. He is the long man with the short epigram. Many eminent, and deservedly eminent, modern novelists must accept some responsibility for having supported this worst form of snobbishness— an intellectual snobbishness. The talented author of “Dodo” is responsible for having in some sense created the fashion as a fashion. Mr. Hichens, in the “Green Carnation,” reaffirmed the strange idea that young noblemen talk well; though his case had some vague biographical foundation, and in consequence an excuse. Mrs. Craigie is considerably guilty in the matter, although, or rather because, she has combined the aristocratic note with a note of some moral and even religious sincerity. When you are saving a man’s soul, even in a novel, it is indecent to mention that he is a gentleman. Nor can blame in this matter be altogether removed from a man of much greater ability, and a man who has proved his possession of the highest of human instinct, the romantic instinct—I mean Mr. Anthony Hope. In a galloping, impossible melodrama like “The Prisoner of Zenda,” the blood of kings fanned an excellent fantastic thread or theme. But the blood of kings is not a thing that can be taken seriously. And when, for example, Mr. Hope devotes so much serious and sympathetic study to the man called Tristram of Blent, a man who throughout burning boyhood thought of nothing but a silly old estate, we feel even in Mr. Hope the hint of this excessive concern about the oligarchic idea. It is hard for any ordinary person to feel so much interest in a young man whose whole aim is to own the house of Blent at the time when every other young man is owning the stars.

Mr. Hope, however, is a very mild case, and in him there is not only an element of romance, but also a fine element of irony which warns us against taking all this elegance too seriously. Above all, he shows his sense in not making his noblemen so incredibly equipped with impromptu repartee. This habit of insisting on the wit of the wealthier classes is the last and most servile of all the servilities. It is, as I have said, immeasurably more contemptible than the snobbishness of the novelette which describes the nobleman as smiling like an Apollo or riding a mad elephant. These may be exaggerations of beauty and courage, but beauty and courage are the unconscious ideals of aristocrats, even of stupid aristocrats.

The nobleman of the novelette may not be sketched with any very close or conscientious attention to the daily habits of noblemen. But he is something more important than a reality; he is a practical ideal. The gentleman of fiction may not copy the gentleman of real life; but the gentleman of real life is copying the gentleman of fiction. He may not be particularly good-looking, but he would rather be good-looking than anything else; he may not have ridden on a mad elephant, but he rides a pony as far as possible with an air as if he had. And, upon the whole, the upper class not only especially desire these qualities of beauty and courage, but in some degree, at any rate, especially possess them. Thus there is nothing really mean or sycophantic about the popular literature which makes all its marquises seven feet high. It is snobbish, but it is not servile. Its exaggeration is based on an exuberant and honest admiration; its honest admiration is based upon something which is in some degree, at any rate, really there. The English lower classes do not fear the English upper classes in the least; nobody could. They simply and freely and sentimentally worship them. The strength of the aristocracy is not in the aristocracy at all; it is in the slums. It is not in the House of Lords; it is not in the Civil Service; it is not in the Government offices; it is not even in the huge and disproportionate monopoly of the English land. It is in a certain spirit. It is in the fact that when a navvy wishes to praise a man, it comes readily to his tongue to say that he has behaved like a gentleman. From a democratic point of view he might as well say that he had behaved like a viscount. The oligarchic character of the modern English commonwealth does not rest, like many oligarchies, on the cruelty of the rich to the poor. It does not even rest on the kindness of the rich to the poor. It rests on the perennial and unfailing kindness of the poor to the rich.

The snobbishness of bad literature, then, is not servile; but the snobbishness of good literature is servile. The old-fashioned halfpenny romance where the duchesses sparkled with diamonds was not servile; but the new romance where they sparkle with epigrams is servile. For in thus attributing a special and startling degree of intellect and conversational or controversial power to the upper classes, we are attributing something which is not especially their virtue or even especially their aim. We are, in the words of Disraeli (who, being a genius and not a gentleman, has perhaps primarily to answer for the introduction of this method of flattering the gentry), we are performing the essential function of flattery which is flattering the people for the qualities they have not got. Praise may be gigantic and insane without having any quality of flattery so long as it is praise of something that is noticeably in existence. A man may say that a giraffe’s head strikes the stars, or that a whale fills the German Ocean, and still be only in a rather excited state about a favourite animal. But when he begins to congratulate the giraffe on his feathers, and the whale on the elegance of his legs, we find ourselves confronted with that social element which we call flattery. The middle and lower orders of London can sincerely, though not perhaps safely, admire the health and grace of the English aristocracy. And this for the very simple reason that the aristocrats are, upon the whole, more healthy and graceful than the poor. But they cannot honestly admire the wit of the aristocrats. And this for the simple reason that the aristocrats are not more witty than the poor, but a very great deal less so. A man does not hear, as in the smart novels, these gems of verbal felicity dropped between diplomatists at dinner. Where he really does hear them is between two omnibus conductors in a block in Holborn. The witty peer whose impromptus fill the books of Mrs. Craigie or Miss Fowler, would, as a matter of fact, be torn to shreds in the art of conversation by the first boot-black he had the misfortune to fall foul of. The poor are merely sentimental, and very excusably sentimental, if they praise the gentleman for having a ready hand and ready money. But they are strictly slaves and sycophants if they praise him for having a ready tongue. For that they have far more themselves.

The element of oligarchical sentiment in these novels, however, has, I think, another and subtler aspect, an aspect more difficult to understand and more worth understanding. The modern gentleman, particularly the modern English gentleman, has become so central and important in these books, and through them in the whole of our current literature and our current mode of thought, that certain qualities of his, whether original or recent, essential or accidental, have altered the quality of our English comedy. In particular, that stoical ideal, absurdly supposed to be the English ideal, has stiffened and chilled us. It is not the English ideal; but it is to some extent the aristocratic ideal; or it may be only the ideal of aristocracy in its autumn or decay. The gentleman is a Stoic because he is a sort of savage, because he is filled with a great elemental fear that some stranger will speak to him. That is why a third-class carriage is a community, while a first-class carriage is a place of wild hermits. But this matter, which is difficult, I may be permitted to approach in a more circuitous way.

The haunting element of ineffectualness which runs through so much of the witty and epigrammatic fiction fashionable during the last eight or ten years, which runs through such works of a real though varying ingenuity as “Dodo,” or “Concerning Isabel Carnaby,” or even “Some Emotions and a Moral,” may be expressed in various ways, but to most of us I think it will ultimately amount to the same thing. This new frivolity is inadequate because there is in it no strong sense of an unuttered joy. The men and women who exchange the repartees may not only be hating each other, but hating even themselves. Any one of them might be bankrupt that day, or sentenced to be shot the next. They are joking, not because they are merry, but because they are not; out of the emptiness of the heart the mouth speaketh. Even when they talk pure nonsense it is a careful nonsense—a nonsense of which they are economical, or, to use the perfect expression of Mr. W. S. Gilbert in “Patience,” it is such “precious nonsense.” Even when they become light-headed they do not become light-hearted. All those who have read anything of the rationalism of the moderns know that their Reason is a sad thing. But even their unreason is sad.

The causes of this incapacity are also not very difficult to indicate. The chief of all, of course, is that miserable fear of being sentimental, which is the meanest of all the modern terrors—meaner even than the terror which produces hygiene. Everywhere the robust and uproarious humour has come from the men who were capable not merely of sentimentalism, but a very silly sentimentalism. There has been no humour so robust or uproarious as that of the sentimentalist Steele or the sentimentalist Sterne or the sentimentalist Dickens. These creatures who wept like women were the creatures who laughed like men. It is true that the humour of Micawber is good literature and that the pathos of little Nell is bad. But the kind of man who had the courage to write so badly in the one case is the kind of man who would have the courage to write so well in the other. The same unconsciousness, the same violent innocence, the same gigantesque scale of action which brought the Napoleon of Comedy his Jena brought him also his Moscow. And herein is especially shown the frigid and feeble limitations of our modern wits. They make violent efforts, they make heroic and almost pathetic efforts, but they cannot really write badly. There are moments when we almost think that they are achieving the effect, but our hope shrivels to nothing the moment we compare their little failures with the enormous imbecilities of Byron or Shakespeare.

For a hearty laugh it is necessary to have touched the heart. I do not know why touching the heart should always be connected only with the idea of touching it to compassion or a sense of distress. The heart can be touched to joy and triumph; the heart can be touched to amusement. But all our comedians are tragic comedians. These later fashionable writers are so pessimistic in bone and marrow that they never seem able to imagine the heart having any concern with mirth. When they speak of the heart, they always mean the pangs and disappointments of the emotional life. When they say that a man’s heart is in the right place, they mean, apparently, that it is in his boots. Our ethical societies understand fellowship, but they do not understand good fellowship. Similarly, our wits understand talk, but not what Dr. Johnson called a good talk. In order to have, like Dr. Johnson, a good talk, it is emphatically necessary to be, like Dr. Johnson, a good man— to have friendship and honour and an abysmal tenderness. Above all, it is necessary to be openly and indecently humane, to confess with fulness all the primary pities and fears of Adam. Johnson was a clear-headed humorous man, and therefore he did not mind talking seriously about religion. Johnson was a brave man, one of the bravest that ever walked, and therefore he did not mind avowing to any one his consuming fear of death.

The idea that there is something English in the repression of one’s feelings is one of those ideas which no Englishman ever heard of until England began to be governed exclusively by Scotchmen, Americans, and Jews. At the best, the idea is a generalization from the Duke of Wellington—who was an Irishman. At the worst, it is a part of that silly Teutonism which knows as little about England as it does about anthropology, but which is always talking about Vikings. As a matter of fact, the Vikings did not repress their feelings in the least. They cried like babies and kissed each other like girls; in short, they acted in that respect like Achilles and all strong heroes the children of the gods. And though the English nationality has probably not much more to do with the Vikings than the French nationality or the Irish nationality, the English have certainly been the children of the Vikings in the matter of tears and kisses. It is not merely true that all the most typically English men of letters, like Shakespeare and Dickens, Richardson and Thackeray, were sentimentalists. It is also true that all the most typically English men of action were sentimentalists, if possible, more sentimental. In the great Elizabethan age, when the English nation was finally hammered out, in the great eighteenth century when the British Empire was being built up everywhere, where in all these times, where was this symbolic stoical Englishman who dresses in drab and black and represses his feelings? Were all the Elizabethan palladins and pirates like that? Were any of them like that? Was Grenville concealing his emotions when he broke wine-glasses to pieces with his teeth and bit them till the blood poured down? Was Essex restraining his excitement when he threw his hat into the sea? Did Raleigh think it sensible to answer the Spanish guns only, as Stevenson says, with a flourish of insulting trumpets? Did Sydney ever miss an opportunity of making a theatrical remark in the whole course of his life and death? Were even the Puritans Stoics? The English Puritans repressed a good deal, but even they were too English to repress their feelings. It was by a great miracle of genius assuredly that Carlyle contrived to admire simultaneously two things so irreconcilably opposed as silence and Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell was the very reverse of a strong, silent man. Cromwell was always talking, when he was not crying. Nobody, I suppose, will accuse the author of “Grace Abounding” of being ashamed of his feelings. Milton, indeed, it might be possible to represent as a Stoic; in some sense he was a Stoic, just as he was a prig and a polygamist and several other unpleasant and heathen things. But when we have passed that great and desolate name, which may really be counted an exception, we find the tradition of English emotionalism immediately resumed and unbrokenly continuous. Whatever may have been the moral beauty of the passions of Etheridge and Dorset, Sedley and Buckingham, they cannot be accused of the fault of fastidiously concealing them. Charles the Second was very popular with the English because, like all the jolly English kings, he displayed his passions. William the Dutchman was very unpopular with the English because, not being an Englishman, he did hide his emotions. He was, in fact, precisely the ideal Englishman of our modern theory; and precisely for that reason all the real Englishmen loathed him like leprosy. With the rise of the great England of the eighteenth century, we find this open and emotional tone still maintained in letters and politics, in arts and in arms. Perhaps the only quality which was possessed in common by the great Fielding and the great Richardson was that neither of them hid their feelings. Swift, indeed, was hard and logical, because Swift was Irish. And when we pass to the soldiers and the rulers, the patriots and the empire-builders of the eighteenth century, we find, as I have said, that they were, if possible, more romantic than the romancers, more poetical than the poets. Chatham, who showed the world all his strength, showed the House of Commons all his weakness. Wolfe walked about the room with a drawn sword calling himself Caesar and Hannibal, and went to death with poetry in his mouth. Clive was a man of the same type as Cromwell or Bunyan, or, for the matter of that, Johnson—that is, he was a strong, sensible man with a kind of running spring of hysteria and melancholy in him. Like Johnson, he was all the more healthy because he was morbid. The tales of all the admirals and adventurers of that England are full of braggadocio, of sentimentality, of splendid affectation. But it is scarcely necessary to multiply examples of the essentially romantic Englishman when one example towers above them all. Mr. Rudyard Kipling has said complacently of the English, “We do not fall on the neck and kiss when we come together.” It is true that this ancient and universal custom has vanished with the modern weakening of England. Sydney would have thought nothing of kissing Spenser. But I willingly concede that Mr. Broderick would not be likely to kiss Mr. Arnold-Foster, if that be any proof of the increased manliness and military greatness of England. But the Englishman who does not show his feelings has not altogether given up the power of seeing something English in the great sea-hero of the Napoleonic war. You cannot break the legend of Nelson. And across the sunset of that glory is written in flaming letters for ever the great English sentiment, “Kiss me, Hardy.”

This ideal of self-repression, then, is, whatever else it is, not English. It is, perhaps, somewhat Oriental, it is slightly Prussian, but in the main it does not come, I think, from any racial or national source. It is, as I have said, in some sense aristocratic; it comes not from a people, but from a class. Even aristocracy, I think, was not quite so stoical in the days when it was really strong. But whether this unemotional ideal be the genuine tradition of the gentleman, or only one of the inventions of the modern gentleman (who may be called the decayed gentleman), it certainly has something to do with the unemotional quality in these society novels. From representing aristocrats as people who suppressed their feelings, it has been an easy step to representing aristocrats as people who had no feelings to suppress. Thus the modern oligarchist has made a virtue for the oligarchy of the hardness as well as the brightness of the diamond. Like a sonneteer addressing his lady in the seventeenth century, he seems to use the word “cold” almost as a eulogium, and the word “heartless” as a kind of compliment. Of course, in people so incurably kind-hearted and babyish as are the English gentry, it would be impossible to create anything that can be called positive cruelty; so in these books they exhibit a sort of negative cruelty. They cannot be cruel in acts, but they can be so in words. All this means one thing, and one thing only. It means that the living and invigorating ideal of England must be looked for in the masses; it must be looked for where Dickens found it— Dickens among whose glories it was to be a humorist, to be a sentimentalist, to be an optimist, to be a poor man, to be an Englishman, but the greatest of whose glories was that he saw all mankind in its amazing and tropical luxuriance, and did not even notice the aristocracy; Dickens, the greatest of whose glories was that he could not describe a gentleman.

XVI. On Mr. McCabe and a Divine Frivolity

A critic once remonstrated with me saying, with an air of indignant reasonableness, “If you must make jokes, at least you need not make them on such serious subjects.” I replied with a natural simplicity and wonder, “About what other subjects can one make jokes except serious subjects?” It is quite useless to talk about profane jesting. All jesting is in its nature profane, in the sense that it must be the sudden realization that something which thinks itself solemn is not so very solemn after all. If a joke is not a joke about religion or morals, it is a joke about police-magistrates or scientific professors or undergraduates dressed up as Queen Victoria. And people joke about the police-magistrate more than they joke about the Pope, not because the police-magistrate is a more frivolous subject, but, on the contrary, because the police-magistrate is a more serious subject than the Pope. The Bishop of Rome has no jurisdiction in this realm of England; whereas the police-magistrate may bring his solemnity to bear quite suddenly upon us. Men make jokes about old scientific professors, even more than they make them about bishops—not because science is lighter than religion, but because science is always by its nature more solemn and austere than religion. It is not I; it is not even a particular class of journalists or jesters who make jokes about the matters which are of most awful import; it is the whole human race. If there is one thing more than another which any one will admit who has the smallest knowledge of the world, it is that men are always speaking gravely and earnestly and with the utmost possible care about the things that are not important, but always talking frivolously about the things that are. Men talk for hours with the faces of a college of cardinals about things like golf, or tobacco, or waistcoats, or party politics. But all the most grave and dreadful things in the world are the oldest jokes in the world—being married; being hanged.

One gentleman, however, Mr. McCabe, has in this matter made to me something that almost amounts to a personal appeal; and as he happens to be a man for whose sincerity and intellectual virtue I have a high respect, I do not feel inclined to let it pass without some attempt to satisfy my critic in the matter. Mr. McCabe devotes a considerable part of the last essay in the collection called “Christianity and Rationalism on Trial” to an objection, not to my thesis, but to my method, and a very friendly and dignified appeal to me to alter it. I am much inclined to defend myself in this matter out of mere respect for Mr. McCabe, and still more so out of mere respect for the truth which is, I think, in danger by his error, not only in this question, but in others. In order that there may be no injustice done in the matter, I will quote Mr. McCabe himself. “But before I follow Mr. Chesterton in some detail I would make a general observation on his method. He is as serious as I am in his ultimate purpose, and I respect him for that. He knows, as I do, that humanity stands at a solemn parting of the ways. Towards some unknown goal it presses through the ages, impelled by an overmastering desire of happiness. To-day it hesitates, lightheartedly enough, but every serious thinker knows how momentous the decision may be. It is, apparently, deserting the path of religion and entering upon the path of secularism. Will it lose itself in quagmires of sensuality down this new path, and pant and toil through years of civic and industrial anarchy, only to learn it had lost the road, and must return to religion? Or will it find that at last it is leaving the mists and the quagmires behind it; that it is ascending the slope of the hill so long dimly discerned ahead, and making straight for the long-sought Utopia? This is the drama of our time, and every man and every woman should understand it.

“Mr. Chesterton understands it. Further, he gives us credit for understanding it. He has nothing of that paltry meanness or strange density of so many of his colleagues, who put us down as aimless iconoclasts or moral anarchists. He admits that we are waging a thankless war for what we take to be Truth and Progress. He is doing the same. But why, in the name of all that is reasonable, should we, when we are agreed on the momentousness of the issue either way, forthwith desert serious methods of conducting the controversy? Why, when the vital need of our time is to induce men and women to collect their thoughts occasionally, and be men and women—nay, to remember that they are really gods that hold the destinies of humanity on their knees—why should we think that this kaleidoscopic play of phrases is inopportune? The ballets of the Alhambra, and the fireworks of the Crystal Palace, and Mr. Chesterton’s Daily News articles, have their place in life. But how a serious social student can think of curing the thoughtlessness of our generation by strained paradoxes; of giving people a sane grasp of social problems by literary sleight-of-hand; of settling important questions by a reckless shower of rocket-metaphors and inaccurate ‘facts,’ and the substitution of imagination for judgment, I cannot see.”

I quote this passage with a particular pleasure, because Mr. McCabe certainly cannot put too strongly the degree to which I give him and his school credit for their complete sincerity and responsibility of philosophical attitude. I am quite certain that they mean every word they say. I also mean every word I say. But why is it that Mr. McCabe has some sort of mysterious hesitation about admitting that I mean every word I say; why is it that he is not quite as certain of my mental responsibility as I am of his mental responsibility? If we attempt to answer the question directly and well, we shall, I think, have come to the root of the matter by the shortest cut.

Mr. McCabe thinks that I am not serious but only funny, because Mr. McCabe thinks that funny is the opposite of serious. Funny is the opposite of not funny, and of nothing else. The question of whether a man expresses himself in a grotesque or laughable phraseology, or in a stately and restrained phraseology, is not a question of motive or of moral state, it is a question of instinctive language and self-expression. Whether a man chooses to tell the truth in long sentences or short jokes is a problem analogous to whether he chooses to tell the truth in French or German. Whether a man preaches his gospel grotesquely or gravely is merely like the question of whether he preaches it in prose or verse. The question of whether Swift was funny in his irony is quite another sort of question to the question of whether Swift was serious in his pessimism. Surely even Mr. McCabe would not maintain that the more funny “Gulliver” is in its method the less it can be sincere in its object. The truth is, as I have said, that in this sense the two qualities of fun and seriousness have nothing whatever to do with each other, they are no more comparable than black and triangular. Mr. Bernard Shaw is funny and sincere. Mr. George Robey is funny and not sincere. Mr. McCabe is sincere and not funny. The average Cabinet Minister is not sincere and not funny.

In short, Mr. McCabe is under the influence of a primary fallacy which I have found very common in men of the clerical type. Numbers of clergymen have from time to time reproached me for making jokes about religion; and they have almost always invoked the authority of that very sensible commandment which says, “Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.” Of course, I pointed out that I was not in any conceivable sense taking the name in vain. To take a thing and make a joke out of it is not to take it in vain. It is, on the contrary, to take it and use it for an uncommonly good object. To use a thing in vain means to use it without use. But a joke may be exceedingly useful; it may contain the whole earthly sense, not to mention the whole heavenly sense, of a situation. And those who find in the Bible the commandment can find in the Bible any number of the jokes. In the same book in which God’s name is fenced from being taken in vain, God himself overwhelms Job with a torrent of terrible levities. The same book which says that God’s name must not be taken vainly, talks easily and carelessly about God laughing and God winking. Evidently it is not here that we have to look for genuine examples of what is meant by a vain use of the name. And it is not very difficult to see where we have really to look for it. The people (as I tactfully pointed out to them) who really take the name of the Lord in vain are the clergymen themselves. The thing which is fundamentally and really frivolous is not a careless joke. The thing which is fundamentally and really frivolous is a careless solemnity. If Mr. McCabe really wishes to know what sort of guarantee of reality and solidity is afforded by the mere act of what is called talking seriously, let him spend a happy Sunday in going the round of the pulpits. Or, better still, let him drop in at the House of Commons or the House of Lords. Even Mr. McCabe would admit that these men are solemn—more solemn than I am. And even Mr. McCabe, I think, would admit that these men are frivolous— more frivolous than I am. Why should Mr. McCabe be so eloquent about the danger arising from fantastic and paradoxical writers? Why should he be so ardent in desiring grave and verbose writers? There are not so very many fantastic and paradoxical writers. But there are a gigantic number of grave and verbose writers; and it is by the efforts of the grave and verbose writers that everything that Mr. McCabe detests (and everything that I detest, for that matter) is kept in existence and energy. How can it have come about that a man as intelligent as Mr. McCabe can think that paradox and jesting stop the way? It is solemnity that is stopping the way in every department of modern effort. It is his own favourite “serious methods;” it is his own favourite “momentousness;” it is his own favourite “judgment” which stops the way everywhere. Every man who has ever headed a deputation to a minister knows this. Every man who has ever written a letter to the Times knows it. Every rich man who wishes to stop the mouths of the poor talks about “momentousness.” Every Cabinet minister who has not got an answer suddenly develops a “judgment.” Every sweater who uses vile methods recommends “serious methods.” I said a moment ago that sincerity had nothing to do with solemnity, but I confess that I am not so certain that I was right. In the modern world, at any rate, I am not so sure that I was right. In the modern world solemnity is the direct enemy of sincerity. In the modern world sincerity is almost always on one side, and solemnity almost always on the other. The only answer possible to the fierce and glad attack of sincerity is the miserable answer of solemnity. Let Mr. McCabe, or any one else who is much concerned that we should be grave in order to be sincere, simply imagine the scene in some government office in which Mr. Bernard Shaw should head a Socialist deputation to Mr. Austen Chamberlain. On which side would be the solemnity? And on which the sincerity?

I am, indeed, delighted to discover that Mr. McCabe reckons Mr. Shaw along with me in his system of condemnation of frivolity. He said once, I believe, that he always wanted Mr. Shaw to label his paragraphs serious or comic. I do not know which paragraphs of Mr. Shaw are paragraphs to be labelled serious; but surely there can be no doubt that this paragraph of Mr. McCabe’s is one to be labelled comic. He also says, in the article I am now discussing, that Mr. Shaw has the reputation of deliberately saying everything which his hearers do not expect him to say. I need not labour the inconclusiveness and weakness of this, because it has already been dealt with in my remarks on Mr. Bernard Shaw. Suffice it to say here that the only serious reason which I can imagine inducing any one person to listen to any other is, that the first person looks to the second person with an ardent faith and a fixed attention, expecting him to say what he does not expect him to say. It may be a paradox, but that is because paradoxes are true. It may not be rational, but that is because rationalism is wrong. But clearly it is quite true that whenever we go to hear a prophet or teacher we may or may not expect wit, we may or may not expect eloquence, but we do expect what we do not expect. We may not expect the true, we may not even expect the wise, but we do expect the unexpected. If we do not expect the unexpected, why do we go there at all? If we expect the expected, why do we not sit at home and expect it by ourselves? If Mr. McCabe means merely this about Mr. Shaw, that he always has some unexpected application of his doctrine to give to those who listen to him, what he says is quite true, and to say it is only to say that Mr. Shaw is an original man. But if he means that Mr. Shaw has ever professed or preached any doctrine but one, and that his own, then what he says is not true. It is not my business to defend Mr. Shaw; as has been seen already, I disagree with him altogether. But I do not mind, on his behalf offering in this matter a flat defiance to all his ordinary opponents, such as Mr. McCabe. I defy Mr. McCabe, or anybody else, to mention one single instance in which Mr. Shaw has, for the sake of wit or novelty, taken up any position which was not directly deducible from the body of his doctrine as elsewhere expressed. I have been, I am happy to say, a tolerably close student of Mr. Shaw’s utterances, and I request Mr. McCabe, if he will not believe that I mean anything else, to believe that I mean this challenge.

All this, however, is a parenthesis. The thing with which I am here immediately concerned is Mr. McCabe’s appeal to me not to be so frivolous. Let me return to the actual text of that appeal. There are, of course, a great many things that I might say about it in detail. But I may start with saying that Mr. McCabe is in error in supposing that the danger which I anticipate from the disappearance of religion is the increase of sensuality. On the contrary, I should be inclined to anticipate a decrease in sensuality, because I anticipate a decrease in life. I do not think that under modern Western materialism we should have anarchy. I doubt whether we should have enough individual valour and spirit even to have liberty. It is quite an old-fashioned fallacy to suppose that our objection to scepticism is that it removes the discipline from life. Our objection to scepticism is that it removes the motive power. Materialism is not a thing which destroys mere restraint. Materialism itself is the great restraint. The McCabe school advocates a political liberty, but it denies spiritual liberty. That is, it abolishes the laws which could be broken, and substitutes laws that cannot. And that is the real slavery.

The truth is that the scientific civilization in which Mr. McCabe believes has one rather particular defect; it is perpetually tending to destroy that democracy or power of the ordinary man in which Mr. McCabe also believes. Science means specialism, and specialism means oligarchy. If you once establish the habit of trusting particular men to produce particular results in physics or astronomy, you leave the door open for the equally natural demand that you should trust particular men to do particular things in government and the coercing of men. If, you feel it to be reasonable that one beetle should be the only study of one man, and that one man the only student of that one beetle, it is surely a very harmless consequence to go on to say that politics should be the only study of one man, and that one man the only student of politics. As I have pointed out elsewhere in this book, the expert is more aristocratic than the aristocrat, because the aristocrat is only the man who lives well, while the expert is the man who knows better. But if we look at the progress of our scientific civilization we see a gradual increase everywhere of the specialist over the popular function. Once men sang together round a table in chorus; now one man sings alone, for the absurd reason that he can sing better. If scientific civilization goes on (which is most improbable) only one man will laugh, because he can laugh better than the rest.

I do not know that I can express this more shortly than by taking as a text the single sentence of Mr. McCabe, which runs as follows: “The ballets of the Alhambra and the fireworks of the Crystal Palace and Mr. Chesterton’s Daily News articles have their places in life.” I wish that my articles had as noble a place as either of the other two things mentioned. But let us ask ourselves (in a spirit of love, as Mr. Chadband would say), what are the ballets of the Alhambra? The ballets of the Alhambra are institutions in which a particular selected row of persons in pink go through an operation known as dancing. Now, in all commonwealths dominated by a religion— in the Christian commonwealths of the Middle Ages and in many rude societies—this habit of dancing was a common habit with everybody, and was not necessarily confined to a professional class. A person could dance without being a dancer; a person could dance without being a specialist; a person could dance without being pink. And, in proportion as Mr. McCabe’s scientific civilization advances— that is, in proportion as religious civilization (or real civilization) decays—the more and more “well trained,” the more and more pink, become the people who do dance, and the more and more numerous become the people who don’t. Mr. McCabe may recognize an example of what I mean in the gradual discrediting in society of the ancient European waltz or dance with partners, and the substitution of that horrible and degrading oriental interlude which is known as skirt-dancing. That is the whole essence of decadence, the effacement of five people who do a thing for fun by one person who does it for money. Now it follows, therefore, that when Mr. McCabe says that the ballets of the Alhambra and my articles “have their place in life,” it ought to be pointed out to him that he is doing his best to create a world in which dancing, properly speaking, will have no place in life at all. He is, indeed, trying to create a world in which there will be no life for dancing to have a place in. The very fact that Mr. McCabe thinks of dancing as a thing belonging to some hired women at the Alhambra is an illustration of the same principle by which he is able to think of religion as a thing belonging to some hired men in white neckties. Both these things are things which should not be done for us, but by us. If Mr. McCabe were really religious he would be happy. If he were really happy he would dance.

Briefly, we may put the matter in this way. The main point of modern life is not that the Alhambra ballet has its place in life. The main point, the main enormous tragedy of modern life, is that Mr. McCabe has not his place in the Alhambra ballet. The joy of changing and graceful posture, the joy of suiting the swing of music to the swing of limbs, the joy of whirling drapery, the joy of standing on one leg,—all these should belong by rights to Mr. McCabe and to me; in short, to the ordinary healthy citizen. Probably we should not consent to go through these evolutions. But that is because we are miserable moderns and rationalists. We do not merely love ourselves more than we love duty; we actually love ourselves more than we love joy.

When, therefore, Mr. McCabe says that he gives the Alhambra dances (and my articles) their place in life, I think we are justified in pointing out that by the very nature of the case of his philosophy and of his favourite civilization he gives them a very inadequate place. For (if I may pursue the too flattering parallel) Mr. McCabe thinks of the Alhambra and of my articles as two very odd and absurd things, which some special people do (probably for money) in order to amuse him. But if he had ever felt himself the ancient, sublime, elemental, human instinct to dance, he would have discovered that dancing is not a frivolous thing at all, but a very serious thing. He would have discovered that it is the one grave and chaste and decent method of expressing a certain class of emotions. And similarly, if he had ever had, as Mr. Shaw and I have had, the impulse to what he calls paradox, he would have discovered that paradox again is not a frivolous thing, but a very serious thing. He would have found that paradox simply means a certain defiant joy which belongs to belief. I should regard any civilization which was without a universal habit of uproarious dancing as being, from the full human point of view, a defective civilization. And I should regard any mind which had not got the habit in one form or another of uproarious thinking as being, from the full human point of view, a defective mind. It is vain for Mr. McCabe to say that a ballet is a part of him. He should be part of a ballet, or else he is only part of a man. It is in vain for him to say that he is “not quarrelling with the importation of humour into the controversy.” He ought himself to be importing humour into every controversy; for unless a man is in part a humorist, he is only in part a man. To sum up the whole matter very simply, if Mr. McCabe asks me why I import frivolity into a discussion of the nature of man, I answer, because frivolity is a part of the nature of man. If he asks me why I introduce what he calls paradoxes into a philosophical problem, I answer, because all philosophical problems tend to become paradoxical. If he objects to my treating of life riotously, I reply that life is a riot. And I say that the Universe as I see it, at any rate, is very much more like the fireworks at the Crystal Palace than it is like his own philosophy. About the whole cosmos there is a tense and secret festivity—like preparations for Guy Fawkes’ day. Eternity is the eve of something. I never look up at the stars without feeling that they are the fires of a schoolboy’s rocket, fixed in their everlasting fall.

XVII. On the Wit of Whistler

That capable and ingenious writer, Mr. Arthur Symons, has included in a book of essays recently published, I believe, an apologia for “London Nights,” in which he says that morality should be wholly subordinated to art in criticism, and he uses the somewhat singular argument that art or the worship of beauty is the same in all ages, while morality differs in every period and in every respect. He appears to defy his critics or his readers to mention any permanent feature or quality in ethics. This is surely a very curious example of that extravagant bias against morality which makes so many ultra-modern aesthetes as morbid and fanatical as any Eastern hermit. Unquestionably it is a very common phrase of modern intellectualism to say that the morality of one age can be entirely different to the morality of another. And like a great many other phrases of modern intellectualism, it means literally nothing at all. If the two moralities are entirely different, why do you call them both moralities? It is as if a man said, “Camels in various places are totally diverse; some have six legs, some have none, some have scales, some have feathers, some have horns, some have wings, some are green, some are triangular. There is no point which they have in common.” The ordinary man of sense would reply, “Then what makes you call them all camels? What do you mean by a camel? How do you know a camel when you see one?” Of course, there is a permanent substance of morality, as much as there is a permanent substance of art; to say that is only to say that morality is morality, and that art is art. An ideal art critic would, no doubt, see the enduring beauty under every school; equally an ideal moralist would see the enduring ethic under every code. But practically some of the best Englishmen that ever lived could see nothing but filth and idolatry in the starry piety of the Brahmin. And it is equally true that practically the greatest group of artists that the world has ever seen, the giants of the Renaissance, could see nothing but barbarism in the ethereal energy of Gothic.

This bias against morality among the modern aesthetes is nothing very much paraded. And yet it is not really a bias against morality; it is a bias against other people’s morality. It is generally founded on a very definite moral preference for a certain sort of life, pagan, plausible, humane. The modern aesthete, wishing us to believe that he values beauty more than conduct, reads Mallarme, and drinks absinthe in a tavern. But this is not only his favourite kind of beauty; it is also his favourite kind of conduct. If he really wished us to believe that he cared for beauty only, he ought to go to nothing but Wesleyan school treats, and paint the sunlight in the hair of the Wesleyan babies. He ought to read nothing but very eloquent theological sermons by old-fashioned Presbyterian divines. Here the lack of all possible moral sympathy would prove that his interest was purely verbal or pictorial, as it is; in all the books he reads and writes he clings to the skirts of his own morality and his own immorality. The champion of l’art pour l’art is always denouncing Ruskin for his moralizing. If he were really a champion of l’art pour l’art, he would be always insisting on Ruskin for his style.

The doctrine of the distinction between art and morality owes a great part of its success to art and morality being hopelessly mixed up in the persons and performances of its greatest exponents. Of this lucky contradiction the very incarnation was Whistler. No man ever preached the impersonality of art so well; no man ever preached the impersonality of art so personally. For him pictures had nothing to do with the problems of character; but for all his fiercest admirers his character was, as a matter of fact, far more interesting than his pictures. He gloried in standing as an artist apart from right and wrong. But he succeeded by talking from morning till night about his rights and about his wrongs. His talents were many, his virtues, it must be confessed, not many, beyond that kindness to tried friends, on which many of his biographers insist, but which surely is a quality of all sane men, of pirates and pickpockets; beyond this, his outstanding virtues limit themselves chiefly to two admirable ones— courage and an abstract love of good work. Yet I fancy he won at last more by those two virtues than by all his talents. A man must be something of a moralist if he is to preach, even if he is to preach unmorality. Professor Walter Raleigh, in his “In Memoriam: James McNeill Whistler,” insists, truly enough, on the strong streak of an eccentric honesty in matters strictly pictorial, which ran through his complex and slightly confused character. “He would destroy any of his works rather than leave a careless or inexpressive touch within the limits of the frame. He would begin again a hundred times over rather than attempt by patching to make his work seem better than it was.”

No one will blame Professor Raleigh, who had to read a sort of funeral oration over Whistler at the opening of the Memorial Exhibition, if, finding himself in that position, he confined himself mostly to the merits and the stronger qualities of his subject. We should naturally go to some other type of composition for a proper consideration of the weaknesses of Whistler. But these must never be omitted from our view of him. Indeed, the truth is that it was not so much a question of the weaknesses of Whistler as of the intrinsic and primary weakness of Whistler. He was one of those people who live up to their emotional incomes, who are always taut and tingling with vanity. Hence he had no strength to spare; hence he had no kindness, no geniality; for geniality is almost definable as strength to spare. He had no god-like carelessness; he never forgot himself; his whole life was, to use his own expression, an arrangement. He went in for “the art of living”—a miserable trick. In a word, he was a great artist; but emphatically not a great man. In this connection I must differ strongly with Professor Raleigh upon what is, from a superficial literary point of view, one of his most effective points. He compares Whistler’s laughter to the laughter of another man who was a great man as well as a great artist. “His attitude to the public was exactly the attitude taken up by Robert Browning, who suffered as long a period of neglect and mistake, in those lines of ‘The Ring and the Book’—

“‘Well, British Public, ye who like me not, (God love you!) and will have your proper laugh At the dark question; laugh it! I’d laugh first.’

“Mr. Whistler,” adds Professor Raleigh, “always laughed first.” The truth is, I believe, that Whistler never laughed at all. There was no laughter in his nature; because there was no thoughtlessness and self-abandonment, no humility. I cannot understand anybody reading “The Gentle Art of Making Enemies” and thinking that there is any laughter in the wit. His wit is a torture to him. He twists himself into arabesques of verbal felicity; he is full of a fierce carefulness; he is inspired with the complete seriousness of sincere malice. He hurts himself to hurt his opponent. Browning did laugh, because Browning did not care; Browning did not care, because Browning was a great man. And when Browning said in brackets to the simple, sensible people who did not like his books, “God love you!” he was not sneering in the least. He was laughing—that is to say, he meant exactly what he said.

There are three distinct classes of great satirists who are also great men—that is to say, three classes of men who can laugh at something without losing their souls. The satirist of the first type is the man who, first of all enjoys himself, and then enjoys his enemies. In this sense he loves his enemy, and by a kind of exaggeration of Christianity he loves his enemy the more the more he becomes an enemy. He has a sort of overwhelming and aggressive happiness in his assertion of anger; his curse is as human as a benediction. Of this type of satire the great example is Rabelais. This is the first typical example of satire, the satire which is voluble, which is violent, which is indecent, but which is not malicious. The satire of Whistler was not this. He was never in any of his controversies simply happy; the proof of it is that he never talked absolute nonsense. There is a second type of mind which produces satire with the quality of greatness. That is embodied in the satirist whose passions are released and let go by some intolerable sense of wrong. He is maddened by the sense of men being maddened; his tongue becomes an unruly member, and testifies against all mankind. Such a man was Swift, in whom the saeva indignatio was a bitterness to others, because it was a bitterness to himself. Such a satirist Whistler was not. He did not laugh because he was happy, like Rabelais. But neither did he laugh because he was unhappy, like Swift.

The third type of great satire is that in which the satirist is enabled to rise superior to his victim in the only serious sense which superiority can bear, in that of pitying the sinner and respecting the man even while he satirises both. Such an achievement can be found in a thing like Pope’s “Atticus,” a poem in which the satirist feels that he is satirising the weaknesses which belong specially to literary genius. Consequently he takes a pleasure in pointing out his enemy’s strength before he points out his weakness. That is, perhaps, the highest and most honourable form of satire. That is not the satire of Whistler. He is not full of a great sorrow for the wrong done to human nature; for him the wrong is altogether done to himself.

He was not a great personality, because he thought so much about himself. And the case is stronger even than that. He was sometimes not even a great artist, because he thought so much about art. Any man with a vital knowledge of the human psychology ought to have the most profound suspicion of anybody who claims to be an artist, and talks a great deal about art. Art is a right and human thing, like walking or saying one’s prayers; but the moment it begins to be talked about very solemnly, a man may be fairly certain that the thing has come into a congestion and a kind of difficulty.

The artistic temperament is a disease that afflicts amateurs. It is a disease which arises from men not having sufficient power of expression to utter and get rid of the element of art in their being. It is healthful to every sane man to utter the art within him; it is essential to every sane man to get rid of the art within him at all costs. Artists of a large and wholesome vitality get rid of their art easily, as they breathe easily, or perspire easily. But in artists of less force, the thing becomes a pressure, and produces a definite pain, which is called the artistic temperament. Thus, very great artists are able to be ordinary men— men like Shakespeare or Browning. There are many real tragedies of the artistic temperament, tragedies of vanity or violence or fear. But the great tragedy of the artistic temperament is that it cannot produce any art.

Whistler could produce art; and in so far he was a great man. But he could not forget art; and in so far he was only a man with the artistic temperament. There can be no stronger manifestation of the man who is a really great artist than the fact that he can dismiss the subject of art; that he can, upon due occasion, wish art at the bottom of the sea. Similarly, we should always be much more inclined to trust a solicitor who did not talk about conveyancing over the nuts and wine. What we really desire of any man conducting any business is that the full force of an ordinary man should be put into that particular study. We do not desire that the full force of that study should be put into an ordinary man. We do not in the least wish that our particular law-suit should pour its energy into our barrister’s games with his children, or rides on his bicycle, or meditations on the morning star. But we do, as a matter of fact, desire that his games with his children, and his rides on his bicycle, and his meditations on the morning star should pour something of their energy into our law-suit. We do desire that if he has gained any especial lung development from the bicycle, or any bright and pleasing metaphors from the morning star, that they should be placed at our disposal in that particular forensic controversy. In a word, we are very glad that he is an ordinary man, since that may help him to be an exceptional lawyer.

Whistler never ceased to be an artist. As Mr. Max Beerbohm pointed out in one of his extraordinarily sensible and sincere critiques, Whistler really regarded Whistler as his greatest work of art. The white lock, the single eyeglass, the remarkable hat— these were much dearer to him than any nocturnes or arrangements that he ever threw off. He could throw off the nocturnes; for some mysterious reason he could not throw off the hat. He never threw off from himself that disproportionate accumulation of aestheticism which is the burden of the amateur.

It need hardly be said that this is the real explanation of the thing which has puzzled so many dilettante critics, the problem of the extreme ordinariness of the behaviour of so many great geniuses in history. Their behaviour was so ordinary that it was not recorded; hence it was so ordinary that it seemed mysterious. Hence people say that Bacon wrote Shakespeare. The modern artistic temperament cannot understand how a man who could write such lyrics as Shakespeare wrote, could be as keen as Shakespeare was on business transactions in a little town in Warwickshire. The explanation is simple enough; it is that Shakespeare had a real lyrical impulse, wrote a real lyric, and so got rid of the impulse and went about his business. Being an artist did not prevent him from being an ordinary man, any more than being a sleeper at night or being a diner at dinner prevented him from being an ordinary man.

All very great teachers and leaders have had this habit of assuming their point of view to be one which was human and casual, one which would readily appeal to every passing man. If a man is genuinely superior to his fellows the first thing that he believes in is the equality of man. We can see this, for instance, in that strange and innocent rationality with which Christ addressed any motley crowd that happened to stand about Him. “What man of you having a hundred sheep, and losing one, would not leave the ninety and nine in the wilderness, and go after that which was lost?” Or, again, “What man of you if his son ask for bread will he give him a stone, or if he ask for a fish will he give him a serpent?” This plainness, this almost prosaic camaraderie, is the note of all very great minds.

To very great minds the things on which men agree are so immeasurably more important than the things on which they differ, that the latter, for all practical purposes, disappear. They have too much in them of an ancient laughter even to endure to discuss the difference between the hats of two men who were both born of a woman, or between the subtly varied cultures of two men who have both to die. The first-rate great man is equal with other men, like Shakespeare. The second-rate great man is on his knees to other men, like Whitman. The third-rate great man is superior to other men, like Whistler.

XVIII. The Fallacy of the Young Nation

To say that a man is an idealist is merely to say that he is a man; but, nevertheless, it might be possible to effect some valid distinction between one kind of idealist and another. One possible distinction, for instance, could be effected by saying that humanity is divided into conscious idealists and unconscious idealists. In a similar way, humanity is divided into conscious ritualists and unconscious ritualists. The curious thing is, in that example as in others, that it is the conscious ritualism which is comparatively simple, the unconscious ritual which is really heavy and complicated. The ritual which is comparatively rude and straightforward is the ritual which people call “ritualistic.” It consists of plain things like bread and wine and fire, and men falling on their faces. But the ritual which is really complex, and many coloured, and elaborate, and needlessly formal, is the ritual which people enact without knowing it. It consists not of plain things like wine and fire, but of really peculiar, and local, and exceptional, and ingenious things— things like door-mats, and door-knockers, and electric bells, and silk hats, and white ties, and shiny cards, and confetti. The truth is that the modern man scarcely ever gets back to very old and simple things except when he is performing some religious mummery. The modern man can hardly get away from ritual except by entering a ritualistic church. In the case of these old and mystical formalities we can at least say that the ritual is not mere ritual; that the symbols employed are in most cases symbols which belong to a primary human poetry. The most ferocious opponent of the Christian ceremonials must admit that if Catholicism had not instituted the bread and wine, somebody else would most probably have done so. Any one with a poetical instinct will admit that to the ordinary human instinct bread symbolizes something which cannot very easily be symbolized otherwise; that wine, to the ordinary human instinct, symbolizes something which cannot very easily be symbolized otherwise. But white ties in the evening are ritual, and nothing else but ritual. No one would pretend that white ties in the evening are primary and poetical. Nobody would maintain that the ordinary human instinct would in any age or country tend to symbolize the idea of evening by a white necktie. Rather, the ordinary human instinct would, I imagine, tend to symbolize evening by cravats with some of the colours of the sunset, not white neckties, but tawny or crimson neckties—neckties of purple or olive, or some darkened gold. Mr. J. A. Kensit, for example, is under the impression that he is not a ritualist. But the daily life of Mr. J. A. Kensit, like that of any ordinary modern man, is, as a matter of fact, one continual and compressed catalogue of mystical mummery and flummery. To take one instance out of an inevitable hundred: I imagine that Mr. Kensit takes off his hat to a lady; and what can be more solemn and absurd, considered in the abstract, than, symbolizing the existence of the other sex by taking off a portion of your clothing and waving it in the air? This, I repeat, is not a natural and primitive symbol, like fire or food. A man might just as well have to take off his waistcoat to a lady; and if a man, by the social ritual of his civilization, had to take off his waistcoat to a lady, every chivalrous and sensible man would take off his waistcoat to a lady. In short, Mr. Kensit, and those who agree with him, may think, and quite sincerely think, that men give too much incense and ceremonial to their adoration of the other world. But nobody thinks that he can give too much incense and ceremonial to the adoration of this world. All men, then, are ritualists, but are either conscious or unconscious ritualists. The conscious ritualists are generally satisfied with a few very simple and elementary signs; the unconscious ritualists are not satisfied with anything short of the whole of human life, being almost insanely ritualistic. The first is called a ritualist because he invents and remembers one rite; the other is called an anti-ritualist because he obeys and forgets a thousand. And a somewhat similar distinction to this which I have drawn with some unavoidable length, between the conscious ritualist and the unconscious ritualist, exists between the conscious idealist and the unconscious idealist. It is idle to inveigh against cynics and materialists—there are no cynics, there are no materialists. Every man is idealistic; only it so often happens that he has the wrong ideal. Every man is incurably sentimental; but, unfortunately, it is so often a false sentiment. When we talk, for instance, of some unscrupulous commercial figure, and say that he would do anything for money, we use quite an inaccurate expression, and we slander him very much. He would not do anything for money. He would do some things for money; he would sell his soul for money, for instance; and, as Mirabeau humorously said, he would be quite wise “to take money for muck.” He would oppress humanity for money; but then it happens that humanity and the soul are not things that he believes in; they are not his ideals. But he has his own dim and delicate ideals; and he would not violate these for money. He would not drink out of the soup-tureen, for money. He would not wear his coat-tails in front, for money. He would not spread a report that he had softening of the brain, for money. In the actual practice of life we find, in the matter of ideals, exactly what we have already found in the matter of ritual. We find that while there is a perfectly genuine danger of fanaticism from the men who have unworldly ideals, the permanent and urgent danger of fanaticism is from the men who have worldly ideals.

People who say that an ideal is a dangerous thing, that it deludes and intoxicates, are perfectly right. But the ideal which intoxicates most is the least idealistic kind of ideal. The ideal which intoxicates least is the very ideal ideal; that sobers us suddenly, as all heights and precipices and great distances do. Granted that it is a great evil to mistake a cloud for a cape; still, the cloud, which can be most easily mistaken for a cape, is the cloud that is nearest the earth. Similarly, we may grant that it may be dangerous to mistake an ideal for something practical. But we shall still point out that, in this respect, the most dangerous ideal of all is the ideal which looks a little practical. It is difficult to attain a high ideal; consequently, it is almost impossible to persuade ourselves that we have attained it. But it is easy to attain a low ideal; consequently, it is easier still to persuade ourselves that we have attained it when we have done nothing of the kind. To take a random example. It might be called a high ambition to wish to be an archangel; the man who entertained such an ideal would very possibly exhibit asceticism, or even frenzy, but not, I think, delusion. He would not think he was an archangel, and go about flapping his hands under the impression that they were wings. But suppose that a sane man had a low ideal; suppose he wished to be a gentleman. Any one who knows the world knows that in nine weeks he would have persuaded himself that he was a gentleman; and this being manifestly not the case, the result will be very real and practical dislocations and calamities in social life. It is not the wild ideals which wreck the practical world; it is the tame ideals.

The matter may, perhaps, be illustrated by a parallel from our modern politics. When men tell us that the old Liberal politicians of the type of Gladstone cared only for ideals, of course, they are talking nonsense—they cared for a great many other things, including votes. And when men tell us that modern politicians of the type of Mr. Chamberlain or, in another way, Lord Rosebery, care only for votes or for material interest, then again they are talking nonsense—these men care for ideals like all other men. But the real distinction which may be drawn is this, that to the older politician the ideal was an ideal, and nothing else. To the new politician his dream is not only a good dream, it is a reality. The old politician would have said, “It would be a good thing if there were a Republican Federation dominating the world.” But the modern politician does not say, “It would be a good thing if there were a British Imperialism dominating the world.” He says, “It is a good thing that there is a British Imperialism dominating the world;” whereas clearly there is nothing of the kind. The old Liberal would say “There ought to be a good Irish government in Ireland.” But the ordinary modern Unionist does not say, “There ought to be a good English government in Ireland.” He says, “There is a good English government in Ireland;” which is absurd. In short, the modern politicians seem to think that a man becomes practical merely by making assertions entirely about practical things. Apparently, a delusion does not matter as long as it is a materialistic delusion. Instinctively most of us feel that, as a practical matter, even the contrary is true. I certainly would much rather share my apartments with a gentleman who thought he was God than with a gentleman who thought he was a grasshopper. To be continually haunted by practical images and practical problems, to be constantly thinking of things as actual, as urgent, as in process of completion—these things do not prove a man to be practical; these things, indeed, are among the most ordinary signs of a lunatic. That our modern statesmen are materialistic is nothing against their being also morbid. Seeing angels in a vision may make a man a supernaturalist to excess. But merely seeing snakes in delirium tremens does not make him a naturalist.

And when we come actually to examine the main stock notions of our modern practical politicians, we find that those main stock notions are mainly delusions. A great many instances might be given of the fact. We might take, for example, the case of that strange class of notions which underlie the word “union,” and all the eulogies heaped upon it. Of course, union is no more a good thing in itself than separation is a good thing in itself. To have a party in favour of union and a party in favour of separation is as absurd as to have a party in favour of going upstairs and a party in favour of going downstairs. The question is not whether we go up or down stairs, but where we are going to, and what we are going for? Union is strength; union is also weakness. It is a good thing to harness two horses to a cart; but it is not a good thing to try and turn two hansom cabs into one four-wheeler. Turning ten nations into one empire may happen to be as feasible as turning ten shillings into one half-sovereign. Also it may happen to be as preposterous as turning ten terriers into one mastiff. The question in all cases is not a question of union or absence of union, but of identity or absence of identity. Owing to certain historical and moral causes, two nations may be so united as upon the whole to help each other. Thus England and Scotland pass their time in paying each other compliments; but their energies and atmospheres run distinct and parallel, and consequently do not clash. Scotland continues to be educated and Calvinistic; England continues to be uneducated and happy. But owing to certain other Moral and certain other political causes, two nations may be so united as only to hamper each other; their lines do clash and do not run parallel. Thus, for instance, England and Ireland are so united that the Irish can sometimes rule England, but can never rule Ireland. The educational systems, including the last Education Act, are here, as in the case of Scotland, a very good test of the matter. The overwhelming majority of Irishmen believe in a strict Catholicism; the overwhelming majority of Englishmen believe in a vague Protestantism. The Irish party in the Parliament of Union is just large enough to prevent the English education being indefinitely Protestant, and just small enough to prevent the Irish education being definitely Catholic. Here we have a state of things which no man in his senses would ever dream of wishing to continue if he had not been bewitched by the sentimentalism of the mere word “union.”

This example of union, however, is not the example which I propose to take of the ingrained futility and deception underlying all the assumptions of the modern practical politician. I wish to speak especially of another and much more general delusion. It pervades the minds and speeches of all the practical men of all parties; and it is a childish blunder built upon a single false metaphor. I refer to the universal modern talk about young nations and new nations; about America being young, about New Zealand being new. The whole thing is a trick of words. America is not young, New Zealand is not new. It is a very discussable question whether they are not both much older than England or Ireland.

Of course we may use the metaphor of youth about America or the colonies, if we use it strictly as implying only a recent origin. But if we use it (as we do use it) as implying vigour, or vivacity, or crudity, or inexperience, or hope, or a long life before them or any of the romantic attributes of youth, then it is surely as clear as daylight that we are duped by a stale figure of speech. We can easily see the matter clearly by applying it to any other institution parallel to the institution of an independent nationality. If a club called “The Milk and Soda League” (let us say) was set up yesterday, as I have no doubt it was, then, of course, “The Milk and Soda League” is a young club in the sense that it was set up yesterday, but in no other sense. It may consist entirely of moribund old gentlemen. It may be moribund itself. We may call it a young club, in the light of the fact that it was founded yesterday. We may also call it a very old club in the light of the fact that it will most probably go bankrupt to-morrow. All this appears very obvious when we put it in this form. Any one who adopted the young-community delusion with regard to a bank or a butcher’s shop would be sent to an asylum. But the whole modern political notion that America and the colonies must be very vigorous because they are very new, rests upon no better foundation. That America was founded long after England does not make it even in the faintest degree more probable that America will not perish a long time before England. That England existed before her colonies does not make it any the less likely that she will exist after her colonies. And when we look at the actual history of the world, we find that great European nations almost invariably have survived the vitality of their colonies. When we look at the actual history of the world, we find, that if there is a thing that is born old and dies young, it is a colony. The Greek colonies went to pieces long before the Greek civilization. The Spanish colonies have gone to pieces long before the nation of Spain— nor does there seem to be any reason to doubt the possibility or even the probability of the conclusion that the colonial civilization, which owes its origin to England, will be much briefer and much less vigorous than the civilization of England itself. The English nation will still be going the way of all European nations when the Anglo-Saxon race has gone the way of all fads. Now, of course, the interesting question is, have we, in the case of America and the colonies, any real evidence of a moral and intellectual youth as opposed to the indisputable triviality of a merely chronological youth? Consciously or unconsciously, we know that we have no such evidence, and consciously or unconsciously, therefore, we proceed to make it up. Of this pure and placid invention, a good example, for instance, can be found in a recent poem of Mr. Rudyard Kipling’s. Speaking of the English people and the South African War Mr. Kipling says that “we fawned on the younger nations for the men that could shoot and ride.” Some people considered this sentence insulting. All that I am concerned with at present is the evident fact that it is not true. The colonies provided very useful volunteer troops, but they did not provide the best troops, nor achieve the most successful exploits. The best work in the war on the English side was done, as might have been expected, by the best English regiments. The men who could shoot and ride were not the enthusiastic corn merchants from Melbourne, any more than they were the enthusiastic clerks from Cheapside. The men who could shoot and ride were the men who had been taught to shoot and ride in the discipline of the standing army of a great European power. Of course, the colonials are as brave and athletic as any other average white men. Of course, they acquitted themselves with reasonable credit. All I have here to indicate is that, for the purposes of this theory of the new nation, it is necessary to maintain that the colonial forces were more useful or more heroic than the gunners at Colenso or the Fighting Fifth. And of this contention there is not, and never has been, one stick or straw of evidence.

A similar attempt is made, and with even less success, to represent the literature of the colonies as something fresh and vigorous and important. The imperialist magazines are constantly springing upon us some genius from Queensland or Canada, through whom we are expected to smell the odours of the bush or the prairie. As a matter of fact, any one who is even slightly interested in literature as such (and I, for one, confess that I am only slightly interested in literature as such), will freely admit that the stories of these geniuses smell of nothing but printer’s ink, and that not of first-rate quality. By a great effort of Imperial imagination the generous English people reads into these works a force and a novelty. But the force and the novelty are not in the new writers; the force and the novelty are in the ancient heart of the English. Anybody who studies them impartially will know that the first-rate writers of the colonies are not even particularly novel in their note and atmosphere, are not only not producing a new kind of good literature, but are not even in any particular sense producing a new kind of bad literature. The first-rate writers of the new countries are really almost exactly like the second-rate writers of the old countries. Of course they do feel the mystery of the wilderness, the mystery of the bush, for all simple and honest men feel this in Melbourne, or Margate, or South St. Pancras. But when they write most sincerely and most successfully, it is not with a background of the mystery of the bush, but with a background, expressed or assumed, of our own romantic cockney civilization. What really moves their souls with a kindly terror is not the mystery of the wilderness, but the Mystery of a Hansom Cab.

Of course there are some exceptions to this generalization. The one really arresting exception is Olive Schreiner, and she is quite as certainly an exception that proves the rule. Olive Schreiner is a fierce, brilliant, and realistic novelist; but she is all this precisely because she is not English at all. Her tribal kinship is with the country of Teniers and Maarten Maartens—that is, with a country of realists. Her literary kinship is with the pessimistic fiction of the continent; with the novelists whose very pity is cruel. Olive Schreiner is the one English colonial who is not conventional, for the simple reason that South Africa is the one English colony which is not English, and probably never will be. And, of course, there are individual exceptions in a minor way. I remember in particular some Australian tales by Mr. McIlwain which were really able and effective, and which, for that reason, I suppose, are not presented to the public with blasts of a trumpet. But my general contention if put before any one with a love of letters, will not be disputed if it is understood. It is not the truth that the colonial civilization as a whole is giving us, or shows any signs of giving us, a literature which will startle and renovate our own. It may be a very good thing for us to have an affectionate illusion in the matter; that is quite another affair. The colonies may have given England a new emotion; I only say that they have not given the world a new book.

Touching these English colonies, I do not wish to be misunderstood. I do not say of them or of America that they have not a future, or that they will not be great nations. I merely deny the whole established modern expression about them. I deny that they are “destined” to a future. I deny that they are “destined” to be great nations. I deny (of course) that any human thing is destined to be anything. All the absurd physical metaphors, such as youth and age, living and dying, are, when applied to nations, but pseudo-scientific attempts to conceal from men the awful liberty of their lonely souls.

In the case of America, indeed, a warning to this effect is instant and essential. America, of course, like every other human thing, can in spiritual sense live or die as much as it chooses. But at the present moment the matter which America has very seriously to consider is not how near it is to its birth and beginning, but how near it may be to its end. It is only a verbal question whether the American civilization is young; it may become a very practical and urgent question whether it is dying. When once we have cast aside, as we inevitably have after a moment’s thought, the fanciful physical metaphor involved in the word “youth,” what serious evidence have we that America is a fresh force and not a stale one? It has a great many people, like China; it has a great deal of money, like defeated Carthage or dying Venice. It is full of bustle and excitability, like Athens after its ruin, and all the Greek cities in their decline. It is fond of new things; but the old are always fond of new things. Young men read chronicles, but old men read newspapers. It admires strength and good looks; it admires a big and barbaric beauty in its women, for instance; but so did Rome when the Goth was at the gates. All these are things quite compatible with fundamental tedium and decay. There are three main shapes or symbols in which a nation can show itself essentially glad and great—by the heroic in government, by the heroic in arms, and by the heroic in art. Beyond government, which is, as it were, the very shape and body of a nation, the most significant thing about any citizen is his artistic attitude towards a holiday and his moral attitude towards a fight—that is, his way of accepting life and his way of accepting death.

Subjected to these eternal tests, America does not appear by any means as particularly fresh or untouched. She appears with all the weakness and weariness of modern England or of any other Western power. In her politics she has broken up exactly as England has broken up, into a bewildering opportunism and insincerity. In the matter of war and the national attitude towards war, her resemblance to England is even more manifest and melancholy. It may be said with rough accuracy that there are three stages in the life of a strong people. First, it is a small power, and fights small powers. Then it is a great power, and fights great powers. Then it is a great power, and fights small powers, but pretends that they are great powers, in order to rekindle the ashes of its ancient emotion and vanity. After that, the next step is to become a small power itself. England exhibited this symptom of decadence very badly in the war with the Transvaal; but America exhibited it worse in the war with Spain. There was exhibited more sharply and absurdly than anywhere else the ironic contrast between the very careless choice of a strong line and the very careful choice of a weak enemy. America added to all her other late Roman or Byzantine elements the element of the Caracallan triumph, the triumph over nobody.

But when we come to the last test of nationality, the test of art and letters, the case is almost terrible. The English colonies have produced no great artists; and that fact may prove that they are still full of silent possibilities and reserve force. But America has produced great artists. And that fact most certainly proves that she is full of a fine futility and the end of all things. Whatever the American men of genius are, they are not young gods making a young world. Is the art of Whistler a brave, barbaric art, happy and headlong? Does Mr. Henry James infect us with the spirit of a schoolboy? No; the colonies have not spoken, and they are safe. Their silence may be the silence of the unborn. But out of America has come a sweet and startling cry, as unmistakable as the cry of a dying man.

XIX. Slum Novelists and the Slums

Odd ideas are entertained in our time about the real nature of the doctrine of human fraternity. The real doctrine is something which we do not, with all our modern humanitarianism, very clearly understand, much less very closely practise. There is nothing, for instance, particularly undemocratic about kicking your butler downstairs. It may be wrong, but it is not unfraternal. In a certain sense, the blow or kick may be considered as a confession of equality: you are meeting your butler body to body; you are almost according him the privilege of the duel. There is nothing undemocratic, though there may be something unreasonable, in expecting a great deal from the butler, and being filled with a kind of frenzy of surprise when he falls short of the divine stature. The thing which is really undemocratic and unfraternal is not to expect the butler to be more or less divine. The thing which is really undemocratic and unfraternal is to say, as so many modern humanitarians say, “Of course one must make allowances for those on a lower plane.” All things considered indeed, it may be said, without undue exaggeration, that the really undemocratic and unfraternal thing is the common practice of not kicking the butler downstairs.

It is only because such a vast section of the modern world is out of sympathy with the serious democratic sentiment that this statement will seem to many to be lacking in seriousness. Democracy is not philanthropy; it is not even altruism or social reform. Democracy is not founded on pity for the common man; democracy is founded on reverence for the common man, or, if you will, even on fear of him. It does not champion man because man is so miserable, but because man is so sublime. It does not object so much to the ordinary man being a slave as to his not being a king, for its dream is always the dream of the first Roman republic, a nation of kings.

Next to a genuine republic, the most democratic thing in the world is a hereditary despotism. I mean a despotism in which there is absolutely no trace whatever of any nonsense about intellect or special fitness for the post. Rational despotism—that is, selective despotism—is always a curse to mankind, because with that you have the ordinary man misunderstood and misgoverned by some prig who has no brotherly respect for him at all. But irrational despotism is always democratic, because it is the ordinary man enthroned. The worst form of slavery is that which is called Caesarism, or the choice of some bold or brilliant man as despot because he is suitable. For that means that men choose a representative, not because he represents them, but because he does not. Men trust an ordinary man like George III or William IV. because they are themselves ordinary men and understand him. Men trust an ordinary man because they trust themselves. But men trust a great man because they do not trust themselves. And hence the worship of great men always appears in times of weakness and cowardice; we never hear of great men until the time when all other men are small.

Hereditary despotism is, then, in essence and sentiment democratic because it chooses from mankind at random. If it does not declare that every man may rule, it declares the next most democratic thing; it declares that any man may rule. Hereditary aristocracy is a far worse and more dangerous thing, because the numbers and multiplicity of an aristocracy make it sometimes possible for it to figure as an aristocracy of intellect. Some of its members will presumably have brains, and thus they, at any rate, will be an intellectual aristocracy within the social one. They will rule the aristocracy by virtue of their intellect, and they will rule the country by virtue of their aristocracy. Thus a double falsity will be set up, and millions of the images of God, who, fortunately for their wives and families, are neither gentlemen nor clever men, will be represented by a man like Mr. Balfour or Mr. Wyndham, because he is too gentlemanly to be called merely clever, and just too clever to be called merely a gentleman. But even an hereditary aristocracy may exhibit, by a sort of accident, from time to time some of the basically democratic quality which belongs to a hereditary despotism. It is amusing to think how much conservative ingenuity has been wasted in the defence of the House of Lords by men who were desperately endeavouring to prove that the House of Lords consisted of clever men. There is one really good defence of the House of Lords, though admirers of the peerage are strangely coy about using it; and that is, that the House of Lords, in its full and proper strength, consists of stupid men. It really would be a plausible defence of that otherwise indefensible body to point out that the clever men in the Commons, who owed their power to cleverness, ought in the last resort to be checked by the average man in the Lords, who owed their power to accident. Of course, there would be many answers to such a contention, as, for instance, that the House of Lords is largely no longer a House of Lords, but a House of tradesmen and financiers, or that the bulk of the commonplace nobility do not vote, and so leave the chamber to the prigs and the specialists and the mad old gentlemen with hobbies. But on some occasions the House of Lords, even under all these disadvantages, is in some sense representative. When all the peers flocked together to vote against Mr. Gladstone’s second Home Rule Bill, for instance, those who said that the peers represented the English people, were perfectly right. All those dear old men who happened to be born peers were at that moment, and upon that question, the precise counterpart of all the dear old men who happened to be born paupers or middle-class gentlemen. That mob of peers did really represent the English people— that is to say, it was honest, ignorant, vaguely excited, almost unanimous, and obviously wrong. Of course, rational democracy is better as an expression of the public will than the haphazard hereditary method. While we are about having any kind of democracy, let it be rational democracy. But if we are to have any kind of oligarchy, let it be irrational oligarchy. Then at least we shall be ruled by men.

But the thing which is really required for the proper working of democracy is not merely the democratic system, or even the democratic philosophy, but the democratic emotion. The democratic emotion, like most elementary and indispensable things, is a thing difficult to describe at any time. But it is peculiarly difficult to describe it in our enlightened age, for the simple reason that it is peculiarly difficult to find it. It is a certain instinctive attitude which feels the things in which all men agree to be unspeakably important, and all the things in which they differ (such as mere brains) to be almost unspeakably unimportant. The nearest approach to it in our ordinary life would be the promptitude with which we should consider mere humanity in any circumstance of shock or death. We should say, after a somewhat disturbing discovery, “There is a dead man under the sofa.” We should not be likely to say, “There is a dead man of considerable personal refinement under the sofa.” We should say, “A woman has fallen into the water.” We should not say, “A highly educated woman has fallen into the water.” Nobody would say, “There are the remains of a clear thinker in your back garden.” Nobody would say, “Unless you hurry up and stop him, a man with a very fine ear for music will have jumped off that cliff.” But this emotion, which all of us have in connection with such things as birth and death, is to some people native and constant at all ordinary times and in all ordinary places. It was native to St. Francis of Assisi. It was native to Walt Whitman. In this strange and splendid degree it cannot be expected, perhaps, to pervade a whole commonwealth or a whole civilization; but one commonwealth may have it much more than another commonwealth, one civilization much more than another civilization. No community, perhaps, ever had it so much as the early Franciscans. No community, perhaps, ever had it so little as ours.

Everything in our age has, when carefully examined, this fundamentally undemocratic quality. In religion and morals we should admit, in the abstract, that the sins of the educated classes were as great as, or perhaps greater than, the sins of the poor and ignorant. But in practice the great difference between the mediaeval ethics and ours is that ours concentrate attention on the sins which are the sins of the ignorant, and practically deny that the sins which are the sins of the educated are sins at all. We are always talking about the sin of intemperate drinking, because it is quite obvious that the poor have it more than the rich. But we are always denying that there is any such thing as the sin of pride, because it would be quite obvious that the rich have it more than the poor. We are always ready to make a saint or prophet of the educated man who goes into cottages to give a little kindly advice to the uneducated. But the medieval idea of a saint or prophet was something quite different. The mediaeval saint or prophet was an uneducated man who walked into grand houses to give a little kindly advice to the educated. The old tyrants had enough insolence to despoil the poor, but they had not enough insolence to preach to them. It was the gentleman who oppressed the slums; but it was the slums that admonished the gentleman. And just as we are undemocratic in faith and morals, so we are, by the very nature of our attitude in such matters, undemocratic in the tone of our practical politics. It is a sufficient proof that we are not an essentially democratic state that we are always wondering what we shall do with the poor. If we were democrats, we should be wondering what the poor will do with us. With us the governing class is always saying to itself, “What laws shall we make?” In a purely democratic state it would be always saying, “What laws can we obey?” A purely democratic state perhaps there has never been. But even the feudal ages were in practice thus far democratic, that every feudal potentate knew that any laws which he made would in all probability return upon himself. His feathers might be cut off for breaking a sumptuary law. His head might be cut off for high treason. But the modern laws are almost always laws made to affect the governed class, but not the governing. We have public-house licensing laws, but not sumptuary laws. That is to say, we have laws against the festivity and hospitality of the poor, but no laws against the festivity and hospitality of the rich. We have laws against blasphemy—that is, against a kind of coarse and offensive speaking in which nobody but a rough and obscure man would be likely to indulge. But we have no laws against heresy— that is, against the intellectual poisoning of the whole people, in which only a prosperous and prominent man would be likely to be successful. The evil of aristocracy is not that it necessarily leads to the infliction of bad things or the suffering of sad ones; the evil of aristocracy is that it places everything in the hands of a class of people who can always inflict what they can never suffer. Whether what they inflict is, in their intention, good or bad, they become equally frivolous. The case against the governing class of modern England is not in the least that it is selfish; if you like, you may call the English oligarchs too fantastically unselfish. The case against them simply is that when they legislate for all men, they always omit themselves.

We are undemocratic, then, in our religion, as is proved by our efforts to “raise” the poor. We are undemocratic in our government, as is proved by our innocent attempt to govern them well. But above all we are undemocratic in our literature, as is proved by the torrent of novels about the poor and serious studies of the poor which pour from our publishers every month. And the more “modern” the book is the more certain it is to be devoid of democratic sentiment.

A poor man is a man who has not got much money. This may seem a simple and unnecessary description, but in the face of a great mass of modern fact and fiction, it seems very necessary indeed; most of our realists and sociologists talk about a poor man as if he were an octopus or an alligator. There is no more need to study the psychology of poverty than to study the psychology of bad temper, or the psychology of vanity, or the psychology of animal spirits. A man ought to know something of the emotions of an insulted man, not by being insulted, but simply by being a man. And he ought to know something of the emotions of a poor man, not by being poor, but simply by being a man. Therefore, in any writer who is describing poverty, my first objection to him will be that he has studied his subject. A democrat would have imagined it.

A great many hard things have been said about religious slumming and political or social slumming, but surely the most despicable of all is artistic slumming. The religious teacher is at least supposed to be interested in the costermonger because he is a man; the politician is in some dim and perverted sense interested in the costermonger because he is a citizen; it is only the wretched writer who is interested in the costermonger merely because he is a costermonger. Nevertheless, so long as he is merely seeking impressions, or in other words copy, his trade, though dull, is honest. But when he endeavours to represent that he is describing the spiritual core of a costermonger, his dim vices and his delicate virtues, then we must object that his claim is preposterous; we must remind him that he is a journalist and nothing else. He has far less psychological authority even than the foolish missionary. For he is in the literal and derivative sense a journalist, while the missionary is an eternalist. The missionary at least pretends to have a version of the man’s lot for all time; the journalist only pretends to have a version of it from day to day. The missionary comes to tell the poor man that he is in the same condition with all men. The journalist comes to tell other people how different the poor man is from everybody else.

If the modern novels about the slums, such as the novels of Mr. Arthur Morrison, or the exceedingly able novels of Mr. Somerset Maugham, are intended to be sensational, I can only say that that is a noble and reasonable object, and that they attain it. A sensation, a shock to the imagination, like the contact with cold water, is always a good and exhilarating thing; and, undoubtedly, men will always seek this sensation (among other forms) in the form of the study of the strange antics of remote or alien peoples. In the twelfth century men obtained this sensation by reading about dog-headed men in Africa. In the twentieth century they obtained it by reading about pig-headed Boers in Africa. The men of the twentieth century were certainly, it must be admitted, somewhat the more credulous of the two. For it is not recorded of the men in the twelfth century that they organized a sanguinary crusade solely for the purpose of altering the singular formation of the heads of the Africans. But it may be, and it may even legitimately be, that since all these monsters have faded from the popular mythology, it is necessary to have in our fiction the image of the horrible and hairy East-ender, merely to keep alive in us a fearful and childlike wonder at external peculiarities. But the Middle Ages (with a great deal more common sense than it would now be fashionable to admit) regarded natural history at bottom rather as a kind of joke; they regarded the soul as very important. Hence, while they had a natural history of dog-headed men, they did not profess to have a psychology of dog-headed men. They did not profess to mirror the mind of a dog-headed man, to share his tenderest secrets, or mount with his most celestial musings. They did not write novels about the semi-canine creature, attributing to him all the oldest morbidities and all the newest fads. It is permissible to present men as monsters if we wish to make the reader jump; and to make anybody jump is always a Christian act. But it is not permissible to present men as regarding themselves as monsters, or as making themselves jump. To summarize, our slum fiction is quite defensible as aesthetic fiction; it is not defensible as spiritual fact.

One enormous obstacle stands in the way of its actuality. The men who write it, and the men who read it, are men of the middle classes or the upper classes; at least, of those who are loosely termed the educated classes. Hence, the fact that it is the life as the refined man sees it proves that it cannot be the life as the unrefined man lives it. Rich men write stories about poor men, and describe them as speaking with a coarse, or heavy, or husky enunciation. But if poor men wrote novels about you or me they would describe us as speaking with some absurd shrill and affected voice, such as we only hear from a duchess in a three-act farce. The slum novelist gains his whole effect by the fact that some detail is strange to the reader; but that detail by the nature of the case cannot be strange in itself. It cannot be strange to the soul which he is professing to study. The slum novelist gains his effects by describing the same grey mist as draping the dingy factory and the dingy tavern. But to the man he is supposed to be studying there must be exactly the same difference between the factory and the tavern that there is to a middle-class man between a late night at the office and a supper at Pagani’s. The slum novelist is content with pointing out that to the eye of his particular class a pickaxe looks dirty and a pewter pot looks dirty. But the man he is supposed to be studying sees the difference between them exactly as a clerk sees the difference between a ledger and an edition de luxe. The chiaroscuro of the life is inevitably lost; for to us the high lights and the shadows are a light grey. But the high lights and the shadows are not a light grey in that life any more than in any other. The kind of man who could really express the pleasures of the poor would be also the kind of man who could share them. In short, these books are not a record of the psychology of poverty. They are a record of the psychology of wealth and culture when brought in contact with poverty. They are not a description of the state of the slums. They are only a very dark and dreadful description of the state of the slummers. One might give innumerable examples of the essentially unsympathetic and unpopular quality of these realistic writers. But perhaps the simplest and most obvious example with which we could conclude is the mere fact that these writers are realistic. The poor have many other vices, but, at least, they are never realistic. The poor are melodramatic and romantic in grain; the poor all believe in high moral platitudes and copy-book maxims; probably this is the ultimate meaning of the great saying, “Blessed are the poor.” Blessed are the poor, for they are always making life, or trying to make life, like an Adelphi play. Some innocent educationalists and philanthropists (for even philanthropists can be innocent) have expressed a grave astonishment that the masses prefer shilling shockers to scientific treatises and melodramas to problem plays. The reason is very simple. The realistic story is certainly more artistic than the melodramatic story. If what you desire is deft handling, delicate proportions, a unit of artistic atmosphere, the realistic story has a full advantage over the melodrama. In everything that is light and bright and ornamental the realistic story has a full advantage over the melodrama. But, at least, the melodrama has one indisputable advantage over the realistic story. The melodrama is much more like life. It is much more like man, and especially the poor man. It is very banal and very inartistic when a poor woman at the Adelphi says, “Do you think I will sell my own child?” But poor women in the Battersea High Road do say, “Do you think I will sell my own child?” They say it on every available occasion; you can hear a sort of murmur or babble of it all the way down the street. It is very stale and weak dramatic art (if that is all) when the workman confronts his master and says, “I’m a man.” But a workman does say “I’m a man” two or three times every day. In fact, it is tedious, possibly, to hear poor men being melodramatic behind the footlights; but that is because one can always hear them being melodramatic in the street outside. In short, melodrama, if it is dull, is dull because it is too accurate. Somewhat the same problem exists in the case of stories about schoolboys. Mr. Kipling’s “Stalky and Co.” is much more amusing (if you are talking about amusement) than the late Dean Farrar’s “Eric; or, Little by Little.” But “Eric” is immeasurably more like real school-life. For real school-life, real boyhood, is full of the things of which Eric is full— priggishness, a crude piety, a silly sin, a weak but continual attempt at the heroic, in a word, melodrama. And if we wish to lay a firm basis for any efforts to help the poor, we must not become realistic and see them from the outside. We must become melodramatic, and see them from the inside. The novelist must not take out his notebook and say, “I am an expert.” No; he must imitate the workman in the Adelphi play. He must slap himself on the chest and say, “I am a man.”

XX. Concluding Remarks on the Importance of Orthodoxy

Whether the human mind can advance or not, is a question too little discussed, for nothing can be more dangerous than to found our social philosophy on any theory which is debatable but has not been debated. But if we assume, for the sake of argument, that there has been in the past, or will be in the future, such a thing as a growth or improvement of the human mind itself, there still remains a very sharp objection to be raised against the modern version of that improvement. The vice of the modern notion of mental progress is that it is always something concerned with the breaking of bonds, the effacing of boundaries, the casting away of dogmas. But if there be such a thing as mental growth, it must mean the growth into more and more definite convictions, into more and more dogmas. The human brain is a machine for coming to conclusions; if it cannot come to conclusions it is rusty. When we hear of a man too clever to believe, we are hearing of something having almost the character of a contradiction in terms. It is like hearing of a nail that was too good to hold down a carpet; or a bolt that was too strong to keep a door shut. Man can hardly be defined, after the fashion of Carlyle, as an animal who makes tools; ants and beavers and many other animals make tools, in the sense that they make an apparatus. Man can be defined as an animal that makes dogmas. As he piles doctrine on doctrine and conclusion on conclusion in the formation of some tremendous scheme of philosophy and religion, he is, in the only legitimate sense of which the expression is capable, becoming more and more human. When he drops one doctrine after another in a refined scepticism, when he declines to tie himself to a system, when he says that he has outgrown definitions, when he says that he disbelieves in finality, when, in his own imagination, he sits as God, holding no form of creed but contemplating all, then he is by that very process sinking slowly backwards into the vagueness of the vagrant animals and the unconsciousness of the grass. Trees have no dogmas. Turnips are singularly broad-minded.

If then, I repeat, there is to be mental advance, it must be mental advance in the construction of a definite philosophy of life. And that philosophy of life must be right and the other philosophies wrong. Now of all, or nearly all, the able modern writers whom I have briefly studied in this book, this is especially and pleasingly true, that they do each of them have a constructive and affirmative view, and that they do take it seriously and ask us to take it seriously. There is nothing merely sceptically progressive about Mr. Rudyard Kipling. There is nothing in the least broad minded about Mr. Bernard Shaw. The paganism of Mr. Lowes Dickinson is more grave than any Christianity. Even the opportunism of Mr. H. G. Wells is more dogmatic than the idealism of anybody else. Somebody complained, I think, to Matthew Arnold that he was getting as dogmatic as Carlyle. He replied, “That may be true; but you overlook an obvious difference. I am dogmatic and right, and Carlyle is dogmatic and wrong.” The strong humour of the remark ought not to disguise from us its everlasting seriousness and common sense; no man ought to write at all, or even to speak at all, unless he thinks that he is in truth and the other man in error. In similar style, I hold that I am dogmatic and right, while Mr. Shaw is dogmatic and wrong. But my main point, at present, is to notice that the chief among these writers I have discussed do most sanely and courageously offer themselves as dogmatists, as founders of a system. It may be true that the thing in Mr. Shaw most interesting to me, is the fact that Mr. Shaw is wrong. But it is equally true that the thing in Mr. Shaw most interesting to himself, is the fact that Mr. Shaw is right. Mr. Shaw may have none with him but himself; but it is not for himself he cares. It is for the vast and universal church, of which he is the only member.

The two typical men of genius whom I have mentioned here, and with whose names I have begun this book, are very symbolic, if only because they have shown that the fiercest dogmatists can make the best artists. In the fin de siecle atmosphere every one was crying out that literature should be free from all causes and all ethical creeds. Art was to produce only exquisite workmanship, and it was especially the note of those days to demand brilliant plays and brilliant short stories. And when they got them, they got them from a couple of moralists. The best short stories were written by a man trying to preach Imperialism. The best plays were written by a man trying to preach Socialism. All the art of all the artists looked tiny and tedious beside the art which was a byproduct of propaganda.

The reason, indeed, is very simple. A man cannot be wise enough to be a great artist without being wise enough to wish to be a philosopher. A man cannot have the energy to produce good art without having the energy to wish to pass beyond it. A small artist is content with art; a great artist is content with nothing except everything. So we find that when real forces, good or bad, like Kipling and G. B. S., enter our arena, they bring with them not only startling and arresting art, but very startling and arresting dogmas. And they care even more, and desire us to care even more, about their startling and arresting dogmas than about their startling and arresting art. Mr. Shaw is a good dramatist, but what he desires more than anything else to be is a good politician. Mr. Rudyard Kipling is by divine caprice and natural genius an unconventional poet; but what he desires more than anything else to be is a conventional poet. He desires to be the poet of his people, bone of their bone, and flesh of their flesh, understanding their origins, celebrating their destiny. He desires to be Poet Laureate, a most sensible and honourable and public-spirited desire. Having been given by the gods originality— that is, disagreement with others—he desires divinely to agree with them. But the most striking instance of all, more striking, I think, even than either of these, is the instance of Mr. H. G. Wells. He began in a sort of insane infancy of pure art. He began by making a new heaven and a new earth, with the same irresponsible instinct by which men buy a new necktie or button-hole. He began by trifling with the stars and systems in order to make ephemeral anecdotes; he killed the universe for a joke. He has since become more and more serious, and has become, as men inevitably do when they become more and more serious, more and more parochial. He was frivolous about the twilight of the gods; but he is serious about the London omnibus. He was careless in “The Time Machine,” for that dealt only with the destiny of all things; but be is careful, and even cautious, in “Mankind in the Making,” for that deals with the day after to-morrow. He began with the end of the world, and that was easy. Now he has gone on to the beginning of the world, and that is difficult. But the main result of all this is the same as in the other cases. The men who have really been the bold artists, the realistic artists, the uncompromising artists, are the men who have turned out, after all, to be writing “with a purpose.” Suppose that any cool and cynical art-critic, any art-critic fully impressed with the conviction that artists were greatest when they were most purely artistic, suppose that a man who professed ably a humane aestheticism, as did Mr. Max Beerbohm, or a cruel aestheticism, as did Mr. W. E. Henley, had cast his eye over the whole fictional literature which was recent in the year 1895, and had been asked to select the three most vigorous and promising and original artists and artistic works, he would, I think, most certainly have said that for a fine artistic audacity, for a real artistic delicacy, or for a whiff of true novelty in art, the things that stood first were “Soldiers Three,” by a Mr. Rudyard Kipling; “Arms and the Man,” by a Mr. Bernard Shaw; and “The Time Machine,” by a man called Wells. And all these men have shown themselves ingrainedly didactic. You may express the matter if you will by saying that if we want doctrines we go to the great artists. But it is clear from the psychology of the matter that this is not the true statement; the true statement is that when we want any art tolerably brisk and bold we have to go to the doctrinaires.

In concluding this book, therefore, I would ask, first and foremost, that men such as these of whom I have spoken should not be insulted by being taken for artists. No man has any right whatever merely to enjoy the work of Mr. Bernard Shaw; he might as well enjoy the invasion of his country by the French. Mr. Shaw writes either to convince or to enrage us. No man has any business to be a Kiplingite without being a politician, and an Imperialist politician. If a man is first with us, it should be because of what is first with him. If a man convinces us at all, it should be by his convictions. If we hate a poem of Kipling’s from political passion, we are hating it for the same reason that the poet loved it; if we dislike him because of his opinions, we are disliking him for the best of all possible reasons. If a man comes into Hyde Park to preach it is permissible to hoot him; but it is discourteous to applaud him as a performing bear. And an artist is only a performing bear compared with the meanest man who fancies he has anything to say.

There is, indeed, one class of modern writers and thinkers who cannot altogether be overlooked in this question, though there is no space here for a lengthy account of them, which, indeed, to confess the truth, would consist chiefly of abuse. I mean those who get over all these abysses and reconcile all these wars by talking about “aspects of truth,” by saying that the art of Kipling represents one aspect of the truth, and the art of William Watson another; the art of Mr. Bernard Shaw one aspect of the truth, and the art of Mr. Cunningham Grahame another; the art of Mr. H. G. Wells one aspect, and the art of Mr. Coventry Patmore (say) another. I will only say here that this seems to me an evasion which has not even bad the sense to disguise itself ingeniously in words. If we talk of a certain thing being an aspect of truth, it is evident that we claim to know what is truth; just as, if we talk of the hind leg of a dog, we claim to know what is a dog. Unfortunately, the philosopher who talks about aspects of truth generally also asks, “What is truth?” Frequently even he denies the existence of truth, or says it is inconceivable by the human intelligence. How, then, can he recognize its aspects? I should not like to be an artist who brought an architectural sketch to a builder, saying, “This is the south aspect of Sea-View Cottage. Sea-View Cottage, of course, does not exist.” I should not even like very much to have to explain, under such circumstances, that Sea-View Cottage might exist, but was unthinkable by the human mind. Nor should I like any better to be the bungling and absurd metaphysician who professed to be able to see everywhere the aspects of a truth that is not there. Of course, it is perfectly obvious that there are truths in Kipling, that there are truths in Shaw or Wells. But the degree to which we can perceive them depends strictly upon how far we have a definite conception inside us of what is truth. It is ludicrous to suppose that the more sceptical we are the more we see good in everything. It is clear that the more we are certain what good is, the more we shall see good in everything.

I plead, then, that we should agree or disagree with these men. I plead that we should agree with them at least in having an abstract belief. But I know that there are current in the modern world many vague objections to having an abstract belief, and I feel that we shall not get any further until we have dealt with some of them. The first objection is easily stated.

A common hesitation in our day touching the use of extreme convictions is a sort of notion that extreme convictions, specially upon cosmic matters, have been responsible in the past for the thing which is called bigotry. But a very small amount of direct experience will dissipate this view. In real life the people who are most bigoted are the people who have no convictions at all. The economists of the Manchester school who disagree with Socialism take Socialism seriously. It is the young man in Bond Street, who does not know what socialism means, much less whether he agrees with it, who is quite certain that these socialist fellows are making a fuss about nothing. The man who understands the Calvinist philosophy enough to agree with it must understand the Catholic philosophy in order to disagree with it. It is the vague modern who is not at all certain what is right who is most certain that Dante was wrong. The serious opponent of the Latin Church in history, even in the act of showing that it produced great infamies, must know that it produced great saints. It is the hard-headed stockbroker, who knows no history and believes no religion, who is, nevertheless, perfectly convinced that all these priests are knaves. The Salvationist at the Marble Arch may be bigoted, but he is not too bigoted to yearn from a common human kinship after the dandy on church parade. But the dandy on church parade is so bigoted that he does not in the least yearn after the Salvationist at the Marble Arch. Bigotry may be roughly defined as the anger of men who have no opinions. It is the resistance offered to definite ideas by that vague bulk of people whose ideas are indefinite to excess. Bigotry may be called the appalling frenzy of the indifferent. This frenzy of the indifferent is in truth a terrible thing; it has made all monstrous and widely pervading persecutions. In this degree it was not the people who cared who ever persecuted; the people who cared were not sufficiently numerous. It was the people who did not care who filled the world with fire and oppression. It was the hands of the indifferent that lit the faggots; it was the hands of the indifferent that turned the rack. There have come some persecutions out of the pain of a passionate certainty; but these produced, not bigotry, but fanaticism—a very different and a somewhat admirable thing. Bigotry in the main has always been the pervading omnipotence of those who do not care crushing out those who care in darkness and blood.

There are people, however, who dig somewhat deeper than this into the possible evils of dogma. It is felt by many that strong philosophical conviction, while it does not (as they perceive) produce that sluggish and fundamentally frivolous condition which we call bigotry, does produce a certain concentration, exaggeration, and moral impatience, which we may agree to call fanaticism. They say, in brief, that ideas are dangerous things. In politics, for example, it is commonly urged against a man like Mr. Balfour, or against a man like Mr. John Morley, that a wealth of ideas is dangerous. The true doctrine on this point, again, is surely not very difficult to state. Ideas are dangerous, but the man to whom they are least dangerous is the man of ideas. He is acquainted with ideas, and moves among them like a lion-tamer. Ideas are dangerous, but the man to whom they are most dangerous is the man of no ideas. The man of no ideas will find the first idea fly to his head like wine to the head of a teetotaller. It is a common error, I think, among the Radical idealists of my own party and period to suggest that financiers and business men are a danger to the empire because they are so sordid or so materialistic. The truth is that financiers and business men are a danger to the empire because they can be sentimental about any sentiment, and idealistic about any ideal, any ideal that they find lying about. Just as a boy who has not known much of women is apt too easily to take a woman for the woman, so these practical men, unaccustomed to causes, are always inclined to think that if a thing is proved to be an ideal it is proved to be the ideal. Many, for example, avowedly followed Cecil Rhodes because he had a vision. They might as well have followed him because he had a nose; a man without some kind of dream of perfection is quite as much of a monstrosity as a noseless man. People say of such a figure, in almost feverish whispers, “He knows his own mind,” which is exactly like saying in equally feverish whispers, “He blows his own nose.” Human nature simply cannot subsist without a hope and aim of some kind; as the sanity of the Old Testament truly said, where there is no vision the people perisheth. But it is precisely because an ideal is necessary to man that the man without ideals is in permanent danger of fanaticism. There is nothing which is so likely to leave a man open to the sudden and irresistible inroad of an unbalanced vision as the cultivation of business habits. All of us know angular business men who think that the earth is flat, or that Mr. Kruger was at the head of a great military despotism, or that men are graminivorous, or that Bacon wrote Shakespeare. Religious and philosophical beliefs are, indeed, as dangerous as fire, and nothing can take from them that beauty of danger. But there is only one way of really guarding ourselves against the excessive danger of them, and that is to be steeped in philosophy and soaked in religion.

Briefly, then, we dismiss the two opposite dangers of bigotry and fanaticism, bigotry which is a too great vagueness and fanaticism which is a too great concentration. We say that the cure for the bigot is belief; we say that the cure for the idealist is ideas. To know the best theories of existence and to choose the best from them (that is, to the best of our own strong conviction) appears to us the proper way to be neither bigot nor fanatic, but something more firm than a bigot and more terrible than a fanatic, a man with a definite opinion. But that definite opinion must in this view begin with the basic matters of human thought, and these must not be dismissed as irrelevant, as religion, for instance, is too often in our days dismissed as irrelevant. Even if we think religion insoluble, we cannot think it irrelevant. Even if we ourselves have no view of the ultimate verities, we must feel that wherever such a view exists in a man it must be more important than anything else in him. The instant that the thing ceases to be the unknowable, it becomes the indispensable. There can be no doubt, I think, that the idea does exist in our time that there is something narrow or irrelevant or even mean about attacking a man’s religion, or arguing from it in matters of politics or ethics. There can be quite as little doubt that such an accusation of narrowness is itself almost grotesquely narrow. To take an example from comparatively current events: we all know that it was not uncommon for a man to be considered a scarecrow of bigotry and obscurantism because he distrusted the Japanese, or lamented the rise of the Japanese, on the ground that the Japanese were Pagans. Nobody would think that there was anything antiquated or fanatical about distrusting a people because of some difference between them and us in practice or political machinery. Nobody would think it bigoted to say of a people, “I distrust their influence because they are Protectionists.” No one would think it narrow to say, “I lament their rise because they are Socialists, or Manchester Individualists, or strong believers in militarism and conscription.” A difference of opinion about the nature of Parliaments matters very much; but a difference of opinion about the nature of sin does not matter at all. A difference of opinion about the object of taxation matters very much; but a difference of opinion about the object of human existence does not matter at all. We have a right to distrust a man who is in a different kind of municipality; but we have no right to mistrust a man who is in a different kind of cosmos. This sort of enlightenment is surely about the most unenlightened that it is possible to imagine. To recur to the phrase which I employed earlier, this is tantamount to saying that everything is important with the exception of everything. Religion is exactly the thing which cannot be left out— because it includes everything. The most absent-minded person cannot well pack his Gladstone-bag and leave out the bag. We have a general view of existence, whether we like it or not; it alters or, to speak more accurately, it creates and involves everything we say or do, whether we like it or not. If we regard the Cosmos as a dream, we regard the Fiscal Question as a dream. If we regard the Cosmos as a joke, we regard St. Paul’s Cathedral as a joke. If everything is bad, then we must believe (if it be possible) that beer is bad; if everything be good, we are forced to the rather fantastic conclusion that scientific philanthropy is good. Every man in the street must hold a metaphysical system, and hold it firmly. The possibility is that he may have held it so firmly and so long as to have forgotten all about its existence.

This latter situation is certainly possible; in fact, it is the situation of the whole modern world. The modern world is filled with men who hold dogmas so strongly that they do not even know that they are dogmas. It may be said even that the modern world, as a corporate body, holds certain dogmas so strongly that it does not know that they are dogmas. It may be thought “dogmatic,” for instance, in some circles accounted progressive, to assume the perfection or improvement of man in another world. But it is not thought “dogmatic” to assume the perfection or improvement of man in this world; though that idea of progress is quite as unproved as the idea of immortality, and from a rationalistic point of view quite as improbable. Progress happens to be one of our dogmas, and a dogma means a thing which is not thought dogmatic. Or, again, we see nothing “dogmatic” in the inspiring, but certainly most startling, theory of physical science, that we should collect facts for the sake of facts, even though they seem as useless as sticks and straws. This is a great and suggestive idea, and its utility may, if you will, be proving itself, but its utility is, in the abstract, quite as disputable as the utility of that calling on oracles or consulting shrines which is also said to prove itself. Thus, because we are not in a civilization which believes strongly in oracles or sacred places, we see the full frenzy of those who killed themselves to find the sepulchre of Christ. But being in a civilization which does believe in this dogma of fact for facts’ sake, we do not see the full frenzy of those who kill themselves to find the North Pole. I am not speaking of a tenable ultimate utility which is true both of the Crusades and the polar explorations. I mean merely that we do see the superficial and aesthetic singularity, the startling quality, about the idea of men crossing a continent with armies to conquer the place where a man died. But we do not see the aesthetic singularity and startling quality of men dying in agonies to find a place where no man can live—a place only interesting because it is supposed to be the meeting-place of some lines that do not exist.

Let us, then, go upon a long journey and enter on a dreadful search. Let us, at least, dig and seek till we have discovered our own opinions. The dogmas we really hold are far more fantastic, and, perhaps, far more beautiful than we think. In the course of these essays I fear that I have spoken from time to time of rationalists and rationalism, and that in a disparaging sense. Being full of that kindliness which should come at the end of everything, even of a book, I apologize to the rationalists even for calling them rationalists. There are no rationalists. We all believe fairy-tales, and live in them. Some, with a sumptuous literary turn, believe in the existence of the lady clothed with the sun. Some, with a more rustic, elvish instinct, like Mr. McCabe, believe merely in the impossible sun itself. Some hold the undemonstrable dogma of the existence of God; some the equally undemonstrable dogma of the existence of the man next door.

Truths turn into dogmas the instant that they are disputed. Thus every man who utters a doubt defines a religion. And the scepticism of our time does not really destroy the beliefs, rather it creates them; gives them their limits and their plain and defiant shape. We who are Liberals once held Liberalism lightly as a truism. Now it has been disputed, and we hold it fiercely as a faith. We who believe in patriotism once thought patriotism to be reasonable, and thought little more about it. Now we know it to be unreasonable, and know it to be right. We who are Christians never knew the great philosophic common sense which inheres in that mystery until the anti-Christian writers pointed it out to us. The great march of mental destruction will go on. Everything will be denied. Everything will become a creed. It is a reasonable position to deny the stones in the street; it will be a religious dogma to assert them. It is a rational thesis that we are all in a dream; it will be a mystical sanity to say that we are all awake. Fires will be kindled to testify that two and two make four. Swords will be drawn to prove that leaves are green in summer. We shall be left defending, not only the incredible virtues and sanities of human life, but something more incredible still, this huge impossible universe which stares us in the face. We shall fight for visible prodigies as if they were invisible. We shall look on the impossible grass and the skies with a strange courage. We shall be of those who have seen and yet have believed.

THE END

I. Introductory Remarks on the Importance of Orthodoxy

Nothing more strangely indicates an enormous and silent evil of modern society than the extraordinary use which is made nowadays of the word “orthodox.” In former days the heretic was proud of not being a heretic. It was the kingdoms of the world and the police and the judges who were heretics. He was orthodox. He had no pride in having rebelled against them; they had rebelled against him. The armies with their cruel security, the kings with their cold faces, the decorous processes of State, the reasonable processes of law—all these like sheep had gone astray. The man was proud of being orthodox, was proud of being right. If he stood alone in a howling wilderness he was more than a man; he was a church. He was the centre of the universe; it was round him that the stars swung. All the tortures torn out of forgotten hells could not make him admit that he was heretical. But a few modern phrases have made him boast of it. He says, with a conscious laugh, “I suppose I am very heretical,” and looks round for applause. The word “heresy” not only means no longer being wrong; it practically means being clear-headed and courageous. The word “orthodoxy” not only no longer means being right; it practically means being wrong. All this can mean one thing, and one thing only. It means that people care less for whether they are philosophically right. For obviously a man ought to confess himself crazy before he confesses himself heretical. The Bohemian, with a red tie, ought to pique himself on his orthodoxy. The dynamiter, laying a bomb, ought to feel that, whatever else he is, at least he is orthodox.

It is foolish, generally speaking, for a philosopher to set fire to another philosopher in Smithfield Market because they do not agree in their theory of the universe. That was done very frequently in the last decadence of the Middle Ages, and it failed altogether in its object. But there is one thing that is infinitely more absurd and unpractical than burning a man for his philosophy. This is the habit of saying that his philosophy does not matter, and this is done universally in the twentieth century, in the decadence of the great revolutionary period. General theories are everywhere contemned; the doctrine of the Rights of Man is dismissed with the doctrine of the Fall of Man. Atheism itself is too theological for us to-day. Revolution itself is too much of a system; liberty itself is too much of a restraint. We will have no generalizations. Mr. Bernard Shaw has put the view in a perfect epigram: “The golden rule is that there is no golden rule.” We are more and more to discuss details in art, politics, literature. A man’s opinion on tramcars matters; his opinion on Botticelli matters; his opinion on all things does not matter. He may turn over and explore a million objects, but he must not find that strange object, the universe; for if he does he will have a religion, and be lost. Everything matters—except everything.

Examples are scarcely needed of this total levity on the subject of cosmic philosophy. Examples are scarcely needed to show that, whatever else we think of as affecting practical affairs, we do not think it matters whether a man is a pessimist or an optimist, a Cartesian or a Hegelian, a materialist or a spiritualist. Let me, however, take a random instance. At any innocent tea-table we may easily hear a man say, “Life is not worth living.” We regard it as we regard the statement that it is a fine day; nobody thinks that it can possibly have any serious effect on the man or on the world. And yet if that utterance were really believed, the world would stand on its head. Murderers would be given medals for saving men from life; firemen would be denounced for keeping men from death; poisons would be used as medicines; doctors would be called in when people were well; the Royal Humane Society would be rooted out like a horde of assassins. Yet we never speculate as to whether the conversational pessimist will strengthen or disorganize society; for we are convinced that theories do not matter.

This was certainly not the idea of those who introduced our freedom. When the old Liberals removed the gags from all the heresies, their idea was that religious and philosophical discoveries might thus be made. Their view was that cosmic truth was so important that every one ought to bear independent testimony. The modern idea is that cosmic truth is so unimportant that it cannot matter what any one says. The former freed inquiry as men loose a noble hound; the latter frees inquiry as men fling back into the sea a fish unfit for eating. Never has there been so little discussion about the nature of men as now, when, for the first time, any one can discuss it. The old restriction meant that only the orthodox were allowed to discuss religion. Modern liberty means that nobody is allowed to discuss it. Good taste, the last and vilest of human superstitions, has succeeded in silencing us where all the rest have failed. Sixty years ago it was bad taste to be an avowed atheist. Then came the Bradlaughites, the last religious men, the last men who cared about God; but they could not alter it. It is still bad taste to be an avowed atheist. But their agony has achieved just this—that now it is equally bad taste to be an avowed Christian. Emancipation has only locked the saint in the same tower of silence as the heresiarch. Then we talk about Lord Anglesey and the weather, and call it the complete liberty of all the creeds.

But there are some people, nevertheless—and I am one of them— who think that the most practical and important thing about a man is still his view of the universe. We think that for a landlady considering a lodger, it is important to know his income, but still more important to know his philosophy. We think that for a general about to fight an enemy, it is important to know the enemy’s numbers, but still more important to know the enemy’s philosophy. We think the question is not whether the theory of the cosmos affects matters, but whether in the long run, anything else affects them. In the fifteenth century men cross-examined and tormented a man because he preached some immoral attitude; in the nineteenth century we feted and flattered Oscar Wilde because he preached such an attitude, and then broke his heart in penal servitude because he carried it out. It may be a question which of the two methods was the more cruel; there can be no kind of question which was the more ludicrous. The age of the Inquisition has not at least the disgrace of having produced a society which made an idol of the very same man for preaching the very same things which it made him a convict for practising.

I. Osservazioni introduttive sull’importanza dell’ortodossia

Nulla rivela in modo più singolare un male enorme e silenzioso della società moderna quanto lo straordinario uso che oggigiorno si fa della parola «ortodosso». In altri tempi l’eretico era fiero di non essere un eretico. Erano i regni del mondo e la polizia e i giudici a essere eretici. Lui era ortodosso. Non provava alcun orgoglio per essersi ribellato contro di loro; erano loro che si erano ribellati contro di lui. Gli eserciti con la loro crudele sicurezza, i re dai volti gelidi, i decorosi procedimenti dello Stato, i ragionevoli procedimenti della legge: tutti costoro, come pecore, si erano smarriti. Quell’uomo era fiero di essere ortodosso, era fiero di essere nel giusto. Se stava solo in un deserto ululante, era più che un uomo: era una chiesa. Era il centro dell’universo; era attorno a lui che ruotavano le stelle. Tutte le torture strappate a inferni dimenticati non avrebbero potuto costringerlo ad ammettere di essere eretico. Ma poche frasi moderne gliene hanno fatto un vanto. Dice, con una risata consapevole: «Suppongo di essere molto eretico», e si guarda intorno in cerca di applausi. La parola «eresia» non significa più soltanto essere nel torto; significa praticamente essere lucidi e coraggiosi. La parola «ortodossia» non significa più soltanto essere nel giusto; significa praticamente essere nel torto. Tutto ciò può significare una cosa, e una cosa soltanto. Significa che alla gente importa meno di essere filosoficamente nel giusto. Perché evidentemente un uomo dovrebbe confessarsi pazzo prima di confessarsi eretico. Il bohémien, con la sua cravatta rossa, dovrebbe vantarsi della propria ortodossia. Il dinamitardo, mentre depone una bomba, dovrebbe sentire che, qualunque altra cosa sia, per lo meno è ortodosso.

È sciocco, in linea generale, che un filosofo dia fuoco a un altro filosofo a Smithfield Market perché non concordano nella loro teoria dell’universo. Ciò si faceva molto di frequente nell’ultima decadenza del Medioevo, e fallì del tutto nel suo intento. Ma c’è una cosa che è infinitamente più assurda e impraticabile del bruciare un uomo per la sua filosofia. È l’abitudine di dire che la sua filosofia non ha importanza, e questo si fa universalmente nel ventesimo secolo, nella decadenza del grande periodo rivoluzionario. Le teorie generali sono dovunque disprezzate; la dottrina dei Diritti dell’Uomo viene liquidata insieme alla dottrina della Caduta dell’Uomo. L’ateismo stesso è troppo teologico per noi oggi. La rivoluzione stessa è troppo un sistema; la libertà stessa è troppo una costrizione. Non vogliamo generalizzazioni. Il signor Bernard Shaw ha reso l’idea in un perfetto epigramma: «La regola d’oro è che non c’è alcuna regola d’oro». Dobbiamo sempre più discutere di dettagli nell’arte, nella politica, nella letteratura. L’opinione di un uomo sui tram ha importanza; la sua opinione su Botticelli ha importanza; la sua opinione su ogni cosa non ha importanza. Egli può rivoltare ed esplorare un milione di oggetti, ma non deve trovare quello strano oggetto, l’universo; perché se lo trova avrà una religione, e sarà perduto. Tutto ha importanza, tranne il tutto.

Non c’è quasi bisogno di esempi di questa totale leggerezza in materia di filosofia cosmica. Non c’è quasi bisogno di esempi per mostrare che, qualunque altra cosa consideriamo capace di influire sulle faccende pratiche, non riteniamo abbia importanza se un uomo sia pessimista o ottimista, cartesiano o hegeliano, materialista o spiritualista. Prendiamo, tuttavia, un esempio a caso. Attorno a un qualsiasi innocente tavolino da tè possiamo facilmente sentire un uomo dire: «La vita non vale la pena di essere vissuta». Lo consideriamo come consideriamo l’affermazione che è una bella giornata; nessuno pensa che possa avere un qualche serio effetto sull’uomo o sul mondo. Eppure se quella dichiarazione fosse davvero creduta, il mondo si reggerebbe a testa in giù. Gli assassini riceverebbero medaglie per aver salvato gli uomini dalla vita; i pompieri sarebbero denunciati per aver trattenuto gli uomini dalla morte; i veleni sarebbero usati come medicine; i dottori sarebbero chiamati quando la gente sta bene; la Royal Humane Society sarebbe sradicata come un’orda di assassini. Eppure non ci domandiamo mai se il pessimista da salotto rafforzerà o disgregherà la società; poiché siamo convinti che le teorie non abbiano importanza.

Questa non era certo l’idea di coloro che introdussero la nostra libertà. Quando i vecchi liberali tolsero i bavagli a tutte le eresie, la loro idea era che così si potessero fare scoperte religiose e filosofiche. La loro convinzione era che la verità cosmica fosse tanto importante che ognuno dovesse portarne indipendente testimonianza. L’idea moderna è che la verità cosmica sia tanto poco importante che non possa contare ciò che chiunque dice. I primi liberarono l’indagine come si scioglie un nobile segugio; i secondi liberano l’indagine come si getta di nuovo in mare un pesce non buono da mangiare. Mai vi è stata così poca discussione sulla natura dell’uomo come ora, quando, per la prima volta, chiunque può discuterne. L’antica restrizione voleva che solo gli ortodossi fossero autorizzati a discutere di religione. La libertà moderna vuole che a nessuno sia consentito discuterne. Il buon gusto, l’ultima e più vile delle superstizioni umane, è riuscito a farci tacere là dove tutte le altre hanno fallito. Sessant’anni fa era di cattivo gusto essere un ateo dichiarato. Poi vennero i seguaci di Bradlaugh, gli ultimi uomini religiosi, gli ultimi uomini a cui importava di Dio; ma non poterono mutare le cose. È ancora di cattivo gusto essere un ateo dichiarato. Ma la loro agonia ha ottenuto proprio questo: che ora è ugualmente di cattivo gusto essere un cristiano dichiarato. L’emancipazione non ha fatto che rinchiudere il santo nella stessa torre del silenzio in cui è l’eresiarca. Poi parliamo di Lord Anglesey e del tempo che fa, e lo chiamiamo la completa libertà di tutti i credi.

Vi sono però alcune persone, ciononostante, e io sono una di esse, che pensano che la cosa più pratica e importante di un uomo sia tuttora la sua visione dell’universo. Pensiamo che, per una padrona di casa che valuta un inquilino, sia importante conoscerne il reddito, ma ancor più importante conoscerne la filosofia. Pensiamo che, per un generale in procinto di combattere un nemico, sia importante conoscere il numero dei nemici, ma ancor più importante conoscere la filosofia del nemico. Pensiamo che la questione non sia se la teoria del cosmo influisca sulle cose, ma se, alla lunga, qualsiasi altra cosa influisca su di esse. Nel quindicesimo secolo si interrogava e si tormentava un uomo perché predicava un qualche atteggiamento immorale; nel diciannovesimo secolo abbiamo festeggiato e adulato Oscar Wilde perché predicava un tale atteggiamento, e poi gli abbiamo spezzato il cuore ai lavori forzati perché lo mise in pratica. Si può discutere quale dei due metodi sia stato il più crudele; non ci può essere alcun dubbio su quale sia stato il più ridicolo. L’età dell’Inquisizione non ha almeno il disonore di aver prodotto una società che fece un idolo del medesimo uomo per aver predicato le medesime cose per cui lo fece un galeotto per averle praticate.

Now, in our time, philosophy or religion, our theory, that is, about ultimate things, has been driven out, more or less simultaneously, from two fields which it used to occupy. General ideals used to dominate literature. They have been driven out by the cry of “art for art’s sake.” General ideals used to dominate politics. They have been driven out by the cry of “efficiency,” which may roughly be translated as “politics for politics’ sake.” Persistently for the last twenty years the ideals of order or liberty have dwindled in our books; the ambitions of wit and eloquence have dwindled in our parliaments. Literature has purposely become less political; politics have purposely become less literary. General theories of the relation of things have thus been extruded from both; and we are in a position to ask, “What have we gained or lost by this extrusion? Is literature better, is politics better, for having discarded the moralist and the philosopher?”

When everything about a people is for the time growing weak and ineffective, it begins to talk about efficiency. So it is that when a man’s body is a wreck he begins, for the first time, to talk about health. Vigorous organisms talk not about their processes, but about their aims. There cannot be any better proof of the physical efficiency of a man than that he talks cheerfully of a journey to the end of the world. And there cannot be any better proof of the practical efficiency of a nation than that it talks constantly of a journey to the end of the world, a journey to the Judgment Day and the New Jerusalem. There can be no stronger sign of a coarse material health than the tendency to run after high and wild ideals; it is in the first exuberance of infancy that we cry for the moon. None of the strong men in the strong ages would have understood what you meant by working for efficiency. Hildebrand would have said that he was working not for efficiency, but for the Catholic Church. Danton would have said that he was working not for efficiency, but for liberty, equality, and fraternity. Even if the ideal of such men were simply the ideal of kicking a man downstairs, they thought of the end like men, not of the process like paralytics. They did not say, “Efficiently elevating my right leg, using, you will notice, the muscles of the thigh and calf, which are in excellent order, I—” Their feeling was quite different. They were so filled with the beautiful vision of the man lying flat at the foot of the staircase that in that ecstasy the rest followed in a flash. In practice, the habit of generalizing and idealizing did not by any means mean worldly weakness. The time of big theories was the time of big results. In the era of sentiment and fine words, at the end of the eighteenth century, men were really robust and effective. The sentimentalists conquered Napoleon. The cynics could not catch De Wet. A hundred years ago our affairs for good or evil were wielded triumphantly by rhetoricians. Now our affairs are hopelessly muddled by strong, silent men. And just as this repudiation of big words and big visions has brought forth a race of small men in politics, so it has brought forth a race of small men in the arts. Our modern politicians claim the colossal license of Caesar and the Superman, claim that they are too practical to be pure and too patriotic to be moral; but the upshot of it all is that a mediocrity is Chancellor of the Exchequer. Our new artistic philosophers call for the same moral license, for a freedom to wreck heaven and earth with their energy; but the upshot of it all is that a mediocrity is Poet Laureate. I do not say that there are no stronger men than these; but will any one say that there are any men stronger than those men of old who were dominated by their philosophy and steeped in their religion? Whether bondage be better than freedom may be discussed. But that their bondage came to more than our freedom it will be difficult for any one to deny.

The theory of the unmorality of art has established itself firmly in the strictly artistic classes. They are free to produce anything they like. They are free to write a “Paradise Lost” in which Satan shall conquer God. They are free to write a “Divine Comedy” in which heaven shall be under the floor of hell. And what have they done? Have they produced in their universality anything grander or more beautiful than the things uttered by the fierce Ghibbeline Catholic, by the rigid Puritan schoolmaster? We know that they have produced only a few roundels. Milton does not merely beat them at his piety, he beats them at their own irreverence. In all their little books of verse you will not find a finer defiance of God than Satan’s. Nor will you find the grandeur of paganism felt as that fiery Christian felt it who described Faranata lifting his head as in disdain of hell. And the reason is very obvious. Blasphemy is an artistic effect, because blasphemy depends upon a philosophical conviction. Blasphemy depends upon belief and is fading with it. If any one doubts this, let him sit down seriously and try to think blasphemous thoughts about Thor. I think his family will find him at the end of the day in a state of some exhaustion.

Neither in the world of politics nor that of literature, then, has the rejection of general theories proved a success. It may be that there have been many moonstruck and misleading ideals that have from time to time perplexed mankind. But assuredly there has been no ideal in practice so moonstruck and misleading as the ideal of practicality. Nothing has lost so many opportunities as the opportunism of Lord Rosebery. He is, indeed, a standing symbol of this epoch— the man who is theoretically a practical man, and practically more unpractical than any theorist. Nothing in this universe is so unwise as that kind of worship of worldly wisdom. A man who is perpetually thinking of whether this race or that race is strong, of whether this cause or that cause is promising, is the man who will never believe in anything long enough to make it succeed. The opportunist politician is like a man who should abandon billiards because he was beaten at billiards, and abandon golf because he was beaten at golf. There is nothing which is so weak for working purposes as this enormous importance attached to immediate victory. There is nothing that fails like success.

Ora, ai nostri tempi, la filosofia o la religione, la nostra teoria, cioè, sulle cose ultime, è stata cacciata, più o meno simultaneamente, da due campi che soleva occupare. Gli ideali generali dominavano un tempo la letteratura. Sono stati cacciati dal grido «l’arte per l’arte». Gli ideali generali dominavano un tempo la politica. Sono stati cacciati dal grido «efficienza», che si può grossolanamente tradurre come «la politica per la politica». Con insistenza, negli ultimi vent’anni, gli ideali dell’ordine o della libertà sono venuti scemando nei nostri libri; le ambizioni dell’arguzia e dell’eloquenza sono venute scemando nei nostri parlamenti. La letteratura è divenuta di proposito meno politica; la politica è divenuta di proposito meno letteraria. Le teorie generali sulla relazione delle cose sono state così estromesse da entrambe; e siamo in condizione di chiederci: «Che cosa abbiamo guadagnato o perduto con questa estromissione? La letteratura è migliore, la politica è migliore, per aver scartato il moralista e il filosofo?».

Quando tutto ciò che riguarda un popolo per il momento si fa debole e inefficace, esso comincia a parlare di efficienza. Così avviene che, quando il corpo di un uomo è un rottame, egli comincia, per la prima volta, a parlare di salute. Gli organismi vigorosi parlano non dei loro processi, ma dei loro scopi. Non vi può essere prova migliore dell’efficienza fisica di un uomo che il fatto ch’egli parli allegramente di un viaggio fino alla fine del mondo. E non vi può essere prova migliore dell’efficienza pratica di una nazione che il fatto ch’essa parli costantemente di un viaggio fino alla fine del mondo, di un viaggio verso il Giorno del Giudizio e la Nuova Gerusalemme. Non vi può essere segno più forte di una rozza salute materiale della tendenza a inseguire ideali alti e sfrenati; è nella prima esuberanza dell’infanzia che piangiamo per avere la luna. Nessuno degli uomini forti delle età forti avrebbe capito che cosa intendevate parlando di lavorare per l’efficienza. Ildebrando avrebbe detto che lavorava non per l’efficienza, ma per la Chiesa cattolica. Danton avrebbe detto che lavorava non per l’efficienza, ma per la libertà, l’uguaglianza e la fraternità. Anche se l’ideale di tali uomini fosse stato semplicemente l’ideale di scaraventare un uomo giù per le scale, essi pensavano al fine come uomini, non al processo come paralitici. Non dicevano: «Sollevando efficientemente la mia gamba destra, usando, noterete, i muscoli della coscia e del polpaccio, che sono in eccellente ordine, io…» Il loro sentimento era assai diverso. Erano talmente colmi della bella visione dell’uomo disteso supino ai piedi della scala che, in quell’estasi, il resto seguiva in un lampo. In pratica, l’abitudine di generalizzare e idealizzare non significava affatto debolezza mondana. L’epoca delle grandi teorie era l’epoca dei grandi risultati. Nell’era del sentimento e delle belle parole, alla fine del diciottesimo secolo, gli uomini erano davvero robusti ed efficaci. I sentimentali sconfissero Napoleone. I cinici non riuscirono a catturare De Wet. Cent’anni fa i nostri affari, nel bene o nel male, erano maneggiati trionfalmente da retori. Ora i nostri affari sono irrimediabilmente ingarbugliati da uomini forti e silenziosi. E proprio come questo ripudio delle grandi parole e delle grandi visioni ha generato una razza di piccoli uomini nella politica, così ha generato una razza di piccoli uomini nelle arti. I nostri politici moderni rivendicano la colossale licenza di Cesare e del Superuomo, rivendicano di essere troppo pratici per essere puri e troppo patriottici per essere morali; ma il risultato di tutto ciò è che una mediocrità è Cancelliere dello Scacchiere. I nostri nuovi filosofi artistici reclamano la stessa licenza morale, una libertà di sconvolgere cielo e terra con la loro energia; ma il risultato di tutto ciò è che una mediocrità è Poeta Laureato. Non dico che non vi siano uomini più forti di questi; ma vorrà qualcuno dire che vi siano uomini più forti di quegli uomini antichi che erano dominati dalla loro filosofia e imbevuti della loro religione? Se la servitù sia migliore della libertà, lo si può discutere. Ma che la loro servitù abbia prodotto più della nostra libertà, sarà difficile per chiunque negarlo.

La teoria dell’amoralità dell’arte si è saldamente affermata nelle classi strettamente artistiche. Esse sono libere di produrre qualunque cosa vogliano. Sono libere di scrivere un «Paradise Lost» in cui Satana vinca Dio. Sono libere di scrivere una «Divina Commedia» in cui il paradiso stia sotto il pavimento dell’inferno. E che cosa hanno fatto? Hanno prodotto, nella loro universalità, qualcosa di più grandioso o di più bello delle cose pronunciate dal fiero cattolico ghibellino, dal rigido maestro puritano? Sappiamo che hanno prodotto soltanto pochi rondò. Milton non li batte solo nella sua pietà, li batte nella loro stessa irriverenza. In tutti i loro libriccini di versi non troverete una più bella sfida a Dio di quella di Satana. Né troverete la grandezza del paganesimo sentita come la sentì quel Cristiano infuocato che descrisse Farinata levare il capo come in disdegno dell’inferno. E la ragione è assai ovvia. La bestemmia è un effetto artistico, perché la bestemmia dipende da una convinzione filosofica. La bestemmia dipende dalla fede e va svanendo con essa. Se qualcuno ne dubita, si sieda seriamente e provi a pensare pensieri blasfemi su Thor. Penso che la sua famiglia lo troverà alla fine della giornata in uno stato di una certa spossatezza.

Né nel mondo della politica né in quello della letteratura, dunque, il rifiuto delle teorie generali si è rivelato un successo. Può darsi che vi siano stati molti ideali lunatici e fuorvianti che di tempo in tempo hanno confuso l’umanità. Ma di sicuro non vi è stato ideale, nella pratica, così lunatico e fuorviante come l’ideale della praticità. Nulla ha perduto tante occasioni quanto l’opportunismo di Lord Rosebery. Egli è, in verità, un simbolo permanente di questa epoca: l’uomo che è teoricamente un uomo pratico, e praticamente più impratico di qualsiasi teorico. Nulla in questo universo è così insensato quanto quella specie di culto della saggezza mondana. Un uomo che pensa perpetuamente a se questa razza o quella razza sia forte, a se questa causa o quella causa sia promettente, è l’uomo che non crederà mai in nulla abbastanza a lungo da farlo riuscire. Il politico opportunista è come un uomo che dovesse abbandonare il biliardo perché fu battuto a biliardo, e abbandonare il golf perché fu battuto a golf. Non c’è nulla di così debole ai fini dell’azione quanto questa enorme importanza attribuita alla vittoria immediata. Non c’è nulla che fallisca quanto il successo.

And having discovered that opportunism does fail, I have been induced to look at it more largely, and in consequence to see that it must fail. I perceive that it is far more practical to begin at the beginning and discuss theories. I see that the men who killed each other about the orthodoxy of the Homoousion were far more sensible than the people who are quarrelling about the Education Act. For the Christian dogmatists were trying to establish a reign of holiness, and trying to get defined, first of all, what was really holy. But our modern educationists are trying to bring about a religious liberty without attempting to settle what is religion or what is liberty. If the old priests forced a statement on mankind, at least they previously took some trouble to make it lucid. It has been left for the modern mobs of Anglicans and Nonconformists to persecute for a doctrine without even stating it.

For these reasons, and for many more, I for one have come to believe in going back to fundamentals. Such is the general idea of this book. I wish to deal with my most distinguished contemporaries, not personally or in a merely literary manner, but in relation to the real body of doctrine which they teach. I am not concerned with Mr. Rudyard Kipling as a vivid artist or a vigorous personality; I am concerned with him as a Heretic— that is to say, a man whose view of things has the hardihood to differ from mine. I am not concerned with Mr. Bernard Shaw as one of the most brilliant and one of the most honest men alive; I am concerned with him as a Heretic—that is to say, a man whose philosophy is quite solid, quite coherent, and quite wrong. I revert to the doctrinal methods of the thirteenth century, inspired by the general hope of getting something done.

Suppose that a great commotion arises in the street about something, let us say a lamp-post, which many influential persons desire to pull down. A grey-clad monk, who is the spirit of the Middle Ages, is approached upon the matter, and begins to say, in the arid manner of the Schoolmen, “Let us first of all consider, my brethren, the value of Light. If Light be in itself good—” At this point he is somewhat excusably knocked down. All the people make a rush for the lamp-post, the lamp-post is down in ten minutes, and they go about congratulating each other on their unmediaeval practicality. But as things go on they do not work out so easily. Some people have pulled the lamp-post down because they wanted the electric light; some because they wanted old iron; some because they wanted darkness, because their deeds were evil. Some thought it not enough of a lamp-post, some too much; some acted because they wanted to smash municipal machinery; some because they wanted to smash something. And there is war in the night, no man knowing whom he strikes. So, gradually and inevitably, to-day, to-morrow, or the next day, there comes back the conviction that the monk was right after all, and that all depends on what is the philosophy of Light. Only what we might have discussed under the gas-lamp, we now must discuss in the dark.

E, avendo scoperto che l’opportunismo fallisce davvero, sono stato indotto a considerarlo più ampiamente, e di conseguenza a vedere che esso deve fallire. Comprendo che è assai più pratico cominciare dal principio e discutere le teorie. Vedo che gli uomini che si uccidevano a vicenda per l’ortodossia dell’Homooúsion erano assai più assennati della gente che si accapiglia per l’Education Act. Poiché i dogmatici cristiani cercavano di stabilire un regno di santità, e cercavano di definire, anzitutto, che cosa fosse davvero santo. Ma i nostri educatori moderni cercano di realizzare una libertà religiosa senza tentare di stabilire che cosa sia la religione o che cosa sia la libertà. Se gli antichi sacerdoti imposero un’affermazione all’umanità, almeno si diedero prima qualche pena per renderla lucida. È stato lasciato alle moderne folle di anglicani e non-conformisti il compito di perseguitare per una dottrina senza nemmeno enunciarla.

Per queste ragioni, e per molte altre, io, da parte mia, sono giunto a credere nel ritorno ai fondamenti. Tale è l’idea generale di questo libro. Desidero occuparmi dei miei più illustri contemporanei, non personalmente né in maniera meramente letteraria, ma in relazione al reale corpo di dottrina che essi insegnano. Non mi interessa il signor Rudyard Kipling come vivido artista o come vigorosa personalità; mi interessa come Eretico, vale a dire un uomo la cui visione delle cose ha l’ardire di differire dalla mia. Non mi interessa il signor Bernard Shaw come uno degli uomini più brillanti e più onesti che vivano; mi interessa come Eretico, vale a dire un uomo la cui filosofia è del tutto solida, del tutto coerente, e del tutto sbagliata. Ritorno ai metodi dottrinali del tredicesimo secolo, ispirato dalla generale speranza di far fare qualcosa.

Supponiamo che sorga un gran tumulto nella strada per qualcosa, diciamo un lampione, che molte persone influenti desiderano abbattere. Un monaco vestito di grigio, che è lo spirito del Medioevo, viene interpellato sulla questione, e comincia a dire, all’arida maniera degli Scolastici: «Consideriamo anzitutto, fratelli miei, il valore della Luce. Se la Luce è in sé buona…» A questo punto egli viene, con qualche scusante, messo a terra. Tutti fanno ressa verso il lampione, il lampione è abbattuto in dieci minuti, e vanno in giro a congratularsi a vicenda per la loro praticità antimedievale. Ma, con l’andar delle cose, esse non si risolvono così facilmente. Alcuni hanno abbattuto il lampione perché volevano la luce elettrica; alcuni perché volevano il ferro vecchio; alcuni perché volevano l’oscurità, perché le loro opere erano malvagie. Alcuni lo ritenevano un lampione insufficiente, alcuni eccessivo; alcuni agirono perché volevano fracassare la macchina municipale; alcuni perché volevano fracassare qualcosa. E c’è guerra nella notte, senza che nessun uomo sappia chi colpisce. Così, gradualmente e inevitabilmente, oggi, domani, o il giorno dopo, torna la convinzione che il monaco avesse ragione dopotutto, e che tutto dipenda da quale sia la filosofia della Luce. Solo che ciò che avremmo potuto discutere sotto il lampione a gas, ora dobbiamo discuterlo al buio.

II. On the Negative Spirit

Much has been said, and said truly, of the monkish morbidity, of the hysteria which has often gone with the visions of hermits or nuns. But let us never forget that this visionary religion is, in one sense, necessarily more wholesome than our modern and reasonable morality. It is more wholesome for this reason, that it can contemplate the idea of success or triumph in the hopeless fight towards the ethical ideal, in what Stevenson called, with his usual startling felicity, “the lost fight of virtue.” A modern morality, on the other hand, can only point with absolute conviction to the horrors that follow breaches of law; its only certainty is a certainty of ill. It can only point to imperfection. It has no perfection to point to. But the monk meditating upon Christ or Buddha has in his mind an image of perfect health, a thing of clear colours and clean air. He may contemplate this ideal wholeness and happiness far more than he ought; he may contemplate it to the neglect or exclusion of essential things, he may contemplate it until he has become a dreamer or a driveller; but still it is wholeness and happiness that he is contemplating. He may even go mad; but he is going mad for the love of sanity. But the modern student of ethics, even if he remains sane, remains sane from an insane dread of insanity.

The anchorite rolling on the stones in a frenzy of submission is a healthier person fundamentally than many a sober man in a silk hat who is walking down Cheapside. For many such are good only through a withering knowledge of evil. I am not at this moment claiming for the devotee anything more than this primary advantage, that though he may be making himself personally weak and miserable, he is still fixing his thoughts largely on gigantic strength and happiness, on a strength that has no limits, and a happiness that has no end. Doubtless there are other objections which can be urged without unreason against the influence of gods and visions in morality, whether in the cell or street. But this advantage the mystic morality must always have—it is always jollier. A young man may keep himself from vice by continually thinking of disease. He may keep himself from it also by continually thinking of the Virgin Mary. There may be question about which method is the more reasonable, or even about which is the more efficient. But surely there can be no question about which is the more wholesome.

I remember a pamphlet by that able and sincere secularist, Mr. G. W. Foote, which contained a phrase sharply symbolizing and dividing these two methods. The pamphlet was called “Beer and Bible”, those two very noble things, all the nobler for a conjunction which Mr. Foote, in his stern old Puritan way, seemed to think sardonic, but which I confess to thinking appropriate and charming. I have not the work by me, but I remember that Mr. Foote dismissed very contemptuously any attempts to deal with the problem of strong drink by religious offices or intercessions, and said that a picture of a drunkard’s liver would be more efficacious in the matter of temperance than any prayer or praise. In that picturesque expression, it seems to me, is perfectly embodied the incurable morbidity of modern ethics. In that temple the lights are low, the crowds kneel, the solemn anthems are uplifted. But that upon the altar to which all men kneel is no longer the perfect flesh, the body and substance of the perfect man; it is still flesh, but it is diseased. It is the drunkard’s liver of the New Testament that is marred for us, which we take in remembrance of him.

Now, it is this great gap in modern ethics, the absence of vivid pictures of purity and spiritual triumph, which lies at the back of the real objection felt by so many sane men to the realistic literature of the nineteenth century. If any ordinary man ever said that he was horrified by the subjects discussed in Ibsen or Maupassant, or by the plain language in which they are spoken of, that ordinary man was lying. The average conversation of average men throughout the whole of modern civilization in every class or trade is such as Zola would never dream of printing. Nor is the habit of writing thus of these things a new habit. On the contrary, it is the Victorian prudery and silence which is new still, though it is already dying. The tradition of calling a spade a spade starts very early in our literature and comes down very late. But the truth is that the ordinary honest man, whatever vague account he may have given of his feelings, was not either disgusted or even annoyed at the candour of the moderns. What disgusted him, and very justly, was not the presence of a clear realism, but the absence of a clear idealism. Strong and genuine religious sentiment has never had any objection to realism; on the contrary, religion was the realistic thing, the brutal thing, the thing that called names. This is the great difference between some recent developments of Nonconformity and the great Puritanism of the seventeenth century. It was the whole point of the Puritans that they cared nothing for decency. Modern Nonconformist newspapers distinguish themselves by suppressing precisely those nouns and adjectives which the founders of Nonconformity distinguished themselves by flinging at kings and queens. But if it was a chief claim of religion that it spoke plainly about evil, it was the chief claim of all that it spoke plainly about good. The thing which is resented, and, as I think, rightly resented, in that great modern literature of which Ibsen is typical, is that while the eye that can perceive what are the wrong things increases in an uncanny and devouring clarity, the eye which sees what things are right is growing mistier and mistier every moment, till it goes almost blind with doubt. If we compare, let us say, the morality of the “Divine Comedy” with the morality of Ibsen’s “Ghosts”, we shall see all that modern ethics have really done. No one, I imagine, will accuse the author of the “Inferno” of an Early Victorian prudishness or a Podsnapian optimism. But Dante describes three moral instruments—Heaven, Purgatory, and Hell, the vision of perfection, the vision of improvement, and the vision of failure. Ibsen has only one—Hell. It is often said, and with perfect truth, that no one could read a play like GHOSTS and remain indifferent to the necessity of an ethical self-command. That is quite true, and the same is to be said of the most monstrous and material descriptions of the eternal fire. It is quite certain the realists like Zola do in one sense promote morality—they promote it in the sense in which the hangman promotes it, in the sense in which the devil promotes it. But they only affect that small minority which will accept any virtue as long as we do not ask them for the virtue of courage. Most healthy people dismiss these moral dangers as they dismiss the possibility of bombs or microbes. Modern realists are indeed Terrorists, like the dynamiters; and they fail just as much in their effort to create a thrill. Both realists and dynamiters are well-meaning people engaged in the task, so obviously ultimately hopeless, of using science to promote morality.

II. Sullo spirito negativo

Molto si è detto, e detto con verità, della morbosità monastica, dell’isteria che spesso ha accompagnato le visioni degli eremiti o delle monache. Ma non dimentichiamo mai che questa religione visionaria è, in un certo senso, necessariamente più sana della nostra moralità moderna e ragionevole. È più sana per questa ragione: che essa può contemplare l’idea del successo o del trionfo nella lotta senza speranza verso l’ideale etico, in ciò che Stevenson chiamò, con la sua consueta e sorprendente felicità di espressione, «la battaglia perduta della virtù». Una moralità moderna, per contro, può soltanto additare con assoluta convinzione gli orrori che seguono alle violazioni della legge; la sua unica certezza è una certezza di male. Essa può soltanto additare l’imperfezione. Non ha alcuna perfezione da additare. Ma il monaco che medita su Cristo o su Buddha ha nella mente un’immagine di perfetta salute, una cosa di colori limpidi e d’aria pura. Egli può contemplare questa integrità ideale e questa felicità assai più di quanto dovrebbe; può contemplarla fino a trascurare o escludere le cose essenziali, può contemplarla fino a diventare un sognatore o un farneticante; ma è pur sempre l’integrità e la felicità ciò che egli contempla. Può persino impazzire; ma impazzisce per amore della sanità mentale. Il moderno studioso di etica, invece, anche quando rimane sano di mente, rimane sano di mente per un insano terrore della follia.

L’anacoreta che si rotola sulle pietre in un frenetico atto di sottomissione è, in fondo, una persona più sana di molti uomini sobri in cilindro di seta che passeggiano per Cheapside. Ché molti di costoro sono buoni soltanto grazie a una devastante conoscenza del male. Non rivendico, in questo momento, per il devoto nulla più di questo primo vantaggio: che, per quanto egli possa rendere se stesso personalmente debole e infelice, tuttavia fissa in gran parte il proprio pensiero su una forza e una felicità gigantesche, su una forza che non ha limiti e su una felicità che non ha fine. Senza dubbio vi sono altre obiezioni che si possono muovere non senza ragione contro l’influsso degli dèi e delle visioni nella moralità, sia nella cella sia nella strada. Ma questo vantaggio la moralità mistica dovrà sempre averlo: è sempre più allegra. Un giovane può tenersi lontano dal vizio pensando di continuo alla malattia. Ma può tenersene lontano anche pensando di continuo alla Vergine Maria. Vi può essere discussione su quale dei due metodi sia il più ragionevole, o persino su quale sia il più efficace. Ma sicuramente non vi può essere alcuna discussione su quale sia il più sano.

Ricordo un opuscolo di quel valente e sincero laicista che fu il signor G. W. Foote, contenente una frase che simboleggiava e distingueva con acutezza questi due metodi. L’opuscolo s’intitolava «Beer and Bible» — la birra e la Bibbia — due cose assai nobili, tanto più nobili per un accostamento che il signor Foote, alla sua vecchia maniera puritana e severa, pareva ritenere sardonico, ma che io confesso di ritenere appropriato e affascinante. Non ho l’opera sottomano, ma ricordo che il signor Foote respingeva con gran disprezzo ogni tentativo di affrontare il problema dell’alcool per mezzo di uffici religiosi o intercessioni, e affermava che la figura del fegato di un ubriaco sarebbe stata più efficace, in materia di temperanza, di qualunque preghiera o lode. In quell’espressione pittoresca mi pare perfettamente incarnata l’inguaribile morbosità dell’etica moderna. In quel tempio le luci sono basse, le folle s’inginocchiano, i solenni inni si levano. Ma ciò che sta sull’altare dinanzi al quale tutti gli uomini s’inginocchiano non è più la carne perfetta, il corpo e la sostanza dell’uomo perfetto; è ancora carne, ma è carne malata. È il fegato dell’ubriaco del Nuovo Testamento a essere per noi straziato, che noi prendiamo in memoria di lui.

Ora, è questa grande lacuna dell’etica moderna, l’assenza di vivide immagini di purezza e di trionfo spirituale, ciò che sta a fondamento della vera obiezione avvertita da tanti uomini sani di mente verso la letteratura realistica del diciannovesimo secolo. Se un uomo comune abbia mai detto d’essere inorridito dagli argomenti trattati in Ibsen o in Maupassant, o dal linguaggio schietto con cui se ne parla, quell’uomo comune mentiva. La conversazione media degli uomini medi in tutta la civiltà moderna, in ogni classe o mestiere, è tale che Zola non sognerebbe mai di stamparla. Né l’abitudine di scrivere così di tali cose è un’abitudine nuova. Al contrario, è la pruderie e il silenzio vittoriani a essere ancora nuovi, benché già stiano morendo. La tradizione di chiamare pane il pane e vino il vino comincia assai presto nella nostra letteratura e giunge assai tardi. Ma la verità è che l’onest’uomo qualunque, per quanto vaga fosse la spiegazione che poteva aver dato dei propri sentimenti, non era né disgustato né tantomeno infastidito dal candore dei moderni. Ciò che lo disgustava, e assai giustamente, non era la presenza di un realismo chiaro, ma l’assenza di un idealismo chiaro. Un sentimento religioso forte e genuino non ha mai avuto alcuna obiezione contro il realismo; al contrario, la religione era la cosa realistica, la cosa brutale, la cosa che chiamava le cose con il loro nome. È questa la grande differenza tra certi recenti sviluppi del Dissenso e il grande Puritanesimo del diciassettesimo secolo. Il punto essenziale dei Puritani era che essi non si curavano affatto della decenza. I moderni giornali dissidenti si distinguono per il sopprimere proprio quei sostantivi e quegli aggettivi che i fondatori del Dissenso si distinguevano per lo scagliare contro re e regine. Ma se una principale rivendicazione della religione era di parlar chiaro del male, la rivendicazione suprema d’ogni cosa era di parlar chiaro del bene. Ciò che si risente, e, come credo, giustamente si risente, in quella grande letteratura moderna di cui Ibsen è tipico, è che, mentre l’occhio capace di scorgere quali siano le cose sbagliate cresce in una chiarezza inquietante e vorace, l’occhio che vede quali cose siano giuste si fa sempre più fosco d’attimo in attimo, finché quasi acceca per il dubbio. Se paragoniamo, poniamo, la moralità della «Divina Commedia» con la moralità degli «Spettri» di Ibsen, vedremo tutto ciò che l’etica moderna ha realmente fatto. Nessuno, immagino, accuserà l’autore dell’«Inferno» di una pudibonderia da primi vittoriani o di un ottimismo alla Podsnap. Ma Dante descrive tre strumenti morali — il Paradiso, il Purgatorio e l’Inferno, la visione della perfezione, la visione del miglioramento e la visione del fallimento. Ibsen ne ha uno solo: l’Inferno. Spesso si dice, e con perfetta verità, che nessuno potrebbe leggere un dramma come gli SPETTRI e rimanere indifferente alla necessità di un dominio etico di . È verissimo, e altrettanto va detto delle più mostruose e materiali descrizioni del fuoco eterno. È del tutto certo che i realisti come Zola promuovono, in un certo senso, la moralità — la promuovono nel senso in cui la promuove il boia, nel senso in cui la promuove il diavolo. Ma essi toccano soltanto quella piccola minoranza che accetterà qualunque virtù purché non le si chieda la virtù del coraggio. La maggior parte delle persone sane liquida questi pericoli morali come liquida la possibilità delle bombe o dei microbi. I realisti moderni sono davvero dei Terroristi, come i dinamitardi; e falliscono nella stessa misura nel loro sforzo di suscitare un brivido. Tanto i realisti quanto i dinamitardi sono persone benintenzionate, impegnate nel compito, tanto ovviamente e in ultima analisi disperato, di usare la scienza per promuovere la moralità.

I do not wish the reader to confuse me for a moment with those vague persons who imagine that Ibsen is what they call a pessimist. There are plenty of wholesome people in Ibsen, plenty of good people, plenty of happy people, plenty of examples of men acting wisely and things ending well. That is not my meaning. My meaning is that Ibsen has throughout, and does not disguise, a certain vagueness and a changing attitude as well as a doubting attitude towards what is really wisdom and virtue in this life— a vagueness which contrasts very remarkably with the decisiveness with which he pounces on something which he perceives to be a root of evil, some convention, some deception, some ignorance. We know that the hero of “Ghosts” is mad, and we know why he is mad. We do also know that Dr. Stockman is sane; but we do not know why he is sane. Ibsen does not profess to know how virtue and happiness are brought about, in the sense that he professes to know how our modern sexual tragedies are brought about. Falsehood works ruin in “The Pillars of Society”, but truth works equal ruin in “The Wild Duck”. There are no cardinal virtues of Ibsenism. There is no ideal man of Ibsen. All this is not only admitted, but vaunted in the most valuable and thoughtful of all the eulogies upon Ibsen, Mr. Bernard Shaw’s “Quintessence of Ibsenism”. Mr. Shaw sums up Ibsen’s teaching in the phrase, “The golden rule is that there is no golden rule.” In his eyes this absence of an enduring and positive ideal, this absence of a permanent key to virtue, is the one great Ibsen merit. I am not discussing now with any fullness whether this is so or not. All I venture to point out, with an increased firmness, is that this omission, good or bad, does leave us face to face with the problem of a human consciousness filled with very definite images of evil, and with no definite image of good. To us light must be henceforward the dark thing—the thing of which we cannot speak. To us, as to Milton’s devils in Pandemonium, it is darkness that is visible. The human race, according to religion, fell once, and in falling gained knowledge of good and of evil. Now we have fallen a second time, and only the knowledge of evil remains to us.

A great silent collapse, an enormous unspoken disappointment, has in our time fallen on our Northern civilization. All previous ages have sweated and been crucified in an attempt to realize what is really the right life, what was really the good man. A definite part of the modern world has come beyond question to the conclusion that there is no answer to these questions, that the most that we can do is to set up a few notice-boards at places of obvious danger, to warn men, for instance, against drinking themselves to death, or ignoring the mere existence of their neighbours. Ibsen is the first to return from the baffled hunt to bring us the tidings of great failure.

Every one of the popular modern phrases and ideals is a dodge in order to shirk the problem of what is good. We are fond of talking about “liberty”; that, as we talk of it, is a dodge to avoid discussing what is good. We are fond of talking about “progress”; that is a dodge to avoid discussing what is good. We are fond of talking about “education”; that is a dodge to avoid discussing what is good. The modern man says, “Let us leave all these arbitrary standards and embrace liberty.” This is, logically rendered, “Let us not decide what is good, but let it be considered good not to decide it.” He says, “Away with your old moral formulae; I am for progress.” This, logically stated, means, “Let us not settle what is good; but let us settle whether we are getting more of it.” He says, “Neither in religion nor morality, my friend, lie the hopes of the race, but in education.” This, clearly expressed, means, “We cannot decide what is good, but let us give it to our children.”

Mr. H.G. Wells, that exceedingly clear-sighted man, has pointed out in a recent work that this has happened in connection with economic questions. The old economists, he says, made generalizations, and they were (in Mr. Wells’s view) mostly wrong. But the new economists, he says, seem to have lost the power of making any generalizations at all. And they cover this incapacity with a general claim to be, in specific cases, regarded as “experts,” a claim “proper enough in a hairdresser or a fashionable physician, but indecent in a philosopher or a man of science.” But in spite of the refreshing rationality with which Mr. Wells has indicated this, it must also be said that he himself has fallen into the same enormous modern error. In the opening pages of that excellent book “Mankind in the Making”, he dismisses the ideals of art, religion, abstract morality, and the rest, and says that he is going to consider men in their chief function, the function of parenthood. He is going to discuss life as a “tissue of births.” He is not going to ask what will produce satisfactory saints or satisfactory heroes, but what will produce satisfactory fathers and mothers. The whole is set forward so sensibly that it is a few moments at least before the reader realises that it is another example of unconscious shirking. What is the good of begetting a man until we have settled what is the good of being a man? You are merely handing on to him a problem you dare not settle yourself. It is as if a man were asked, “What is the use of a hammer?” and answered, “To make hammers”; and when asked, “And of those hammers, what is the use?” answered, “To make hammers again”. Just as such a man would be perpetually putting off the question of the ultimate use of carpentry, so Mr. Wells and all the rest of us are by these phrases successfully putting off the question of the ultimate value of the human life.

The case of the general talk of “progress” is, indeed, an extreme one. As enunciated today, “progress” is simply a comparative of which we have not settled the superlative. We meet every ideal of religion, patriotism, beauty, or brute pleasure with the alternative ideal of progress—that is to say, we meet every proposal of getting something that we know about, with an alternative proposal of getting a great deal more of nobody knows what. Progress, properly understood, has, indeed, a most dignified and legitimate meaning. But as used in opposition to precise moral ideals, it is ludicrous. So far from it being the truth that the ideal of progress is to be set against that of ethical or religious finality, the reverse is the truth. Nobody has any business to use the word “progress” unless he has a definite creed and a cast-iron code of morals. Nobody can be progressive without being doctrinal; I might almost say that nobody can be progressive without being infallible— at any rate, without believing in some infallibility. For progress by its very name indicates a direction; and the moment we are in the least doubtful about the direction, we become in the same degree doubtful about the progress. Never perhaps since the beginning of the world has there been an age that had less right to use the word “progress” than we. In the Catholic twelfth century, in the philosophic eighteenth century, the direction may have been a good or a bad one, men may have differed more or less about how far they went, and in what direction, but about the direction they did in the main agree, and consequently they had the genuine sensation of progress. But it is precisely about the direction that we disagree. Whether the future excellence lies in more law or less law, in more liberty or less liberty; whether property will be finally concentrated or finally cut up; whether sexual passion will reach its sanest in an almost virgin intellectualism or in a full animal freedom; whether we should love everybody with Tolstoy, or spare nobody with Nietzsche;—these are the things about which we are actually fighting most. It is not merely true that the age which has settled least what is progress is this “progressive” age. It is, moreover, true that the people who have settled least what is progress are the most “progressive” people in it. The ordinary mass, the men who have never troubled about progress, might be trusted perhaps to progress. The particular individuals who talk about progress would certainly fly to the four winds of heaven when the pistol-shot started the race. I do not, therefore, say that the word “progress” is unmeaning; I say it is unmeaning without the previous definition of a moral doctrine, and that it can only be applied to groups of persons who hold that doctrine in common. Progress is not an illegitimate word, but it is logically evident that it is illegitimate for us. It is a sacred word, a word which could only rightly be used by rigid believers and in the ages of faith.

Non desidero che il lettore mi confonda neppure per un istante con quei personaggi vaghi che immaginano Ibsen essere ciò che chiamano un pessimista. In Ibsen vi sono in abbondanza persone sane, persone buone, persone felici, esempi in gran numero di uomini che agiscono con saggezza e di cose che finiscono bene. Non è questo il mio senso. Il mio senso è che Ibsen mantiene per tutto il tempo, e non lo dissimula, una certa vaghezza e un atteggiamento mutevole, così come un atteggiamento dubbioso, verso ciò che è davvero saggezza e virtù in questa vita — una vaghezza che contrasta assai notevolmente con la decisione con cui piomba su qualcosa che egli percepisce come radice del male, qualche convenzione, qualche inganno, qualche ignoranza. Sappiamo che l’eroe degli «Spettri» è folle, e sappiamo perché sia folle. Sappiamo anche che il dottor Stockman è sano di mente; ma non sappiamo perché sia sano di mente. Ibsen non pretende di sapere come si producano la virtù e la felicità, nel senso in cui pretende di sapere come si producano le nostre moderne tragedie sessuali. La menzogna opera rovina in «Le colonne della società», ma la verità opera eguale rovina in «L’anitra selvatica». Non vi sono virtù cardinali dell’ibsenismo. Non vi è alcun uomo ideale di Ibsen. Tutto questo non solo è ammesso, ma vantato nel più prezioso e meditato di tutti gli elogi rivolti a Ibsen, la «Quintessenza dell’ibsenismo» del signor Bernard Shaw. Il signor Shaw riassume l’insegnamento di Ibsen nella frase: «La regola aurea è che non vi è regola aurea». Ai suoi occhi questa assenza di un ideale duraturo e positivo, questa assenza di una chiave permanente alla virtù, è il grande e unico merito di Ibsen. Non sto discutendo ora, con alcuna ampiezza, se ciò sia vero o no. Tutto ciò che oso rilevare, con accresciuta fermezza, è che questa omissione, buona o cattiva, ci lascia comunque faccia a faccia con il problema di una coscienza umana colma di immagini assai definite del male, e priva di ogni immagine definita del bene. Per noi la luce dev’essere ormai la cosa oscura — la cosa di cui non possiamo parlare. Per noi, come per i diavoli di Milton nel Pandemonio, è la tenebra a essere visibile. Il genere umano, secondo la religione, cadde una volta, e cadendo acquistò la conoscenza del bene e del male. Ora siamo caduti una seconda volta, e ci resta soltanto la conoscenza del male.

Un grande e silenzioso crollo, un’enorme disillusione taciuta, è caduto ai nostri tempi sulla nostra civiltà nordica. Tutte le età precedenti hanno sudato e sono state crocifisse nel tentativo di realizzare quale sia veramente la vita giusta, quale fosse veramente l’uomo buono. Una parte precisa del mondo moderno è giunta, senza più dubbio, alla conclusione che a queste domande non vi è risposta, che il più che possiamo fare è piantare qualche cartello di avviso nei luoghi di ovvio pericolo, per mettere in guardia gli uomini, per esempio, contro il bere fino alla morte, o l’ignorare la semplice esistenza dei propri simili. Ibsen è il primo a tornare dalla caccia fallita per recarci la notizia del grande fallimento.

Ognuna delle frasi e degli ideali moderni in voga è uno stratagemma per scansare il problema di ciò che è bene. Ci piace parlare di «libertà»; e questo, così come ne parliamo, è uno stratagemma per evitare di discutere ciò che è bene. Ci piace parlare di «progresso»; e questo è uno stratagemma per evitare di discutere ciò che è bene. Ci piace parlare di «educazione»; e questo è uno stratagemma per evitare di discutere ciò che è bene. L’uomo moderno dice: «Lasciamo tutti questi criteri arbitrari e abbracciamo la libertà». Il che, reso logicamente, significa: «Non decidiamo ciò che è bene, ma consideriamo bene il non deciderlo». Egli dice: «Via le vostre vecchie formule morali; io sto per il progresso». Il che, enunciato logicamente, significa: «Non stabiliamo ciò che è bene; ma stabiliamo se ne stiamo ottenendo di più». Egli dice: «Né nella religione né nella moralità, amico mio, stanno le speranze della razza, ma nell’educazione». Il che, chiaramente espresso, significa: «Non possiamo decidere ciò che è bene, ma diamolo ai nostri figli».

Il signor H. G. Wells, uomo di veduta straordinariamente chiara, ha rilevato in un’opera recente che ciò è accaduto in rapporto alle questioni economiche. I vecchi economisti, egli dice, facevano generalizzazioni, ed erano (a giudizio del signor Wells) per lo più errate. Ma i nuovi economisti, egli dice, sembrano aver perduto la facoltà di fare qualsiasi generalizzazione. E coprono questa incapacità con la pretesa generale di essere considerati, nei casi specifici, degli «esperti»: pretesa «abbastanza propria in un parrucchiere o in un medico alla moda, ma indecente in un filosofo o in un uomo di scienza». Ma, nonostante la ristoratrice razionalità con cui il signor Wells lo ha indicato, va detto altresì che egli stesso è caduto nel medesimo enorme errore moderno. Nelle pagine iniziali di quell’eccellente libro che è «Mankind in the Making», egli congeda gli ideali dell’arte, della religione, della moralità astratta e tutto il resto, e dice che intende considerare gli uomini nella loro funzione principale, la funzione della paternità. Intende discutere la vita come un «tessuto di nascite». Non intende chiedersi che cosa produrrà santi soddisfacenti o eroi soddisfacenti, ma che cosa produrrà padri e madri soddisfacenti. Il tutto è esposto in modo così sensato che passano almeno alcuni istanti prima che il lettore si accorga che si tratta di un altro esempio di inconsapevole scansare il problema. Che pro generare un uomo prima che abbiamo stabilito che pro vi sia nell’essere un uomo? Non fate che passargli un problema che voi stessi non osate risolvere. È come se a un uomo si chiedesse: «A che serve un martello?», ed egli rispondesse: «A fare martelli»; e, chiesto poi: «E quei martelli, a che servono?», rispondesse: «A fare di nuovo martelli». Proprio come un tal uomo rimanderebbe perpetuamente la questione dell’ultimo uso della falegnameria, così il signor Wells e tutti noi altri, con queste frasi, stiamo con successo rimandando la questione del valore ultimo della vita umana.

Il caso del discorso generale sul «progresso» è, in verità, un caso estremo. Così come oggi lo si enuncia, il «progresso» è semplicemente un comparativo del quale non abbiamo stabilito il superlativo. Contrapponiamo a ogni ideale di religione, di patriottismo, di bellezza o di piacere bruto l’ideale alternativo del progresso — vale a dire, contrapponiamo a ogni proposta di ottenere qualcosa che conosciamo la proposta alternativa di ottenere molto di più di non si sa che. Il progresso, inteso a dovere, ha in verità un significato quanto mai dignitoso e legittimo. Ma, usato in opposizione a ideali morali precisi, è ridicolo. Tanto è lungi dall’essere vero che l’ideale di progresso vada contrapposto a quello della finalità etica o religiosa, che è vero l’inverso: la verità. Nessuno ha titolo alcuno per usare la parola «progresso» a meno che non abbia un credo definito e un codice morale d’acciaio. Nessuno può essere progressista senza essere dottrinale; direi quasi che nessuno può essere progressista senza essere infallibile — o almeno, senza credere in qualche infallibilità. Poiché il progresso, per il suo stesso nome, indica una direzione; e nel momento in cui siamo minimamente in dubbio sulla direzione, diventiamo nella stessa misura in dubbio sul progresso. Mai forse, dall’inizio del mondo, vi è stata un’età che avesse meno diritto di usare la parola «progresso» della nostra. Nel cattolico dodicesimo secolo, nel filosofico diciottesimo secolo, la direzione può essere stata buona o cattiva, gli uomini possono aver differito più o meno su quanto lontano andassero, e in quale direzione, ma sulla direzione essi in sostanza concordavano, e di conseguenza avevano la genuina sensazione del progresso. Ma è precisamente sulla direzione che noi siamo in disaccordo. Se l’eccellenza futura stia in più legge o in meno legge, in più libertà o in meno libertà; se la proprietà finirà con l’essere concentrata o con l’essere frazionata; se la passione sessuale raggiungerà la sua massima sanità in un intellettualismo quasi verginale o in una piena libertà animale; se dobbiamo amare tutti con Tolstoj, o non risparmiare nessuno con Nietzsche — ecco le cose intorno alle quali di fatto più ci battiamo. Non è soltanto vero che l’età che meno ha stabilito che cosa sia il progresso è questa età «progressista». È, per giunta, vero che le persone che meno hanno stabilito che cosa sia il progresso sono le persone più «progressiste» che vi siano. Della massa comune, degli uomini che non si sono mai dati pensiero del progresso, ci si potrebbe forse fidare che progrediscano. Gli individui particolari che parlano di progresso volerebbero di sicuro ai quattro venti del cielo nel momento in cui il colpo di pistola desse il via alla corsa. Non dico dunque che la parola «progresso» sia priva di significato; dico che è priva di significato senza la previa definizione di una dottrina morale, e che può essere applicata solo a gruppi di persone che condividono quella dottrina. Progresso non è una parola illegittima, ma è logicamente evidente che è illegittima per noi. È una parola sacra, una parola che potrebbe essere rettamente usata soltanto da credenti rigorosi e nelle età della fede.

III. On Mr. Rudyard Kipling and Making the World Small

There is no such thing on earth as an uninteresting subject; the only thing that can exist is an uninterested person. Nothing is more keenly required than a defence of bores. When Byron divided humanity into the bores and bored, he omitted to notice that the higher qualities exist entirely in the bores, the lower qualities in the bored, among whom he counted himself. The bore, by his starry enthusiasm, his solemn happiness, may, in some sense, have proved himself poetical. The bored has certainly proved himself prosaic.

We might, no doubt, find it a nuisance to count all the blades of grass or all the leaves of the trees; but this would not be because of our boldness or gaiety, but because of our lack of boldness and gaiety. The bore would go onward, bold and gay, and find the blades of grass as splendid as the swords of an army. The bore is stronger and more joyous than we are; he is a demigod—nay, he is a god. For it is the gods who do not tire of the iteration of things; to them the nightfall is always new, and the last rose as red as the first.

The sense that everything is poetical is a thing solid and absolute; it is not a mere matter of phraseology or persuasion. It is not merely true, it is ascertainable. Men may be challenged to deny it; men may be challenged to mention anything that is not a matter of poetry. I remember a long time ago a sensible sub-editor coming up to me with a book in his hand, called “Mr. Smith,” or “The Smith Family,” or some such thing. He said, “Well, you won’t get any of your damned mysticism out of this,” or words to that effect. I am happy to say that I undeceived him; but the victory was too obvious and easy. In most cases the name is unpoetical, although the fact is poetical. In the case of Smith, the name is so poetical that it must be an arduous and heroic matter for the man to live up to it. The name of Smith is the name of the one trade that even kings respected, it could claim half the glory of that arma virumque which all epics acclaimed. The spirit of the smithy is so close to the spirit of song that it has mixed in a million poems, and every blacksmith is a harmonious blacksmith.

Even the village children feel that in some dim way the smith is poetic, as the grocer and the cobbler are not poetic, when they feast on the dancing sparks and deafening blows in the cavern of that creative violence. The brute repose of Nature, the passionate cunning of man, the strongest of earthly metals, the wierdest of earthly elements, the unconquerable iron subdued by its only conqueror, the wheel and the ploughshare, the sword and the steam-hammer, the arraying of armies and the whole legend of arms, all these things are written, briefly indeed, but quite legibly, on the visiting-card of Mr. Smith. Yet our novelists call their hero “Aylmer Valence,” which means nothing, or “Vernon Raymond,” which means nothing, when it is in their power to give him this sacred name of Smith—this name made of iron and flame. It would be very natural if a certain hauteur, a certain carriage of the head, a certain curl of the lip, distinguished every one whose name is Smith. Perhaps it does; I trust so. Whoever else are parvenus, the Smiths are not parvenus. From the darkest dawn of history this clan has gone forth to battle; its trophies are on every hand; its name is everywhere; it is older than the nations, and its sign is the Hammer of Thor. But as I also remarked, it is not quite the usual case. It is common enough that common things should be poetical; it is not so common that common names should be poetical. In most cases it is the name that is the obstacle. A great many people talk as if this claim of ours, that all things are poetical, were a mere literary ingenuity, a play on words. Precisely the contrary is true. It is the idea that some things are not poetical which is literary, which is a mere product of words. The word “signal-box” is unpoetical. But the thing signal-box is not unpoetical; it is a place where men, in an agony of vigilance, light blood-red and sea-green fires to keep other men from death. That is the plain, genuine description of what it is; the prose only comes in with what it is called. The word “pillar-box” is unpoetical. But the thing pillar-box is not unpoetical; it is the place to which friends and lovers commit their messages, conscious that when they have done so they are sacred, and not to be touched, not only by others, but even (religious touch!) by themselves. That red turret is one of the last of the temples. Posting a letter and getting married are among the few things left that are entirely romantic; for to be entirely romantic a thing must be irrevocable. We think a pillar-box prosaic, because there is no rhyme to it. We think a pillar-box unpoetical, because we have never seen it in a poem. But the bold fact is entirely on the side of poetry. A signal-box is only called a signal-box; it is a house of life and death. A pillar-box is only called a pillar-box; it is a sanctuary of human words. If you think the name of “Smith” prosaic, it is not because you are practical and sensible; it is because you are too much affected with literary refinements. The name shouts poetry at you. If you think of it otherwise, it is because you are steeped and sodden with verbal reminiscences, because you remember everything in Punch or Comic Cuts about Mr. Smith being drunk or Mr. Smith being henpecked. All these things were given to you poetical. It is only by a long and elaborate process of literary effort that you have made them prosaic.

Now, the first and fairest thing to say about Rudyard Kipling is that he has borne a brilliant part in thus recovering the lost provinces of poetry. He has not been frightened by that brutal materialistic air which clings only to words; he has pierced through to the romantic, imaginative matter of the things themselves. He has perceived the significance and philosophy of steam and of slang. Steam may be, if you like, a dirty by-product of science. Slang may be, if you like, a dirty by-product of language. But at least he has been among the few who saw the divine parentage of these things, and knew that where there is smoke there is fire—that is, that wherever there is the foulest of things, there also is the purest. Above all, he has had something to say, a definite view of things to utter, and that always means that a man is fearless and faces everything. For the moment we have a view of the universe, we possess it.

III. Su Mr. Rudyard Kipling e sul rimpicciolire il mondo

Non esiste al mondo cosa alcuna che sia un argomento privo d’interesse; l’unica cosa che possa esistere è una persona priva d’interesse. Nulla è più vivamente necessario di una difesa dei noiosi. Quando Byron divise l’umanità nei noiosi e negli annoiati, trascurò di notare che le qualità superiori risiedono tutte nei noiosi, e le qualità inferiori negli annoiati, fra i quali egli contava se stesso. Il noioso, per il suo stellato entusiasmo, per la sua solenne felicità, può, in un certo senso, aver dato prova d’essere poetico. L’annoiato ha certamente dato prova d’essere prosaico.

Potremmo, senza dubbio, trovar noioso contare tutti i fili d’erba o tutte le foglie degli alberi; ma ciò non sarebbe per la nostra audacia o gaiezza, bensì per la nostra mancanza di audacia e di gaiezza. Il noioso proseguirebbe, audace e gaio, e troverebbe i fili d’erba splendidi come le spade di un esercito. Il noioso è più forte e più gioioso di noi; egli è un semidio: anzi, è un dio. Poiché sono gli dèi a non stancarsi della ripetizione delle cose; per loro il calar della notte è sempre nuovo, e l’ultima rosa è rossa quanto la prima.

Il senso che ogni cosa è poetica è cosa solida e assoluta; non è mera questione di fraseologia o di persuasione. Non è soltanto vero, è accertabile. Si può sfidare gli uomini a negarlo; si può sfidare gli uomini a menzionare qualcosa che non sia materia di poesia. Ricordo che molto tempo fa un assennato redattore mi si avvicinò con un libro in mano, intitolato «Mr. Smith», o «La famiglia Smith», o qualcosa del genere. Disse: «Ecco, da questo non tirerà fuori nessuna delle sue maledette misticherie», o parole di quel tenore. Sono lieto di dire che lo disingannai; ma la vittoria fu troppo ovvia e facile. Nella maggior parte dei casi il nome è impoetico, benché il fatto sia poetico. Nel caso di Smith, il nome è tanto poetico che dev’essere impresa ardua ed eroica per l’uomo tenersi all’altezza di esso. Il nome di Smith è il nome dell’unico mestiere che perfino i re rispettavano, potrebbe rivendicare metà della gloria di quell’arma virumque che tutte le epopee acclamavano. Lo spirito della fucina è tanto vicino allo spirito del canto che si è mescolato in un milione di poemi, e ogni fabbro è un fabbro armonioso.

Perfino i bambini del villaggio sentono che in qualche modo oscuro il fabbro è poetico, come non lo sono il droghiere e il calzolaio, quando essi banchettano sulle scintille danzanti e sui colpi assordanti nella caverna di quella creativa violenza. Il bruto riposo della Natura, l’astuzia appassionata dell’uomo, il più forte dei metalli terreni, il più strano degli elementi terreni, l’indomabile ferro soggiogato dal suo solo conquistatore, la ruota e il vomere, la spada e il maglio a vapore, lo schierarsi degli eserciti e l’intera leggenda delle armi, tutte queste cose stanno scritte, in verità brevemente, ma in modo assai leggibile, sul biglietto da visita di Mr. Smith. Eppure i nostri romanzieri chiamano il loro eroe «Aylmer Valence», che non significa nulla, o «Vernon Raymond», che non significa nulla, quand’è in loro potere dargli questo sacro nome di Smith: questo nome fatto di ferro e di fiamma. Sarebbe cosa assai naturale se una certa alterigia, un certo portamento del capo, una certa piega del labbro, distinguessero chiunque porti il nome di Smith. Forse è così; me lo auguro. Chiunque altro sia parvenu, gli Smith non sono parvenu. Dalla più oscura alba della storia questo clan è andato in battaglia; i suoi trofei sono ovunque; il suo nome è dappertutto; è più antico delle nazioni, e il suo segno è il Martello di Thor. Ma, come pure ho osservato, non è propriamente il caso consueto. È abbastanza comune che le cose comuni siano poetiche; non è tanto comune che i nomi comuni siano poetici. Nella maggior parte dei casi è il nome a costituire l’ostacolo. Moltissima gente parla come se questa nostra pretesa, che tutte le cose sono poetiche, fosse una mera ingegnosità letteraria, un gioco di parole. È vero esattamente il contrario. È l’idea che alcune cose non siano poetiche a essere letteraria, a essere un mero prodotto di parole. La parola «casello dei segnali» è impoetica. Ma la cosa casello dei segnali non è impoetica; è un luogo dove gli uomini, in un’agonia di vigilanza, accendono fuochi rosso-sangue e verde-mare per tener lontani altri uomini dalla morte. Questa è la schietta, genuina descrizione di ciò che esso è; la prosa subentra soltanto con ciò che esso è chiamato. La parola «cassetta delle lettere» è impoetica. Ma la cosa cassetta delle lettere non è impoetica; è il luogo al quale amici e innamorati affidano i loro messaggi, consapevoli che, una volta fatto ciò, essi sono sacri, e non vanno toccati, non soltanto da altri, ma nemmeno (religioso tocco!) da loro stessi. Quella rossa torretta è uno degli ultimi templi. Imbucare una lettera e sposarsi sono tra le poche cose rimaste che siano interamente romantiche; poiché, per essere interamente romantica, una cosa dev’essere irrevocabile. Riteniamo prosaica una cassetta delle lettere, perché non vi è rima con essa. Riteniamo impoetica una cassetta delle lettere, perché non l’abbiamo mai vista in una poesia. Ma l’audace realtà sta interamente dalla parte della poesia. Un casello dei segnali è soltanto chiamato casello dei segnali; è una casa di vita e di morte. Una cassetta delle lettere è soltanto chiamata cassetta delle lettere; è un santuario di parole umane. Se ritieni prosaico il nome di «Smith», non è perché sei pratico e assennato; è perché sei troppo affetto da raffinatezze letterarie. Il nome ti grida poesia. Se lo pensi altrimenti, è perché sei intriso e impregnato di reminiscenze verbali, perché ricordi tutto ciò che c’era in Punch o in Comic Cuts riguardo a Mr. Smith ubriaco o a Mr. Smith soggiogato dalla moglie. Tutte queste cose ti furono date poetiche. È soltanto per un lungo ed elaborato processo di sforzo letterario che le hai rese prosaiche.

Ora, la prima e più giusta cosa da dire su Rudyard Kipling è che egli ha sostenuto una parte brillante nel recuperare così le province perdute della poesia. Non si è lasciato intimorire da quell’aria brutalmente materialistica che aderisce soltanto alle parole; ha trapassato fino a giungere alla materia romantica e immaginosa delle cose stesse. Ha percepito il significato e la filosofia del vapore e dello slang. Il vapore può essere, se volete, un sudicio sottoprodotto della scienza. Lo slang può essere, se volete, un sudicio sottoprodotto del linguaggio. Ma egli almeno è stato fra i pochi che videro la divina paternità di queste cose, e seppero che dove c’è fumo c’è fuoco: vale a dire, che ovunque sia la più sozza delle cose, ivi è anche la più pura. Soprattutto, egli ha avuto qualcosa da dire, una precisa visione delle cose da esprimere, e ciò significa sempre che un uomo è intrepido e affronta ogni cosa. Poiché, dal momento in cui abbiamo una visione dell’universo, lo possediamo.

Now, the message of Rudyard Kipling, that upon which he has really concentrated, is the only thing worth worrying about in him or in any other man. He has often written bad poetry, like Wordsworth. He has often said silly things, like Plato. He has often given way to mere political hysteria, like Gladstone. But no one can reasonably doubt that he means steadily and sincerely to say something, and the only serious question is, What is that which he has tried to say? Perhaps the best way of stating this fairly will be to begin with that element which has been most insisted by himself and by his opponents—I mean his interest in militarism. But when we are seeking for the real merits of a man it is unwise to go to his enemies, and much more foolish to go to himself.

Now, Mr. Kipling is certainly wrong in his worship of militarism, but his opponents are, generally speaking, quite as wrong as he. The evil of militarism is not that it shows certain men to be fierce and haughty and excessively warlike. The evil of militarism is that it shows most men to be tame and timid and excessively peaceable. The professional soldier gains more and more power as the general courage of a community declines. Thus the Pretorian guard became more and more important in Rome as Rome became more and more luxurious and feeble. The military man gains the civil power in proportion as the civilian loses the military virtues. And as it was in ancient Rome so it is in contemporary Europe. There never was a time when nations were more militarist. There never was a time when men were less brave. All ages and all epics have sung of arms and the man; but we have effected simultaneously the deterioration of the man and the fantastic perfection of the arms. Militarism demonstrated the decadence of Rome, and it demonstrates the decadence of Prussia.

And unconsciously Mr. Kipling has proved this, and proved it admirably. For in so far as his work is earnestly understood the military trade does not by any means emerge as the most important or attractive. He has not written so well about soldiers as he has about railway men or bridge builders, or even journalists. The fact is that what attracts Mr. Kipling to militarism is not the idea of courage, but the idea of discipline. There was far more courage to the square mile in the Middle Ages, when no king had a standing army, but every man had a bow or sword. But the fascination of the standing army upon Mr. Kipling is not courage, which scarcely interests him, but discipline, which is, when all is said and done, his primary theme. The modern army is not a miracle of courage; it has not enough opportunities, owing to the cowardice of everybody else. But it is really a miracle of organization, and that is the truly Kiplingite ideal. Kipling’s subject is not that valour which properly belongs to war, but that interdependence and efficiency which belongs quite as much to engineers, or sailors, or mules, or railway engines. And thus it is that when he writes of engineers, or sailors, or mules, or steam-engines, he writes at his best. The real poetry, the “true romance” which Mr. Kipling has taught, is the romance of the division of labour and the discipline of all the trades. He sings the arts of peace much more accurately than the arts of war. And his main contention is vital and valuable. Every thing is military in the sense that everything depends upon obedience. There is no perfectly epicurean corner; there is no perfectly irresponsible place. Everywhere men have made the way for us with sweat and submission. We may fling ourselves into a hammock in a fit of divine carelessness. But we are glad that the net-maker did not make the hammock in a fit of divine carelessness. We may jump upon a child’s rocking-horse for a joke. But we are glad that the carpenter did not leave the legs of it unglued for a joke. So far from having merely preached that a soldier cleaning his side-arm is to be adored because he is military, Kipling at his best and clearest has preached that the baker baking loaves and the tailor cutting coats is as military as anybody.

Being devoted to this multitudinous vision of duty, Mr. Kipling is naturally a cosmopolitan. He happens to find his examples in the British Empire, but almost any other empire would do as well, or, indeed, any other highly civilized country. That which he admires in the British army he would find even more apparent in the German army; that which he desires in the British police he would find flourishing in the French police. The ideal of discipline is not the whole of life, but it is spread over the whole of the world. And the worship of it tends to confirm in Mr. Kipling a certain note of worldly wisdom, of the experience of the wanderer, which is one of the genuine charms of his best work.

The great gap in his mind is what may be roughly called the lack of patriotism—that is to say, he lacks altogether the faculty of attaching himself to any cause or community finally and tragically; for all finality must be tragic. He admires England, but he does not love her; for we admire things with reasons, but love them without reasons. He admires England because she is strong, not because she is English. There is no harshness in saying this, for, to do him justice, he avows it with his usual picturesque candour. In a very interesting poem, he says that—

“If England was what England seems”

—that is, weak and inefficient; if England were not what (as he believes) she is—that is, powerful and practical—

“How quick we’d chuck ‘er! But she ain’t!”

He admits, that is, that his devotion is the result of a criticism, and this is quite enough to put it in another category altogether from the patriotism of the Boers, whom he hounded down in South Africa. In speaking of the really patriotic peoples, such as the Irish, he has some difficulty in keeping a shrill irritation out of his language. The frame of mind which he really describes with beauty and nobility is the frame of mind of the cosmopolitan man who has seen men and cities.

Ora, il messaggio di Rudyard Kipling, quello su cui egli si è davvero concentrato, è la sola cosa per cui valga la pena affannarsi in lui o in qualunque altro uomo. Egli ha spesso scritto cattiva poesia, come Wordsworth. Ha spesso detto sciocchezze, come Platone. Ha spesso ceduto a una mera isteria politica, come Gladstone. Ma nessuno può ragionevolmente dubitare che egli intenda in modo costante e sincero dire qualcosa, e la sola questione seria è: che cos’è ciò che egli ha tentato di dire? Forse il modo migliore per esporlo con equità sarà cominciare da quell’elemento su cui più hanno insistito lui stesso e i suoi avversari: intendo il suo interesse per il militarismo. Ma quando cerchiamo i veri meriti di un uomo è imprudente rivolgersi ai suoi nemici, e assai più sciocco rivolgersi a lui stesso.

Ora, Mr. Kipling ha certamente torto nella sua adorazione del militarismo, ma i suoi avversari hanno, in generale, torto quanto lui. Il male del militarismo non è che esso mostra certi uomini feroci e altezzosi ed eccessivamente bellicosi. Il male del militarismo è che esso mostra la maggior parte degli uomini docili e timidi ed eccessivamente pacifici. Il soldato di professione acquista sempre più potere man mano che il coraggio generale di una comunità declina. Così la guardia pretoriana divenne sempre più importante in Roma man mano che Roma divenne sempre più lussuosa e fiacca. L’uomo militare acquista il potere civile nella misura in cui il civile perde le virtù militari. E come fu nell’antica Roma così è nell’Europa contemporanea. Non vi fu mai un tempo in cui le nazioni fossero più militariste. Non vi fu mai un tempo in cui gli uomini fossero meno coraggiosi. Tutte le epoche e tutte le epopee hanno cantato le armi e l’uomo; ma noi abbiamo attuato simultaneamente il deterioramento dell’uomo e la fantastica perfezione delle armi. Il militarismo dimostrò la decadenza di Roma, e dimostra la decadenza della Prussia.

E inconsapevolmente Mr. Kipling ha provato questo, e l’ha provato mirabilmente. Poiché, nella misura in cui la sua opera è compresa seriamente, il mestiere militare non emerge affatto come il più importante o attraente. Non ha scritto tanto bene dei soldati quanto ha scritto dei ferrovieri o dei costruttori di ponti, o perfino dei giornalisti. Il fatto è che ciò che attrae Mr. Kipling verso il militarismo non è l’idea del coraggio, ma l’idea della disciplina. Vi era assai più coraggio per miglio quadrato nel Medioevo, quando nessun re aveva un esercito permanente, ma ogni uomo aveva un arco o una spada. Ma il fascino che l’esercito permanente esercita su Mr. Kipling non è il coraggio, che a stento lo interessa, bensì la disciplina, che è, quando tutto è detto e fatto, il suo tema primario. L’esercito moderno non è un miracolo di coraggio; non ha abbastanza occasioni, a causa della viltà di tutti gli altri. Ma è davvero un miracolo di organizzazione, e questo è il vero ideale kiplinghiano. Il soggetto di Kipling non è quel valore che propriamente appartiene alla guerra, ma quell’interdipendenza ed efficienza che appartiene altrettanto agli ingegneri, o ai marinai, o ai muli, o alle locomotive. E così accade che, quando scrive di ingegneri, o di marinai, o di muli, o di macchine a vapore, egli scriva al suo meglio. La vera poesia, il «vero Romanzo» che Mr. Kipling ha insegnato, è il romanzo della divisione del lavoro e della disciplina di tutti i mestieri. Egli canta le arti della pace assai più esattamente delle arti della guerra. E la sua tesi principale è vitale e preziosa. Ogni cosa è militare nel senso che ogni cosa dipende dall’obbedienza. Non vi è angolo perfettamente epicureo; non vi è luogo perfettamente irresponsabile. Ovunque gli uomini hanno aperto la strada per noi con sudore e sottomissione. Possiamo gettarci in un’amaca in un impeto di divina noncuranza. Ma siamo lieti che il fabbricante di reti non abbia fatto l’amaca in un impeto di divina noncuranza. Possiamo saltare sul cavallo a dondolo di un bambino per scherzo. Ma siamo lieti che il falegname non ne abbia lasciato le gambe non incollate per scherzo. Ben lungi dall’aver semplicemente predicato che un soldato che pulisce la sua arma da fianco vada adorato perché è militare, Kipling al suo meglio e più limpido ha predicato che il fornaio che sforna pagnotte e il sarto che taglia abiti sono militari quanto chiunque altro.

Devoto a questa moltitudinaria visione del dovere, Mr. Kipling è naturalmente un cosmopolita. Gli càpita di trovare i suoi esempi nell’Impero britannico, ma quasi qualunque altro impero andrebbe altrettanto bene, o, del resto, qualunque altro paese assai civilizzato. Ciò che egli ammira nell’esercito britannico lo troverebbe ancor più evidente nell’esercito tedesco; ciò che desidera nella polizia britannica lo troverebbe fiorente nella polizia francese. L’ideale della disciplina non è la totalità della vita, ma è diffuso per tutto il mondo. E la sua adorazione tende a confermare in Mr. Kipling una certa nota di saggezza mondana, dell’esperienza del viandante, che è uno dei genuini fascini della sua opera migliore.

La grande lacuna nella sua mente è ciò che si può grossolanamente chiamare la mancanza di patriottismo: vale a dire, gli manca del tutto la facoltà di legarsi a una qualunque causa o comunità in modo definitivo e tragico; poiché ogni definitività dev’essere tragica. Egli ammira l’Inghilterra, ma non l’ama; poiché ammiriamo le cose con ragioni, ma le amiamo senza ragioni. Egli ammira l’Inghilterra perché è forte, non perché è inglese. Non vi è alcuna asprezza nel dire ciò, poiché, per rendergli giustizia, egli lo confessa con la sua consueta pittoresca schiettezza. In una poesia assai interessante, egli dice che…

«Se l’Inghilterra fosse ciò che l’Inghilterra sembra»

…cioè, debole e inefficiente; se l’Inghilterra non fosse ciò che (com’egli crede) è, cioè, potente e pratica…

«Con che sveltezza la molleremmo! Ma non lo è!»

Egli ammette, cioè, che la sua devozione è il risultato di una critica, e questo basta ampiamente a collocarla in una categoria del tutto diversa da quella del patriottismo dei Boeri, che egli braccò nel Sudafrica. Nel parlare dei popoli davvero patriottici, come gli Irlandesi, egli ha qualche difficoltà a tenere una stridula irritazione fuori dal suo linguaggio. Lo stato d’animo che egli davvero descrive con bellezza e nobiltà è lo stato d’animo dell’uomo cosmopolita che ha veduto uomini e città.

“For to admire and for to see, For to be’old this world so wide.”

He is a perfect master of that light melancholy with which a man looks back on having been the citizen of many communities, of that light melancholy with which a man looks back on having been the lover of many women. He is the philanderer of the nations. But a man may have learnt much about women in flirtations, and still be ignorant of first love; a man may have known as many lands as Ulysses, and still be ignorant of patriotism.

Mr. Rudyard Kipling has asked in a celebrated epigram what they can know of England who know England only. It is a far deeper and sharper question to ask, “What can they know of England who know only the world?” for the world does not include England any more than it includes the Church. The moment we care for anything deeply, the world—that is, all the other miscellaneous interests—becomes our enemy. Christians showed it when they talked of keeping one’s self “unspotted from the world;” but lovers talk of it just as much when they talk of the “world well lost.” Astronomically speaking, I understand that England is situated on the world; similarly, I suppose that the Church was a part of the world, and even the lovers inhabitants of that orb. But they all felt a certain truth— the truth that the moment you love anything the world becomes your foe. Thus Mr. Kipling does certainly know the world; he is a man of the world, with all the narrowness that belongs to those imprisoned in that planet. He knows England as an intelligent English gentleman knows Venice. He has been to England a great many times; he has stopped there for long visits. But he does not belong to it, or to any place; and the proof of it is this, that he thinks of England as a place. The moment we are rooted in a place, the place vanishes. We live like a tree with the whole strength of the universe.

The globe-trotter lives in a smaller world than the peasant. He is always breathing an air of locality. London is a place, to be compared to Chicago; Chicago is a place, to be compared to Timbuctoo. But Timbuctoo is not a place, since there, at least, live men who regard it as the universe, and breathe, not an air of locality, but the winds of the world. The man in the saloon steamer has seen all the races of men, and he is thinking of the things that divide men—diet, dress, decorum, rings in the nose as in Africa, or in the ears as in Europe, blue paint among the ancients, or red paint among the modern Britons. The man in the cabbage field has seen nothing at all; but he is thinking of the things that unite men— hunger and babies, and the beauty of women, and the promise or menace of the sky. Mr. Kipling, with all his merits, is the globe-trotter; he has not the patience to become part of anything. So great and genuine a man is not to be accused of a merely cynical cosmopolitanism; still, his cosmopolitanism is his weakness. That weakness is splendidly expressed in one of his finest poems, “The Sestina of the Tramp Royal,” in which a man declares that he can endure anything in the way of hunger or horror, but not permanent presence in one place. In this there is certainly danger. The more dead and dry and dusty a thing is the more it travels about; dust is like this and the thistle-down and the High Commissioner in South Africa. Fertile things are somewhat heavier, like the heavy fruit trees on the pregnant mud of the Nile. In the heated idleness of youth we were all rather inclined to quarrel with the implication of that proverb which says that a rolling stone gathers no moss. We were inclined to ask, “Who wants to gather moss, except silly old ladies?” But for all that we begin to perceive that the proverb is right. The rolling stone rolls echoing from rock to rock; but the rolling stone is dead. The moss is silent because the moss is alive.

The truth is that exploration and enlargement make the world smaller. The telegraph and the steamboat make the world smaller. The telescope makes the world smaller; it is only the microscope that makes it larger. Before long the world will be cloven with a war between the telescopists and the microscopists. The first study large things and live in a small world; the second study small things and live in a large world. It is inspiriting without doubt to whizz in a motor-car round the earth, to feel Arabia as a whirl of sand or China as a flash of rice-fields. But Arabia is not a whirl of sand and China is not a flash of rice-fields. They are ancient civilizations with strange virtues buried like treasures. If we wish to understand them it must not be as tourists or inquirers, it must be with the loyalty of children and the great patience of poets. To conquer these places is to lose them. The man standing in his own kitchen-garden, with fairyland opening at the gate, is the man with large ideas. His mind creates distance; the motor-car stupidly destroys it. Moderns think of the earth as a globe, as something one can easily get round, the spirit of a schoolmistress. This is shown in the odd mistake perpetually made about Cecil Rhodes. His enemies say that he may have had large ideas, but he was a bad man. His friends say that he may have been a bad man, but he certainly had large ideas. The truth is that he was not a man essentially bad, he was a man of much geniality and many good intentions, but a man with singularly small views. There is nothing large about painting the map red; it is an innocent game for children. It is just as easy to think in continents as to think in cobble-stones. The difficulty comes in when we seek to know the substance of either of them. Rhodes’ prophecies about the Boer resistance are an admirable comment on how the “large ideas” prosper when it is not a question of thinking in continents but of understanding a few two-legged men. And under all this vast illusion of the cosmopolitan planet, with its empires and its Reuter’s agency, the real life of man goes on concerned with this tree or that temple, with this harvest or that drinking-song, totally uncomprehended, totally untouched. And it watches from its splendid parochialism, possibly with a smile of amusement, motor-car civilization going its triumphant way, outstripping time, consuming space, seeing all and seeing nothing, roaring on at last to the capture of the solar system, only to find the sun cockney and the stars suburban.

«Per ammirare e per vedere, per contemplar questo mondo così vasto.»

Egli è perfetto maestro di quella lieve malinconia con cui un uomo ripensa all’essere stato cittadino di molte comunità, di quella lieve malinconia con cui un uomo ripensa all’essere stato l’amante di molte donne. Egli è il seduttore delle nazioni. Ma un uomo può aver imparato molto sulle donne nei flirt, e restare tuttavia ignaro del primo amore; un uomo può aver conosciuto tante terre quante Ulisse, e restare tuttavia ignaro del patriottismo.

Mr. Rudyard Kipling ha domandato in un celebre epigramma che cosa possano sapere dell’Inghilterra coloro che conoscono solo l’Inghilterra. È una domanda assai più profonda e acuta domandare: «Che cosa possono sapere dell’Inghilterra coloro che conoscono soltanto il mondo?» poiché il mondo non include l’Inghilterra più di quanto includa la Chiesa. Nell’istante in cui teniamo profondamente a qualcosa, il mondo, cioè, tutti gli altri interessi disparati, diventa nostro nemico. I cristiani lo mostrarono quando parlarono di conservarsi il proprio io «immacolato dal mondo»; ma gli innamorati ne parlano altrettanto quando parlano del «mondo ben perduto». Astronomicamente parlando, intendo che l’Inghilterra è situata sul mondo; similmente, suppongo che la Chiesa fosse una parte del mondo, e persino gli innamorati abitanti di quell’orbe. Ma tutti sentirono una certa verità: la verità che nell’istante in cui ami qualcosa il mondo diventa tuo nemico. Così Mr. Kipling conosce certamente il mondo; è un uomo di mondo, con tutta la ristrettezza che appartiene a coloro che sono imprigionati in quel pianeta. Egli conosce l’Inghilterra come un intelligente gentiluomo inglese conosce Venezia. Vi è stato molte volte; vi si è fermato per lunghe visite. Ma egli non le appartiene, né appartiene ad alcun luogo; e la prova di ciò è questa, che egli pensa all’Inghilterra come a un luogo. Nell’istante in cui siamo radicati in un luogo, il luogo svanisce. Viviamo come un albero con l’intera forza dell’universo.

Il giramondo vive in un mondo più piccolo del contadino. Egli respira sempre un’aria di località. Londra è un luogo, da paragonare a Chicago; Chicago è un luogo, da paragonare a Timbuctù. Ma Timbuctù non è un luogo, poiché là, almeno, vivono uomini che la considerano l’universo, e respirano, non un’aria di località, bensì i venti del mondo. L’uomo sul piroscafo di lusso ha veduto tutte le razze degli uomini, e pensa alle cose che dividono gli uomini: dieta, abito, decoro, anelli al naso come in Africa, o alle orecchie come in Europa, tinta azzurra fra gli antichi, o tinta rossa fra i moderni Britanni. L’uomo nel campo di cavoli non ha veduto proprio nulla; ma pensa alle cose che uniscono gli uomini: la fame e i bambini, e la bellezza delle donne, e la promessa o la minaccia del cielo. Mr. Kipling, con tutti i suoi meriti, è il giramondo; non ha la pazienza di diventar parte di alcunché. Un uomo tanto grande e genuino non va accusato di un cosmopolitismo meramente cinico; nondimeno, il suo cosmopolitismo è la sua debolezza. Quella debolezza è splendidamente espressa in uno dei suoi più bei poemi, «The Sestina of the Tramp Royal», in cui un uomo dichiara di poter sopportare qualunque cosa in fatto di fame o d’orrore, ma non la permanente presenza in un solo luogo. In ciò vi è certamente un pericolo. Più una cosa è morta e secca e polverosa, più viaggia in giro; la polvere è così, e il cardo lanuginoso, e l’Alto Commissario nel Sudafrica. Le cose feconde sono alquanto più pesanti, come i pesanti alberi da frutto sul fango gravido del Nilo. Nell’accalorata pigrizia della giovinezza eravamo tutti piuttosto inclini a bisticciare con l’implicazione di quel proverbio che dice che una pietra che rotola non fa muschio. Eravamo inclini a domandare: «Chi vuol fare muschio, se non le sciocche vecchie signore?» Ma con tutto ciò cominciamo ad accorgerci che il proverbio ha ragione. La pietra che rotola rotola echeggiando di roccia in roccia; ma la pietra che rotola è morta. Il muschio è silenzioso perché il muschio è vivo.

La verità è che l’esplorazione e l’ingrandimento rimpiccioliscono il mondo. Il telegrafo e il battello a vapore rimpiccioliscono il mondo. Il telescopio rimpicciolisce il mondo; è soltanto il microscopio a ingrandirlo. Fra non molto il mondo sarà spaccato da una guerra tra i telescopisti e i microscopisti. I primi studiano le cose grandi e vivono in un mondo piccolo; i secondi studiano le cose piccole e vivono in un mondo grande. È senza dubbio esaltante sfrecciare in automobile intorno alla terra, sentire l’Arabia come un vortice di sabbia o la Cina come un lampo di risaie. Ma l’Arabia non è un vortice di sabbia e la Cina non è un lampo di risaie. Sono antiche civiltà con strane virtù sepolte come tesori. Se vogliamo comprenderle non dev’essere da turisti o da inquirenti, dev’essere con la lealtà dei bambini e la grande pazienza dei poeti. Conquistare questi luoghi è perderli. L’uomo che sta nel proprio orto di casa, col paese delle fate che si apre al cancello, è l’uomo dalle grandi idee. La sua mente crea la distanza; l’automobile stupidamente la distrugge. I moderni pensano alla terra come a un globo, come a qualcosa attorno a cui si può facilmente girare, lo spirito di una maestrina. Ciò si mostra nello strano errore perpetuamente commesso a proposito di Cecil Rhodes. I suoi nemici dicono che egli poteva anche avere grandi idee, ma era un uomo malvagio. I suoi amici dicono che poteva anche essere un uomo malvagio, ma certamente aveva grandi idee. La verità è che egli non era un uomo essenzialmente malvagio, era un uomo di molta gioviosità e di molte buone intenzioni, ma un uomo dalle vedute singolarmente piccole. Non vi è nulla di grande nel dipingere di rosso la carta geografica; è un innocente gioco per bambini. È altrettanto facile pensare in continenti quanto pensare in ciottoli. La difficoltà subentra quando cerchiamo di conoscere la sostanza dell’uno o degli altri. Le profezie di Rhodes sulla resistenza boera sono un mirabile commento su come prosperino le «grandi idee» quando non si tratta di pensare in continenti ma di comprendere un pugno di uomini a due gambe. E sotto tutta questa vasta illusione del pianeta cosmopolita, con i suoi imperi e la sua agenzia Reuter, la vita reale dell’uomo prosegue occupata con questo albero o quel tempio, con questo raccolto o quel canto conviviale, del tutto incompresa, del tutto intatta. Ed essa osserva dal suo splendido parrocchialismo, forse con un sorriso di divertimento, la civiltà dell’automobile che procede per la sua trionfante via, distanziando il tempo, divorando lo spazio, vedendo tutto e non vedendo nulla, rombando infine fino alla conquista del sistema solare, solo per trovare il sole plebeo e le stelle suburbane.

IV. Mr. Bernard Shaw

In the glad old days, before the rise of modern morbidities, when genial old Ibsen filled the world with wholesome joy, and the kindly tales of the forgotten Emile Zola kept our firesides merry and pure, it used to be thought a disadvantage to be misunderstood. It may be doubted whether it is always or even generally a disadvantage. The man who is misunderstood has always this advantage over his enemies, that they do not know his weak point or his plan of campaign. They go out against a bird with nets and against a fish with arrows. There are several modern examples of this situation. Mr. Chamberlain, for instance, is a very good one. He constantly eludes or vanquishes his opponents because his real powers and deficiencies are quite different to those with which he is credited, both by friends and foes. His friends depict him as a strenuous man of action; his opponents depict him as a coarse man of business; when, as a fact, he is neither one nor the other, but an admirable romantic orator and romantic actor. He has one power which is the soul of melodrama—the power of pretending, even when backed by a huge majority, that he has his back to the wall. For all mobs are so far chivalrous that their heroes must make some show of misfortune—that sort of hypocrisy is the homage that strength pays to weakness. He talks foolishly and yet very finely about his own city that has never deserted him. He wears a flaming and fantastic flower, like a decadent minor poet. As for his bluffness and toughness and appeals to common sense, all that is, of course, simply the first trick of rhetoric. He fronts his audiences with the venerable affectation of Mark Antony

“I am no orator, as Brutus is; But as you know me all, a plain blunt man.”

It is the whole difference between the aim of the orator and the aim of any other artist, such as the poet or the sculptor. The aim of the sculptor is to convince us that he is a sculptor; the aim of the orator, is to convince us that he is not an orator. Once let Mr. Chamberlain be mistaken for a practical man, and his game is won. He has only to compose a theme on empire, and people will say that these plain men say great things on great occasions. He has only to drift in the large loose notions common to all artists of the second rank, and people will say that business men have the biggest ideals after all. All his schemes have ended in smoke; he has touched nothing that he did not confuse. About his figure there is a Celtic pathos; like the Gaels in Matthew Arnold’s quotation, “he went forth to battle, but he always fell.” He is a mountain of proposals, a mountain of failures; but still a mountain. And a mountain is always romantic.

There is another man in the modern world who might be called the antithesis of Mr. Chamberlain in every point, who is also a standing monument of the advantage of being misunderstood. Mr. Bernard Shaw is always represented by those who disagree with him, and, I fear, also (if such exist) by those who agree with him, as a capering humorist, a dazzling acrobat, a quick-change artist. It is said that he cannot be taken seriously, that he will defend anything or attack anything, that he will do anything to startle and amuse. All this is not only untrue, but it is, glaringly, the opposite of the truth; it is as wild as to say that Dickens had not the boisterous masculinity of Jane Austen. The whole force and triumph of Mr. Bernard Shaw lie in the fact that he is a thoroughly consistent man. So far from his power consisting in jumping through hoops or standing on his head, his power consists in holding his own fortress night and day. He puts the Shaw test rapidly and rigorously to everything that happens in heaven or earth. His standard never varies. The thing which weak-minded revolutionists and weak-minded Conservatives really hate (and fear) in him, is exactly this, that his scales, such as they are, are held even, and that his law, such as it is, is justly enforced. You may attack his principles, as I do; but I do not know of any instance in which you can attack their application. If he dislikes lawlessness, he dislikes the lawlessness of Socialists as much as that of Individualists. If he dislikes the fever of patriotism, he dislikes it in Boers and Irishmen as well as in Englishmen. If he dislikes the vows and bonds of marriage, he dislikes still more the fiercer bonds and wilder vows that are made by lawless love. If he laughs at the authority of priests, he laughs louder at the pomposity of men of science. If he condemns the irresponsibility of faith, he condemns with a sane consistency the equal irresponsibility of art. He has pleased all the bohemians by saying that women are equal to men; but he has infuriated them by suggesting that men are equal to women. He is almost mechanically just; he has something of the terrible quality of a machine. The man who is really wild and whirling, the man who is really fantastic and incalculable, is not Mr. Shaw, but the average Cabinet Minister. It is Sir Michael Hicks-Beach who jumps through hoops. It is Sir Henry Fowler who stands on his head. The solid and respectable statesman of that type does really leap from position to position; he is really ready to defend anything or nothing; he is really not to be taken seriously. I know perfectly well what Mr. Bernard Shaw will be saying thirty years hence; he will be saying what he has always said. If thirty years hence I meet Mr. Shaw, a reverent being with a silver beard sweeping the earth, and say to him, “One can never, of course, make a verbal attack upon a lady,” the patriarch will lift his aged hand and fell me to the earth. We know, I say, what Mr. Shaw will be, saying thirty years hence. But is there any one so darkly read in stars and oracles that he will dare to predict what Mr. Asquith will be saying thirty years hence?

IV. Il signor Bernard Shaw

Nei bei tempi andati, prima che sorgessero le morbosità moderne, quando il buon vecchio Ibsen riempiva il mondo di gioia salubre, e i garbati racconti del dimenticato Emile Zola tenevano allegri e puri i nostri focolari, si soleva ritenere uno svantaggio l’essere frainteso. È lecito dubitare che sia sempre, o anche solo per lo più, uno svantaggio. L’uomo che viene frainteso ha sempre questo vantaggio sui suoi nemici: che essi non conoscono il suo punto debole né il suo piano di battaglia. Vanno contro un uccello con le reti e contro un pesce con le frecce. Di questa situazione vi sono parecchi esempi moderni. Il signor Chamberlain, per esempio, ne è uno assai buono. Egli elude o vince di continuo i suoi avversari perché le sue reali facoltà e mancanze sono del tutto diverse da quelle che gli si attribuiscono, tanto dagli amici quanto dai nemici. I suoi amici lo dipingono come un uomo d’azione infaticabile; i suoi avversari lo dipingono come un rozzo uomo d’affari; quando invece, di fatto, non è né l’uno né l’altro, ma un mirabile oratore romantico e romantico attore. Egli possiede una facoltà che è l’anima del melodramma: la facoltà di fingere, anche quando lo sorregge una schiacciante maggioranza, di avere le spalle al muro. Ché tutte le folle sono cavalleresche almeno in questo, che i loro eroi debbono fare qualche mostra di sventura: quella sorta di ipocrisia è l’omaggio che la forza rende alla debolezza. Egli parla scioccamente eppure assai nobilmente della propria città che non l’ha mai abbandonato. Porta un fiore fiammeggiante e stravagante, come un decadente poeta minore. Quanto alla sua schiettezza, alla sua durezza e ai suoi appelli al buon senso, tutto ciò, s’intende, non è che il primo trucco della retorica. Egli affronta il suo pubblico con la venerabile affettazione di Mark Antony:

«Non sono un oratore, come lo è Brutus; ma, come tutti mi conoscete, un uomo schietto e rude.»

Sta tutta qui la differenza tra il fine dell’oratore e il fine di ogni altro artista, quale il poeta o lo scultore. Il fine dello scultore è di convincerci che egli è uno scultore; il fine dell’oratore è di convincerci che egli non è un oratore. Basta che il signor Chamberlain venga scambiato per un uomo pratico, e la partita è vinta. Non ha che da comporre un tema sull’impero, e la gente dirà che questi uomini schietti sanno dire grandi cose nelle grandi occasioni. Non ha che da lasciarsi andare alle vaste e vaghe nozioni comuni a tutti gli artisti di secondo rango, e la gente dirà che, in fin dei conti, sono gli uomini d’affari ad avere gli ideali più alti. Tutti i suoi disegni sono finiti in fumo; non ha toccato nulla che non abbia confuso. Attorno alla sua figura vi è un pathos celtico; come i Gaeli nella citazione di Matthew Arnold, «egli mosse a battaglia, ma sempre cadde». È una montagna di proposte, una montagna di fallimenti; ma pur sempre una montagna. E una montagna è sempre romantica.

Vi è nel mondo moderno un altro uomo che potrebbe dirsi l’antitesi del signor Chamberlain in ogni punto, e che è del pari un monumento vivente del vantaggio di essere frainteso. Il signor Bernard Shaw viene sempre rappresentato da coloro che dissentono da lui, e, temo, anche (se pure ne esistono) da coloro che con lui concordano, come un umorista saltellante, un acrobata abbagliante, un artista del trasformismo. Si dice che non lo si può prendere sul serio, che difenderà qualunque cosa o attaccherà qualunque cosa, che farà di tutto per stupire e divertire. Tutto ciò non solo è falso, ma è, in modo lampante, l’opposto della verità; è insensato quanto dire che Dickens non aveva la fragorosa mascolinità di Jane Austen. Tutta la forza e il trionfo del signor Bernard Shaw stanno nel fatto che egli è un uomo perfettamente coerente. Tanto poco la sua potenza consiste nel saltare attraverso i cerchi o nel reggersi sulla testa, che essa consiste invece nel tenere la propria roccaforte notte e giorno. Egli applica il criterio di Shaw rapidamente e rigorosamente a tutto ciò che accade in cielo o in terra. Il suo metro non varia mai. Ciò che i rivoluzionari deboli di mente e i conservatori deboli di mente realmente odiano (e temono) in lui è appunto questo, che la sua bilancia, quale essa sia, è tenuta in equilibrio, e che la sua legge, quale essa sia, viene applicata con giustizia. Si possono attaccare i suoi princìpi, come faccio io; ma non conosco alcun caso in cui si possa attaccarne l’applicazione. Se detesta l’illegalità, detesta l’illegalità dei socialisti quanto quella degli individualisti. Se detesta la febbre del patriottismo, la detesta nei boeri e negli irlandesi come pure negli inglesi. Se detesta i voti e i vincoli del matrimonio, detesta ancora di più i vincoli più feroci e i voti più selvaggi che vengono stretti dall’amore senza legge. Se ride dell’autorità dei preti, ride più forte della pomposità degli uomini di scienza. Se condanna l’irresponsabilità della fede, condanna con sana coerenza la pari irresponsabilità dell’arte. Ha compiaciuto tutti i bohémien col dire che le donne sono uguali agli uomini; ma li ha fatti infuriare col suggerire che gli uomini sono uguali alle donne. È giusto quasi meccanicamente; ha qualcosa della terribile qualità di una macchina. L’uomo veramente sregolato e vorticoso, l’uomo veramente fantastico e incalcolabile, non è il signor Shaw, ma il ministro medio del Gabinetto. È Sir Michael Hicks-Beach a saltare attraverso i cerchi. È Sir Henry Fowler a reggersi sulla testa. Il solido e rispettabile statista di quel tipo salta davvero di posizione in posizione; è davvero pronto a difendere tutto o nulla; davvero non lo si può prendere sul serio. So perfettamente bene che cosa il signor Bernard Shaw andrà dicendo fra trent’anni: andrà dicendo ciò che ha sempre detto. Se fra trent’anni incontrassi il signor Shaw, venerando essere dalla barba d’argento che spazza la terra, e gli dicessi: «Non si può mai, s’intende, muovere un attacco verbale a una signora», il patriarca leverebbe la sua mano canuta e mi stenderebbe al suolo. Sappiamo, dico, che cosa il signor Shaw andrà dicendo fra trent’anni. Ma c’è forse qualcuno tanto oscuramente versato negli astri e negli oracoli da osar predire che cosa il signor Asquith andrà dicendo fra trent’anni?

The truth is, that it is quite an error to suppose that absence of definite convictions gives the mind freedom and agility. A man who believes something is ready and witty, because he has all his weapons about him. He can apply his test in an instant. The man engaged in conflict with a man like Mr. Bernard Shaw may fancy he has ten faces; similarly a man engaged against a brilliant duellist may fancy that the sword of his foe has turned to ten swords in his hand. But this is not really because the man is playing with ten swords, it is because he is aiming very straight with one. Moreover, a man with a definite belief always appears bizarre, because he does not change with the world; he has climbed into a fixed star, and the earth whizzes below him like a zoetrope. Millions of mild black-coated men call themselves sane and sensible merely because they always catch the fashionable insanity, because they are hurried into madness after madness by the maelstrom of the world.

People accuse Mr. Shaw and many much sillier persons of “proving that black is white.” But they never ask whether the current colour-language is always correct. Ordinary sensible phraseology sometimes calls black white, it certainly calls yellow white and green white and reddish-brown white. We call wine “white wine” which is as yellow as a Blue-coat boy’s legs. We call grapes “white grapes” which are manifestly pale green. We give to the European, whose complexion is a sort of pink drab, the horrible title of a “white man”—a picture more blood-curdling than any spectre in Poe.

Now, it is undoubtedly true that if a man asked a waiter in a restaurant for a bottle of yellow wine and some greenish-yellow grapes, the waiter would think him mad. It is undoubtedly true that if a Government official, reporting on the Europeans in Burma, said, “There are only two thousand pinkish men here” he would be accused of cracking jokes, and kicked out of his post. But it is equally obvious that both men would have come to grief through telling the strict truth. That too truthful man in the restaurant; that too truthful man in Burma, is Mr. Bernard Shaw. He appears eccentric and grotesque because he will not accept the general belief that white is yellow. He has based all his brilliancy and solidity upon the hackneyed, but yet forgotten, fact that truth is stranger than fiction. Truth, of course, must of necessity be stranger than fiction, for we have made fiction to suit ourselves.

So much then a reasonable appreciation will find in Mr. Shaw to be bracing and excellent. He claims to see things as they are; and some things, at any rate, he does see as they are, which the whole of our civilization does not see at all. But in Mr. Shaw’s realism there is something lacking, and that thing which is lacking is serious.

Mr. Shaw’s old and recognized philosophy was that powerfully presented in “The Quintessence of Ibsenism.” It was, in brief, that conservative ideals were bad, not because they were conservative, but because they were ideals. Every ideal prevented men from judging justly the particular case; every moral generalization oppressed the individual; the golden rule was there was no golden rule. And the objection to this is simply that it pretends to free men, but really restrains them from doing the only thing that men want to do. What is the good of telling a community that it has every liberty except the liberty to make laws? The liberty to make laws is what constitutes a free people. And what is the good of telling a man (or a philosopher) that he has every liberty except the liberty to make generalizations. Making generalizations is what makes him a man. In short, when Mr. Shaw forbids men to have strict moral ideals, he is acting like one who should forbid them to have children. The saying that “the golden rule is that there is no golden rule,” can, indeed, be simply answered by being turned round. That there is no golden rule is itself a golden rule, or rather it is much worse than a golden rule. It is an iron rule; a fetter on the first movement of a man.

But the sensation connected with Mr. Shaw in recent years has been his sudden development of the religion of the Superman. He who had to all appearance mocked at the faiths in the forgotten past discovered a new god in the unimaginable future. He who had laid all the blame on ideals set up the most impossible of all ideals, the ideal of a new creature. But the truth, nevertheless, is that any one who knows Mr. Shaw’s mind adequately, and admires it properly, must have guessed all this long ago.

For the truth is that Mr. Shaw has never seen things as they really are. If he had he would have fallen on his knees before them. He has always had a secret ideal that has withered all the things of this world. He has all the time been silently comparing humanity with something that was not human, with a monster from Mars, with the Wise Man of the Stoics, with the Economic Man of the Fabians, with Julius Caesar, with Siegfried, with the Superman. Now, to have this inner and merciless standard may be a very good thing, or a very bad one, it may be excellent or unfortunate, but it is not seeing things as they are. It is not seeing things as they are to think first of a Briareus with a hundred hands, and then call every man a cripple for only having two. It is not seeing things as they are to start with a vision of Argus with his hundred eyes, and then jeer at every man with two eyes as if he had only one. And it is not seeing things as they are to imagine a demigod of infinite mental clarity, who may or may not appear in the latter days of the earth, and then to see all men as idiots. And this is what Mr. Shaw has always in some degree done. When we really see men as they are, we do not criticise, but worship; and very rightly. For a monster with mysterious eyes and miraculous thumbs, with strange dreams in his skull, and a queer tenderness for this place or that baby, is truly a wonderful and unnerving matter. It is only the quite arbitrary and priggish habit of comparison with something else which makes it possible to be at our ease in front of him. A sentiment of superiority keeps us cool and practical; the mere facts would make our knees knock under as with religious fear. It is the fact that every instant of conscious life is an unimaginable prodigy. It is the fact that every face in the street has the incredible unexpectedness of a fairy-tale. The thing which prevents a man from realizing this is not any clear-sightedness or experience, it is simply a habit of pedantic and fastidious comparisons between one thing and another. Mr. Shaw, on the practical side perhaps the most humane man alive, is in this sense inhumane. He has even been infected to some extent with the primary intellectual weakness of his new master, Nietzsche, the strange notion that the greater and stronger a man was the more he would despise other things. The greater and stronger a man is the more he would be inclined to prostrate himself before a periwinkle. That Mr. Shaw keeps a lifted head and a contemptuous face before the colossal panorama of empires and civilizations, this does not in itself convince one that he sees things as they are. I should be most effectively convinced that he did if I found him staring with religious astonishment at his own feet. “What are those two beautiful and industrious beings,” I can imagine him murmuring to himself, “whom I see everywhere, serving me I know not why? What fairy godmother bade them come trotting out of elfland when I was born? What god of the borderland, what barbaric god of legs, must I propitiate with fire and wine, lest they run away with me?”

La verità è che è un grave errore supporre che l’assenza di convinzioni definite dia alla mente libertà e agilità. Un uomo che crede in qualcosa è pronto e arguto, perché ha tutte le sue armi a portata di mano. Può applicare il suo criterio in un istante. Chi è impegnato in un conflitto con un uomo come il signor Bernard Shaw può immaginare che quegli abbia dieci facce; allo stesso modo chi combatte contro un brillante duellante può immaginare che la spada del suo avversario si sia mutata in dieci spade nella sua mano. Ma ciò non avviene realmente perché l’uomo giochi con dieci spade, bensì perché mira dritto con una sola. Inoltre, un uomo dalla fede definita appare sempre bizzarro, perché non muta col mondo; è salito su una stella fissa, e la terra gli ronza sotto come uno zootropio. Milioni di miti uomini in nero si dicono sani e assennati solo perché acchiappano sempre la follia alla moda, perché il maelstrom del mondo li trascina di follia in follia.

La gente accusa il signor Shaw e molte persone assai più sciocche di lui di «dimostrare che il nero è bianco». Ma non si chiede mai se il linguaggio corrente dei colori sia sempre corretto. La comune e assennata fraseologia talvolta chiama bianco il nero, chiama certamente bianco il giallo e bianco il verde e bianco il bruno-rossastro. Chiamiamo «vino bianco» un vino che è giallo come le gambe di un ragazzo del Blue-coat. Chiamiamo «uva bianca» un’uva che è manifestamente d’un verde pallido. Diamo all’europeo, la cui carnagione è una specie di rosa smorto, l’orribile titolo di «uomo bianco»: un’immagine più agghiacciante il sangue di qualunque spettro di Poe.

Ora, è indubbiamente vero che se un uomo chiedesse a un cameriere, in un ristorante, una bottiglia di vino giallo e dell’uva verdognola, il cameriere lo crederebbe pazzo. È indubbiamente vero che se un funzionario del Governo, riferendo sugli europei in Birmania, dicesse: «Qui vi sono soltanto duemila uomini rosati», sarebbe accusato di fare lo spiritoso e cacciato dal suo posto. Ma è del pari ovvio che entrambi gli uomini si sarebbero cacciati nei guai per aver detto la stretta verità. Quell’uomo troppo veritiero nel ristorante, quell’uomo troppo veritiero in Birmania, è il signor Bernard Shaw. Egli appare eccentrico e grottesco perché non vuole accettare la credenza generale secondo cui il bianco è giallo. Ha fondato tutta la sua brillantezza e solidità sul trito, e tuttavia dimenticato, fatto che la verità è più strana della finzione. La verità, s’intende, dev’essere per necessità più strana della finzione, giacché la finzione l’abbiamo fatta a nostra misura.

Fin qui, dunque, un ragionevole apprezzamento troverà nel signor Shaw di che ritemprarsi ed esaltarsi. Egli pretende di vedere le cose come sono; e alcune cose, in ogni caso, le vede davvero come sono, cose che l’intera nostra civiltà non vede affatto. Ma nel realismo del signor Shaw manca qualcosa, e la cosa che manca è grave.

La vecchia e riconosciuta filosofia del signor Shaw era quella potentemente esposta ne «La quintessenza dell’ibsenismo». Essa era, in breve, che gli ideali conservatori erano cattivi, non perché conservatori, ma perché ideali. Ogni ideale impediva agli uomini di giudicare rettamente il caso particolare; ogni generalizzazione morale opprimeva l’individuo; la regola aurea era che non v’era regola aurea. E l’obiezione a ciò è semplicemente che essa finge di liberare gli uomini, ma in realtà impedisce loro di fare l’unica cosa che gli uomini desiderano fare. Che vantaggio c’è a dire a una comunità che ha ogni libertà tranne la libertà di fare leggi? La libertà di fare leggi è ciò che costituisce un popolo libero. E che vantaggio c’è a dire a un uomo (o a un filosofo) che ha ogni libertà tranne la libertà di fare generalizzazioni? Fare generalizzazioni è ciò che lo rende uomo. In breve, quando il signor Shaw proibisce agli uomini di avere rigorosi ideali morali, agisce come chi proibisse loro di avere figli. Il detto secondo cui «la regola aurea è che non v’è regola aurea» può, in verità, essere semplicemente confutato rovesciandolo. Che non vi sia regola aurea è esso stesso una regola aurea, o piuttosto è qualcosa di assai peggiore d’una regola aurea. È una regola di ferro; una catena posta al primo movimento di un uomo.

Ma la sensazione connessa negli ultimi anni al signor Shaw è stata il suo improvviso sviluppo della religione del Superuomo. Egli, che a ogni apparenza aveva deriso le fedi del dimenticato passato, ha scoperto un nuovo dio nell’inimmaginabile futuro. Egli, che aveva addossato ogni colpa agli ideali, ha eretto il più impossibile di tutti gli ideali, l’ideale di una nuova creatura. Ma la verità, nondimeno, è che chiunque conosca adeguatamente la mente del signor Shaw, e la ammiri come si conviene, doveva aver indovinato tutto ciò già da tempo.

Ché la verità è che il signor Shaw non ha mai visto le cose come realmente sono. Se le avesse viste, sarebbe caduto in ginocchio dinanzi ad esse. Ha sempre avuto un ideale segreto che ha fatto avvizzire tutte le cose di questo mondo. Per tutto il tempo è andato tacitamente paragonando l’umanità con qualcosa che umano non era: con un mostro venuto da Marte, con il Saggio degli stoici, con l’Uomo Economico dei fabiani, con Julius Caesar, con Sigfrido, con il Superuomo. Ora, avere questo intimo e spietato metro può essere un’ottima cosa, o una pessima, può essere eccellente o infelice, ma non è vedere le cose come sono. Non è vedere le cose come sono pensare dapprima a un Briareo dalle cento braccia, e poi chiamare storpio ogni uomo per il solo fatto di averne due. Non è vedere le cose come sono partire da una visione di Argo dai cento occhi, e poi schernire ogni uomo dai due occhi come se ne avesse uno solo. E non è vedere le cose come sono immaginare un semidio d’infinita chiarezza mentale, che potrà o non potrà apparire negli ultimi giorni della terra, e poi vedere tutti gli uomini come idioti. Ed è questo che il signor Shaw ha sempre fatto in qualche misura. Quando vediamo davvero gli uomini come sono, non li critichiamo, ma li adoriamo; e a ragione. Ché un mostro dagli occhi misteriosi e dai pollici miracolosi, con strani sogni nel cranio e una bizzarra tenerezza per questo luogo o per quel bambino, è davvero cosa mirabile e sconvolgente. È soltanto l’abitudine del tutto arbitraria e pedantesca del paragone con qualcos’altro che rende possibile starsene a proprio agio dinanzi a lui. Un senso di superiorità ci mantiene freddi e pratici; i puri fatti ci farebbero tremare le ginocchia come per un religioso timore. È un fatto che ogni istante di vita cosciente è un prodigio inimmaginabile. È un fatto che ogni volto per strada ha l’incredibile imprevedibilità di una fiaba. Ciò che impedisce a un uomo di rendersene conto non è una qualche perspicacia o esperienza, è semplicemente l’abitudine a paragoni pedanteschi e schizzinosi tra una cosa e l’altra. Il signor Shaw, sul piano pratico forse l’uomo più umano che viva, è in questo senso disumano. È stato persino in qualche misura contagiato dalla debolezza intellettuale primaria del suo nuovo maestro, Nietzsche: la strana idea che quanto più un uomo fosse grande e forte, tanto più disprezzerebbe le altre cose. Quanto più un uomo è grande e forte, tanto più sarebbe incline a prostrarsi dinanzi a una lumachina di mare. Che il signor Shaw tenga alta la testa e il volto sprezzante dinanzi al colossale panorama degli imperi e delle civiltà, ciò non convince di per sé che egli veda le cose come sono. Sarei convinto nel modo più efficace che le vede se lo trovassi a fissare con religioso stupore i propri piedi. «Che cosa sono quei due esseri belli e industriosi», posso immaginarlo mormorare tra sé, «che vedo dappertutto, e che mi servono non so perché? Quale fata madrina impose loro di venir trotterellando fuori dal paese degli elfi quando io nacqui? Quale dio del confine, quale barbaro dio delle gambe, debbo propiziarmi con fuoco e vino, per timore che fuggano portandomi via?»

The truth is, that all genuine appreciation rests on a certain mystery of humility and almost of darkness. The man who said, “Blessed is he that expecteth nothing, for he shall not be disappointed,” put the eulogy quite inadequately and even falsely. The truth “Blessed is he that expecteth nothing, for he shall be gloriously surprised.” The man who expects nothing sees redder roses than common men can see, and greener grass, and a more startling sun. Blessed is he that expecteth nothing, for he shall possess the cities and the mountains; blessed is the meek, for he shall inherit the earth. Until we realize that things might not be we cannot realize that things are. Until we see the background of darkness we cannot admire the light as a single and created thing. As soon as we have seen that darkness, all light is lightening, sudden, blinding, and divine. Until we picture nonentity we underrate the victory of God, and can realize none of the trophies of His ancient war. It is one of the million wild jests of truth that we know nothing until we know nothing.

Now this is, I say deliberately, the only defect in the greatness of Mr. Shaw, the only answer to his claim to be a great man, that he is not easily pleased. He is an almost solitary exception to the general and essential maxim, that little things please great minds. And from this absence of that most uproarious of all things, humility, comes incidentally the peculiar insistence on the Superman. After belabouring a great many people for a great many years for being unprogressive, Mr. Shaw has discovered, with characteristic sense, that it is very doubtful whether any existing human being with two legs can be progressive at all. Having come to doubt whether humanity can be combined with progress, most people, easily pleased, would have elected to abandon progress and remain with humanity. Mr. Shaw, not being easily pleased, decides to throw over humanity with all its limitations and go in for progress for its own sake. If man, as we know him, is incapable of the philosophy of progress, Mr. Shaw asks, not for a new kind of philosophy, but for a new kind of man. It is rather as if a nurse had tried a rather bitter food for some years on a baby, and on discovering that it was not suitable, should not throw away the food and ask for a new food, but throw the baby out of window, and ask for a new baby. Mr. Shaw cannot understand that the thing which is valuable and lovable in our eyes is man—the old beer-drinking, creed-making, fighting, failing, sensual, respectable man. And the things that have been founded on this creature immortally remain; the things that have been founded on the fancy of the Superman have died with the dying civilizations which alone have given them birth. When Christ at a symbolic moment was establishing His great society, He chose for its comer-stone neither the brilliant Paul nor the mystic John, but a shuffler, a snob, a coward—in a word, a man. And upon this rock He has built His Church, and the gates of Hell have not prevailed against it. All the empires and the kingdoms have failed, because of this inherent and continual weakness, that they were founded by strong men and upon strong men. But this one thing, the historic Christian Church, was founded on a weak man, and for that reason it is indestructible. For no chain is stronger than its weakest link.

La verità è che ogni genuino apprezzamento poggia su un certo mistero di umiltà e quasi di oscurità. L’uomo che disse: «Beato colui che nulla si aspetta, ché non sarà deluso», formulò l’elogio in modo del tutto inadeguato e persino falso. La verità è: «Beato colui che nulla si aspetta, ché sarà gloriosamente sorpreso». Chi nulla si aspetta vede rose più rosse di quante ne possano vedere gli uomini comuni, ed erba più verde, e un sole più sorprendente. Beato colui che nulla si aspetta, ché possederà le città e le montagne; beato il mite, ché erediterà la terra. Finché non ci rendiamo conto che le cose potrebbero non essere, non possiamo renderci conto che le cose sono. Finché non vediamo lo sfondo di tenebra, non possiamo ammirare la luce come cosa unica e creata. Non appena abbiamo visto quella tenebra, ogni luce è folgorazione, improvvisa, accecante e divina. Finché non ci raffiguriamo il nulla, sottovalutiamo la vittoria di Dio, e non possiamo renderci conto di alcuno dei trofei della Sua antica guerra. È uno dei milioni di selvaggi scherzi della verità che nulla sappiamo finché nulla sappiamo.

Ora questo è, lo dico deliberatamente, l’unico difetto nella grandezza del signor Shaw, l’unica risposta alla sua pretesa di essere un grande uomo: che egli non si accontenta facilmente. È un’eccezione quasi solitaria alla massima generale ed essenziale secondo cui le piccole cose piacciono alle grandi menti. E da questa assenza della più clamorosa di tutte le cose, l’umiltà, deriva incidentalmente la sua peculiare insistenza sul Superuomo. Dopo aver bastonato per molti anni moltissime persone perché poco progressiste, il signor Shaw ha scoperto, con caratteristico buon senso, che è assai dubbio che un qualsiasi essere umano esistente, munito di due gambe, possa essere progressista in alcun modo. Giunta a dubitare che l’umanità possa combinarsi col progresso, la maggior parte della gente, facile ad accontentarsi, avrebbe scelto di abbandonare il progresso e restare con l’umanità. Il signor Shaw, non essendo facile ad accontentarsi, decide di gettare a mare l’umanità con tutti i suoi limiti e di puntare sul progresso per amore del progresso stesso. Se l’uomo, quale lo conosciamo, è incapace della filosofia del progresso, il signor Shaw chiede non un nuovo genere di filosofia, ma un nuovo genere di uomo. È press’a poco come se una balia avesse provato per alcuni anni un cibo alquanto amaro su un neonato, e, scoprendo che non era adatto, invece di buttar via il cibo e chiedere un cibo nuovo, buttasse il neonato dalla finestra e chiedesse un neonato nuovo. Il signor Shaw non riesce a capire che la cosa preziosa e amabile ai nostri occhi è l’uomo: il vecchio uomo bevitore di birra, fabbricatore di credi, battagliero, fallace, sensuale, rispettabile. E le cose che si sono fondate su questa creatura rimangono immortali; le cose che si sono fondate sulla fantasia del Superuomo sono morte con le morenti civiltà che sole le hanno generate. Quando Cristo, in un momento simbolico, fondava la Sua grande società, scelse come pietra angolare né il brillante Paolo né il mistico Giovanni, ma uno svicolatore, uno snob, un vigliacco: in una parola, un uomo. E su questa roccia ha edificato la Sua Chiesa, e le porte dell’Inferno non hanno prevalso contro di essa. Tutti gli imperi e i regni sono falliti, a causa di questa intrinseca e continua debolezza, che erano fondati da uomini forti e su uomini forti. Ma quest’unica cosa, la storica Chiesa cristiana, fu fondata su un uomo debole, e per questa ragione è indistruttibile. Ché nessuna catena è più forte del suo anello più debole.

V. Mr. H. G. Wells and the Giants

We ought to see far enough into a hypocrite to see even his sincerity. We ought to be interested in that darkest and most real part of a man in which dwell not the vices that he does not display, but the virtues that he cannot. And the more we approach the problems of human history with this keen and piercing charity, the smaller and smaller space we shall allow to pure hypocrisy of any kind. The hypocrites shall not deceive us into thinking them saints; but neither shall they deceive us into thinking them hypocrites. And an increasing number of cases will crowd into our field of inquiry, cases in which there is really no question of hypocrisy at all, cases in which people were so ingenuous that they seemed absurd, and so absurd that they seemed disingenuous.

There is one striking instance of an unfair charge of hypocrisy. It is always urged against the religious in the past, as a point of inconsistency and duplicity, that they combined a profession of almost crawling humility with a keen struggle for earthly success and considerable triumph in attaining it. It is felt as a piece of humbug, that a man should be very punctilious in calling himself a miserable sinner, and also very punctilious in calling himself King of France. But the truth is that there is no more conscious inconsistency between the humility of a Christian and the rapacity of a Christian than there is between the humility of a lover and the rapacity of a lover. The truth is that there are no things for which men will make such herculean efforts as the things of which they know they are unworthy. There never was a man in love who did not declare that, if he strained every nerve to breaking, he was going to have his desire. And there never was a man in love who did not declare also that he ought not to have it. The whole secret of the practical success of Christendom lies in the Christian humility, however imperfectly fulfilled. For with the removal of all question of merit or payment, the soul is suddenly released for incredible voyages. If we ask a sane man how much he merits, his mind shrinks instinctively and instantaneously. It is doubtful whether he merits six feet of earth. But if you ask him what he can conquer—he can conquer the stars. Thus comes the thing called Romance, a purely Christian product. A man cannot deserve adventures; he cannot earn dragons and hippogriffs. The mediaeval Europe which asserted humility gained Romance; the civilization which gained Romance has gained the habitable globe. How different the Pagan and Stoical feeling was from this has been admirably expressed in a famous quotation. Addison makes the great Stoic say—

“‘Tis not in mortals to command success; But we’ll do more, Sempronius, we’ll deserve it.”

But the spirit of Romance and Christendom, the spirit which is in every lover, the spirit which has bestridden the earth with European adventure, is quite opposite. ‘Tis not in mortals to deserve success. But we’ll do more, Sempronius; we’ll obtain it.

And this gay humility, this holding of ourselves lightly and yet ready for an infinity of unmerited triumphs, this secret is so simple that every one has supposed that it must be something quite sinister and mysterious. Humility is so practical a virtue that men think it must be a vice. Humility is so successful that it is mistaken for pride. It is mistaken for it all the more easily because it generally goes with a certain simple love of splendour which amounts to vanity. Humility will always, by preference, go clad in scarlet and gold; pride is that which refuses to let gold and scarlet impress it or please it too much. In a word, the failure of this virtue actually lies in its success; it is too successful as an investment to be believed in as a virtue. Humility is not merely too good for this world; it is too practical for this world; I had almost said it is too worldly for this world.

The instance most quoted in our day is the thing called the humility of the man of science; and certainly it is a good instance as well as a modern one. Men find it extremely difficult to believe that a man who is obviously uprooting mountains and dividing seas, tearing down temples and stretching out hands to the stars, is really a quiet old gentleman who only asks to be allowed to indulge his harmless old hobby and follow his harmless old nose. When a man splits a grain of sand and the universe is turned upside down in consequence, it is difficult to realize that to the man who did it, the splitting of the grain is the great affair, and the capsizing of the cosmos quite a small one. It is hard to enter into the feelings of a man who regards a new heaven and a new earth in the light of a by-product. But undoubtedly it was to this almost eerie innocence of the intellect that the great men of the great scientific period, which now appears to be closing, owed their enormous power and triumph. If they had brought the heavens down like a house of cards their plea was not even that they had done it on principle; their quite unanswerable plea was that they had done it by accident. Whenever there was in them the least touch of pride in what they had done, there was a good ground for attacking them; but so long as they were wholly humble, they were wholly victorious. There were possible answers to Huxley; there was no answer possible to Darwin. He was convincing because of his unconsciousness; one might almost say because of his dulness. This childlike and prosaic mind is beginning to wane in the world of science. Men of science are beginning to see themselves, as the fine phrase is, in the part; they are beginning to be proud of their humility. They are beginning to be aesthetic, like the rest of the world, beginning to spell truth with a capital T, beginning to talk of the creeds they imagine themselves to have destroyed, of the discoveries that their forbears made. Like the modern English, they are beginning to be soft about their own hardness. They are becoming conscious of their own strength—that is, they are growing weaker. But one purely modern man has emerged in the strictly modern decades who does carry into our world the clear personal simplicity of the old world of science. One man of genius we have who is an artist, but who was a man of science, and who seems to be marked above all things with this great scientific humility. I mean Mr. H. G. Wells. And in his case, as in the others above spoken of, there must be a great preliminary difficulty in convincing the ordinary person that such a virtue is predicable of such a man. Mr. Wells began his literary work with violent visions—visions of the last pangs of this planet; can it be that a man who begins with violent visions is humble? He went on to wilder and wilder stories about carving beasts into men and shooting angels like birds. Is the man who shoots angels and carves beasts into men humble? Since then he has done something bolder than either of these blasphemies; he has prophesied the political future of all men; prophesied it with aggressive authority and a ringing decision of detail. Is the prophet of the future of all men humble? It will indeed be difficult, in the present condition of current thought about such things as pride and humility, to answer the query of how a man can be humble who does such big things and such bold things. For the only answer is the answer which I gave at the beginning of this essay. It is the humble man who does the big things. It is the humble man who does the bold things. It is the humble man who has the sensational sights vouchsafed to him, and this for three obvious reasons: first, that he strains his eyes more than any other men to see them; second, that he is more overwhelmed and uplifted with them when they come; third, that he records them more exactly and sincerely and with less adulteration from his more commonplace and more conceited everyday self. Adventures are to those to whom they are most unexpected— that is, most romantic. Adventures are to the shy: in this sense adventures are to the unadventurous.

V. Il signor H. G. Wells e i giganti

Dovremmo saper penetrare in un ipocrita abbastanza a fondo da scorgere perfino la sua sincerità. Dovremmo interessarci a quella parte più oscura e più reale di un uomo, in cui dimorano non i vizi che egli non ostenta, ma le virtù che non riesce a mostrare. E quanto più ci accostiamo ai problemi della storia umana con questa acuta e penetrante carità, tanto minore sarà lo spazio che concederemo all’ipocrisia pura di qualunque specie. Gli ipocriti non ci inganneranno fino a farceli credere santi; ma neppure ci inganneranno fino a farceli credere ipocriti. E un numero crescente di casi si affollerà nel nostro campo d’indagine: casi in cui davvero non v’è alcuna questione d’ipocrisia, casi in cui certi uomini furono tanto ingenui da parere assurdi, e tanto assurdi da parere falsi.

Vi è un esempio notevole di un’accusa ingiusta d’ipocrisia. Si rimprovera sempre ai religiosi del passato, come segno d’incoerenza e di doppiezza, di aver unito una professione di quasi strisciante umiltà a un’aspra lotta per il successo terreno, e a considerevoli trionfi nel conseguirlo. Si avverte come una impostura che un uomo si mostri assai scrupoloso nel definirsi un miserabile peccatore, e anche assai scrupoloso nel definirsi Re di Francia. Ma la verità è che non v’è maggiore incoerenza consapevole fra l’umiltà di un cristiano e la sua rapacità di quanta ve ne sia fra l’umiltà di un innamorato e la rapacità di un innamorato. La verità è che non vi sono cose per le quali gli uomini compiano sforzi tanto erculei quanto le cose di cui sanno di essere indegni. Non vi fu mai un uomo innamorato che non dichiarasse che, tendendo ogni nervo fino a spezzarlo, avrebbe avuto il suo desiderio. E non vi fu mai un uomo innamorato che non dichiarasse anche di non meritarlo. Tutto il segreto del successo pratico della Cristianità sta nell’umiltà cristiana, per quanto imperfettamente realizzata. Poiché, tolta ogni questione di merito o di ricompensa, l’anima si trova d’un tratto libera per viaggi incredibili. Se domandiamo a un uomo di senno quanto egli meriti, la sua mente si ritrae istintivamente e all’istante. È dubbio che meriti sei piedi di terra. Ma se gli chiedete che cosa possa conquistare — egli può conquistare le stelle. Nasce così ciò che si chiama Romanzo, prodotto puramente cristiano. Un uomo non può meritare le avventure; non può guadagnarsi draghi e ippogrifi. L’Europa medievale, che affermò l’umiltà, conquistò il Romanzo; la civiltà che conquistò il Romanzo ha conquistato l’intero globo abitabile. Quanto diverso fosse da tutto ciò il sentimento pagano e stoico è stato mirabilmente espresso in una celebre citazione. Addison fa dire al grande Stoico:

«Non è dato ai mortali comandare al successo; ma faremo di più, Sempronio: lo meriteremo.»

Ma lo spirito del Romanzo e della Cristianità, lo spirito che è in ogni innamorato, lo spirito che ha cavalcato la terra con l’avventura europea, è tutto l’opposto. Non è dato ai mortali meritare il successo. Ma faremo di più, Sempronio: lo otterremo.

E questa gaia umiltà, questo tenersi in poco conto e nondimeno essere pronti a un’infinità di trionfi immeritati, questo segreto è tanto semplice che ognuno ha creduto dovesse essere qualcosa di sinistro e di misterioso. L’Humility è una virtù così pratica che gli uomini la scambiano per un vizio. L’Humility ha tanto successo che la si scambia per orgoglio. E la si scambia tanto più facilmente in quanto va per lo più unita a un certo semplice amore dello splendore che rasenta la vanità. L’Humility preferirà sempre vestirsi di scarlatto e d’oro; l’orgoglio è ciò che rifiuta di lasciarsi troppo impressionare o compiacere dall’oro e dallo scarlatto. In una parola, il fallimento di questa virtù sta proprio nel suo successo; ha troppo successo come investimento perché la si creda una virtù. L’Humility non è soltanto troppo buona per questo mondo; è troppo pratica per questo mondo; direi quasi che è troppo mondana per questo mondo.

L’esempio più citato ai giorni nostri è ciò che si chiama l’umiltà dell’uomo di scienza; e certo è un buon esempio nonché moderno. Gli uomini trovano estremamente difficile credere che un uomo il quale manifestamente sradica montagne e divide i mari, abbatte templi e tende le mani verso le stelle, sia in realtà un tranquillo vecchio signore che chiede solo il permesso di coltivare il suo innocuo vecchio passatempo e di seguire il suo innocuo vecchio naso. Quando un uomo scinde un granello di sabbia e per conseguenza l’universo va a gambe all’aria, è difficile capire che per l’uomo che l’ha fatto la scissione del granello è la grande faccenda, e il capovolgimento del cosmo una faccenda assai piccola. È arduo entrare nei sentimenti di un uomo che guarda a un cielo nuovo e a una terra nuova come a un sottoprodotto. Ma senza dubbio fu a questa quasi inquietante innocenza dell’intelletto che i grandi uomini del grande periodo scientifico, che ora sembra volgere al termine, dovettero il loro enorme potere e trionfo. Se anche avessero fatto crollare i cieli come un castello di carte, la loro difesa non era neppure di averlo fatto per principio; la loro difesa, del tutto irrefutabile, era di averlo fatto per caso. Ogni volta che c’era in loro il minimo tocco d’orgoglio per ciò che avevano fatto, vi era buon motivo per attaccarli; ma finché furono del tutto umili, furono del tutto vittoriosi. Vi erano risposte possibili a Huxley; non ve n’era alcuna possibile a Darwin. Egli convinceva a causa della sua inconsapevolezza; si potrebbe quasi dire a causa della sua ottusità. Questa mente infantile e prosaica comincia a declinare nel mondo della scienza. Gli uomini di scienza cominciano a vedersi, come dice l’elegante frase, nella parte; cominciano a essere orgogliosi della loro umiltà. Cominciano a essere estetici, come il resto del mondo, cominciano a scrivere verità con la V maiuscola, cominciano a parlare dei credi che immaginano di aver distrutto, delle scoperte che fecero i loro antenati. Come i moderni inglesi, cominciano a intenerirsi sulla propria durezza. Diventano consapevoli della propria forza — vale a dire, si fanno più deboli. Ma un uomo puramente moderno è emerso nei decenni rigorosamente moderni, che porta davvero nel nostro mondo la chiara semplicità personale del vecchio mondo della scienza. Abbiamo un uomo di genio che è un artista, ma che fu un uomo di scienza, e che mi pare segnato sopra ogni cosa da questa grande umiltà scientifica. Intendo il signor H. G. Wells. E nel suo caso, come negli altri sopra menzionati, vi dev’essere una grande difficoltà preliminare nel convincere la persona comune che una simile virtù sia predicabile di un simile uomo. Il signor Wells cominciò la sua opera letteraria con visioni violente — visioni degli ultimi spasimi di questo pianeta; può darsi che un uomo il quale comincia con visioni violente sia umile? Passò poi a storie sempre più sfrenate su bestie intagliate in forma d’uomo e su angeli abbattuti come uccelli. È umile l’uomo che abbatte angeli e intaglia bestie in forma d’uomo? Da allora ha fatto qualcosa di più audace di entrambe queste bestemmie: ha profetizzato il futuro politico di tutti gli uomini; l’ha profetizzato con autorità aggressiva e con una squillante sicurezza di particolari. È umile il profeta del futuro di tutti gli uomini? Sarà davvero difficile, nell’attuale condizione del pensiero corrente intorno a cose come l’orgoglio e l’umiltà, rispondere al quesito di come possa essere umile un uomo che fa cose così grandi e così audaci. Poiché l’unica risposta è quella che diedi in principio di questo saggio. È l’uomo umile che fa le cose grandi. È l’uomo umile che fa le cose audaci. È all’uomo umile che sono concesse le visioni sensazionali, e questo per tre ovvie ragioni: primo, perché aguzza gli occhi più di ogni altro uomo per vederle; secondo, perché ne è più sopraffatto e sollevato quando esse giungono; terzo, perché le registra più esattamente e sinceramente, con minor adulterazione da parte del suo più banale e più vanaglorioso io quotidiano. Le avventure toccano a coloro per i quali sono più inattese — cioè più romantiche. Le avventure toccano ai timidi: in questo senso le avventure toccano ai poco avventurosi.

Now, this arresting, mental humility in Mr. H. G. Wells may be, like a great many other things that are vital and vivid, difficult to illustrate by examples, but if I were asked for an example of it, I should have no difficulty about which example to begin with. The most interesting thing about Mr. H. G. Wells is that he is the only one of his many brilliant contemporaries who has not stopped growing. One can lie awake at night and hear him grow. Of this growth the most evident manifestation is indeed a gradual change of opinions; but it is no mere change of opinions. It is not a perpetual leaping from one position to another like that of Mr. George Moore. It is a quite continuous advance along a quite solid road in a quite definable direction. But the chief proof that it is not a piece of fickleness and vanity is the fact that it has been upon the whole in advance from more startling opinions to more humdrum opinions. It has been even in some sense an advance from unconventional opinions to conventional opinions. This fact fixes Mr. Wells’s honesty and proves him to be no poseur. Mr. Wells once held that the upper classes and the lower classes would be so much differentiated in the future that one class would eat the other. Certainly no paradoxical charlatan who had once found arguments for so startling a view would ever have deserted it except for something yet more startling. Mr. Wells has deserted it in favour of the blameless belief that both classes will be ultimately subordinated or assimilated to a sort of scientific middle class, a class of engineers. He has abandoned the sensational theory with the same honourable gravity and simplicity with which he adopted it. Then he thought it was true; now he thinks it is not true. He has come to the most dreadful conclusion a literary man can come to, the conclusion that the ordinary view is the right one. It is only the last and wildest kind of courage that can stand on a tower before ten thousand people and tell them that twice two is four.

Mr. H. G. Wells exists at present in a gay and exhilarating progress of conservativism. He is finding out more and more that conventions, though silent, are alive. As good an example as any of this humility and sanity of his may be found in his change of view on the subject of science and marriage. He once held, I believe, the opinion which some singular sociologists still hold, that human creatures could successfully be paired and bred after the manner of dogs or horses. He no longer holds that view. Not only does he no longer hold that view, but he has written about it in “Mankind in the Making” with such smashing sense and humour, that I find it difficult to believe that anybody else can hold it either. It is true that his chief objection to the proposal is that it is physically impossible, which seems to me a very slight objection, and almost negligible compared with the others. The one objection to scientific marriage which is worthy of final attention is simply that such a thing could only be imposed on unthinkable slaves and cowards. I do not know whether the scientific marriage-mongers are right (as they say) or wrong (as Mr. Wells says) in saying that medical supervision would produce strong and healthy men. I am only certain that if it did, the first act of the strong and healthy men would be to smash the medical supervision.

The mistake of all that medical talk lies in the very fact that it connects the idea of health with the idea of care. What has health to do with care? Health has to do with carelessness. In special and abnormal cases it is necessary to have care. When we are peculiarly unhealthy it may be necessary to be careful in order to be healthy. But even then we are only trying to be healthy in order to be careless. If we are doctors we are speaking to exceptionally sick men, and they ought to be told to be careful. But when we are sociologists we are addressing the normal man, we are addressing humanity. And humanity ought to be told to be recklessness itself. For all the fundamental functions of a healthy man ought emphatically to be performed with pleasure and for pleasure; they emphatically ought not to be performed with precaution or for precaution. A man ought to eat because he has a good appetite to satisfy, and emphatically not because he has a body to sustain. A man ought to take exercise not because he is too fat, but because he loves foils or horses or high mountains, and loves them for their own sake. And a man ought to marry because he has fallen in love, and emphatically not because the world requires to be populated. The food will really renovate his tissues as long as he is not thinking about his tissues. The exercise will really get him into training so long as he is thinking about something else. And the marriage will really stand some chance of producing a generous-blooded generation if it had its origin in its own natural and generous excitement. It is the first law of health that our necessities should not be accepted as necessities; they should be accepted as luxuries. Let us, then, be careful about the small things, such as a scratch or a slight illness, or anything that can be managed with care. But in the name of all sanity, let us be careless about the important things, such as marriage, or the fountain of our very life will fail.

Mr. Wells, however, is not quite clear enough of the narrower scientific outlook to see that there are some things which actually ought not to be scientific. He is still slightly affected with the great scientific fallacy; I mean the habit of beginning not with the human soul, which is the first thing a man learns about, but with some such thing as protoplasm, which is about the last. The one defect in his splendid mental equipment is that he does not sufficiently allow for the stuff or material of men. In his new Utopia he says, for instance, that a chief point of the Utopia will be a disbelief in original sin. If he had begun with the human soul—that is, if he had begun on himself—he would have found original sin almost the first thing to be believed in. He would have found, to put the matter shortly, that a permanent possibility of selfishness arises from the mere fact of having a self, and not from any accidents of education or ill-treatment. And the weakness of all Utopias is this, that they take the greatest difficulty of man and assume it to be overcome, and then give an elaborate account of the overcoming of the smaller ones. They first assume that no man will want more than his share, and then are very ingenious in explaining whether his share will be delivered by motor-car or balloon. And an even stronger example of Mr. Wells’s indifference to the human psychology can be found in his cosmopolitanism, the abolition in his Utopia of all patriotic boundaries. He says in his innocent way that Utopia must be a world-state, or else people might make war on it. It does not seem to occur to him that, for a good many of us, if it were a world-state we should still make war on it to the end of the world. For if we admit that there must be varieties in art or opinion what sense is there in thinking there will not be varieties in government? The fact is very simple. Unless you are going deliberately to prevent a thing being good, you cannot prevent it being worth fighting for. It is impossible to prevent a possible conflict of civilizations, because it is impossible to prevent a possible conflict between ideals. If there were no longer our modern strife between nations, there would only be a strife between Utopias. For the highest thing does not tend to union only; the highest thing tends also to differentiation. You can often get men to fight for the union; but you can never prevent them from fighting also for the differentiation. This variety in the highest thing is the meaning of the fierce patriotism, the fierce nationalism of the great European civilization. It is also, incidentally, the meaning of the doctrine of the Trinity.

Ora, questa singolare umiltà mentale del signor H. G. Wells può essere, come moltissime altre cose vitali e vivide, difficile da illustrare con esempi; ma se mi si chiedesse un esempio, non avrei alcuna difficoltà a scegliere quello da cui cominciare. La cosa più interessante del signor H. G. Wells è che egli è l’unico fra i suoi molti brillanti contemporanei che non ha smesso di crescere. Si può restare svegli di notte e udirlo crescere. Di questa crescita la manifestazione più evidente è invero un graduale mutamento d’opinioni; ma non è un semplice mutamento d’opinioni. Non è un perpetuo saltare da una posizione all’altra come quello del signor George Moore. È un avanzare del tutto continuo lungo una strada del tutto solida in una direzione del tutto definibile. Ma la prova principale che non si tratta di volubilità e vanità è il fatto che nel complesso è stato un avanzare da opinioni più sorprendenti a opinioni più banali. È stato perfino, in un certo senso, un avanzare da opinioni anticonvenzionali a opinioni convenzionali. Questo fatto stabilisce l’onestà del signor Wells e prova che non è un posatore. Il signor Wells un tempo riteneva che le classi superiori e le classi inferiori si sarebbero tanto differenziate in avvenire che una classe avrebbe divorato l’altra. Certo nessun ciarlatano paradossale, che una volta avesse trovato argomenti per una veduta tanto sorprendente, l’avrebbe mai abbandonata se non per qualcosa di ancor più sorprendente. Il signor Wells l’ha abbandonata in favore dell’irreprensibile convinzione che entrambe le classi saranno alla fine subordinate o assimilate a una sorta di classe media scientifica, una classe di ingegneri. Ha abbandonato la teoria sensazionale con la stessa onorevole gravità e semplicità con cui l’aveva adottata. Allora la riteneva vera; ora la ritiene falsa. È giunto alla conclusione più tremenda cui un letterato possa giungere: la conclusione che la veduta ordinaria è quella giusta. È soltanto l’ultima e più folle specie di coraggio quella che sa reggersi su una torre davanti a diecimila persone e dire loro che due volte due fa quattro.

Il signor H. G. Wells vive attualmente in un gaio ed esilarante progresso di conservatorismo. Va scoprendo sempre più che le convenzioni, benché silenziose, sono vive. Un esempio buono quanto ogni altro di questa sua umiltà e sanità di mente si può trovare nel suo mutamento di veduta sul tema della scienza e del matrimonio. Un tempo egli sosteneva, credo, l’opinione che certi singolari sociologi ancora sostengono, che le creature umane potessero essere accoppiate e allevate con successo alla maniera dei cani o dei cavalli. Non sostiene più quella veduta. Non solo non la sostiene più, ma ne ha scritto in «Mankind in the Making» con tanto schiacciante buon senso e umorismo che trovo difficile credere che chiunque altro possa ancora sostenerla. È vero che la sua principale obiezione alla proposta è che essa è fisicamente impossibile, il che mi pare un’obiezione assai lieve, e quasi trascurabile a confronto delle altre. L’unica obiezione al matrimonio scientifico che meriti definitiva attenzione è semplicemente che una cosa simile potrebbe imporsi solo a schiavi e vigliacchi inconcepibili. Non so se i mercanti di matrimoni scientifici abbiano ragione (come dicono loro) o torto (come dice il signor Wells) nell’affermare che la supervisione medica produrrebbe uomini forti e sani. Sono soltanto certo che, se lo facesse, il primo atto degli uomini forti e sani sarebbe di mandare in frantumi la supervisione medica.

L’errore di tutto quel discorrere medico sta proprio nel fatto che collega l’idea della salute con l’idea della cura. Che ha da fare la salute con la cura? La salute ha da fare con la noncuranza. In casi speciali e anomali è necessario aver cura. Quando siamo particolarmente malsani può essere necessario esser cauti per essere sani. Ma anche allora cerchiamo di essere sani solo per poter essere noncuranti. Se siamo medici, parliamo a uomini eccezionalmente malati, e a costoro va detto di aver cura. Ma quando siamo sociologi, ci rivolgiamo all’uomo normale, ci rivolgiamo all’umanità. E all’umanità va detto di essere la temerarietà in persona. Poiché tutte le funzioni fondamentali di un uomo sano devono, con enfasi, compiersi con piacere e per il piacere; non devono, con altrettanta enfasi, compiersi con precauzione o per precauzione. Un uomo deve mangiare perché ha un buon appetito da soddisfare, e con enfasi non perché ha un corpo da sostenere. Un uomo deve fare esercizio non perché è troppo grasso, ma perché ama il fioretto o i cavalli o le alte montagne, e li ama per se stessi. E un uomo deve sposarsi perché si è innamorato, e con enfasi non perché il mondo ha bisogno di essere popolato. Il cibo rinnoverà davvero i suoi tessuti finché egli non pensa ai suoi tessuti. L’esercizio lo metterà davvero in forma finché egli pensa a qualcos’altro. E il matrimonio avrà davvero qualche probabilità di produrre una generazione di sangue generoso se avrà avuto origine dalla propria naturale e generosa eccitazione. È la prima legge della salute che le nostre necessità non siano accettate come necessità; vanno accettate come lussi. Siamo dunque cauti nelle piccole cose, come un graffio o un lieve malanno, o qualunque cosa si possa governare con la cura. Ma in nome di ogni sanità di mente, siamo noncuranti nelle cose importanti, come il matrimonio, altrimenti la fonte stessa della nostra vita verrà meno.

Il signor Wells, tuttavia, non è abbastanza sciolto dalla più angusta veduta scientifica da capire che vi sono cose che in realtà non dovrebbero essere scientifiche. È ancora leggermente affetto dalla grande fallacia scientifica; intendo l’abitudine di cominciare non dall’anima umana, che è la prima cosa che un uomo impara di sé, ma da qualcosa come il protoplasma, che è press’a poco l’ultima. L’unico difetto del suo splendido armamentario mentale è che non tiene sufficientemente conto della stoffa o materia degli uomini. Nella sua nuova Utopia dice, per esempio, che un punto capitale dell’Utopia sarà la non credenza nel peccato originale. Se avesse cominciato dall’anima umana — cioè se avesse cominciato da se stesso — avrebbe trovato che il peccato originale è quasi la prima cosa in cui credere. Avrebbe trovato, per dirla in breve, che una permanente possibilità di egoismo sorge dal mero fatto di avere un io, e non da qualche accidente di educazione o di maltrattamento. E la debolezza di tutte le Utopie è questa: che prendono la maggiore difficoltà dell’uomo e la suppongono già superata, e poi danno un resoconto elaborato del superamento di quelle minori. Danno prima per scontato che nessun uomo vorrà più della propria parte, e poi sono assai ingegnose nello spiegare se la sua parte gli verrà recapitata in automobile o in mongolfiera. E un esempio ancor più forte dell’indifferenza del signor Wells per la psicologia umana si può trovare nel suo cosmopolitismo, nell’abolizione in Utopia di ogni confine patriottico. Egli dice, con la sua aria innocente, che l’Utopia dev’essere uno Stato mondiale, altrimenti la gente potrebbe farle guerra. Non gli passa per la mente che, per un buon numero di noi, se fosse uno Stato mondiale gli faremmo comunque guerra fino alla fine del mondo. Poiché, se ammettiamo che vi debbano essere varietà nell’arte o nell’opinione, che senso ha pensare che non vi saranno varietà nel governo? Il fatto è semplicissimo. A meno che tu non voglia deliberatamente impedire a una cosa di essere buona, non puoi impedirle di valere la pena di essere difesa. È impossibile impedire un possibile conflitto di civiltà, perché è impossibile impedire un possibile conflitto fra ideali. Se non ci fosse più la nostra moderna contesa fra le nazioni, non ci sarebbe che una contesa fra Utopie. Poiché la cosa più alta non tende soltanto all’unione; la cosa più alta tende anche alla differenziazione. Spesso si può indurre gli uomini a combattere per l’unione; ma non li si può mai impedire di combattere anche per la differenziazione. Questa varietà nella cosa più alta è il significato del fiero patriottismo, del fiero nazionalismo della grande civiltà europea. È anche, per inciso, il significato della dottrina della Trinità.

But I think the main mistake of Mr. Wells’s philosophy is a somewhat deeper one, one that he expresses in a very entertaining manner in the introductory part of the new Utopia. His philosophy in some sense amounts to a denial of the possibility of philosophy itself. At least, he maintains that there are no secure and reliable ideas upon which we can rest with a final mental satisfaction. It will be both clearer, however, and more amusing to quote Mr. Wells himself.

He says, “Nothing endures, nothing is precise and certain (except the mind of a pedant)… . Being indeed!—there is no being, but a universal becoming of individualities, and Plato turned his back on truth when he turned towards his museum of specific ideals.” Mr. Wells says, again, “There is no abiding thing in what we know. We change from weaker to stronger lights, and each more powerful light pierces our hitherto opaque foundations and reveals fresh and different opacities below.” Now, when Mr. Wells says things like this, I speak with all respect when I say that he does not observe an evident mental distinction. It CANNOT be true that there is nothing abiding in what we know. For if that were so we should not know it all and should not call it knowledge. Our mental state may be very different from that of somebody else some thousands of years back; but it cannot be entirely different, or else we should not be conscious of a difference. Mr. Wells must surely realize the first and simplest of the paradoxes that sit by the springs of truth. He must surely see that the fact of two things being different implies that they are similar. The hare and the tortoise may differ in the quality of swiftness, but they must agree in the quality of motion. The swiftest hare cannot be swifter than an isosceles triangle or the idea of pinkness. When we say the hare moves faster, we say that the tortoise moves. And when we say of a thing that it moves, we say, without need of other words, that there are things that do not move. And even in the act of saying that things change, we say that there is something unchangeable.

But certainly the best example of Mr. Wells’s fallacy can be found in the example which he himself chooses. It is quite true that we see a dim light which, compared with a darker thing, is light, but which, compared with a stronger light, is darkness. But the quality of light remains the same thing, or else we should not call it a stronger light or recognize it as such. If the character of light were not fixed in the mind, we should be quite as likely to call a denser shadow a stronger light, or vice versa. If the character of light became even for an instant unfixed, if it became even by a hair’s-breadth doubtful, if, for example, there crept into our idea of light some vague idea of blueness, then in that flash we have become doubtful whether the new light has more light or less. In brief, the progress may be as varying as a cloud, but the direction must be as rigid as a French road. North and South are relative in the sense that I am North of Bournemouth and South of Spitzbergen. But if there be any doubt of the position of the North Pole, there is in equal degree a doubt of whether I am South of Spitzbergen at all. The absolute idea of light may be practically unattainable. We may not be able to procure pure light. We may not be able to get to the North Pole. But because the North Pole is unattainable, it does not follow that it is indefinable. And it is only because the North Pole is not indefinable that we can make a satisfactory map of Brighton and Worthing.

In other words, Plato turned his face to truth but his back on Mr. H. G. Wells, when he turned to his museum of specified ideals. It is precisely here that Plato shows his sense. It is not true that everything changes; the things that change are all the manifest and material things. There is something that does not change; and that is precisely the abstract quality, the invisible idea. Mr. Wells says truly enough, that a thing which we have seen in one connection as dark we may see in another connection as light. But the thing common to both incidents is the mere idea of light— which we have not seen at all. Mr. Wells might grow taller and taller for unending aeons till his head was higher than the loneliest star. I can imagine his writing a good novel about it. In that case he would see the trees first as tall things and then as short things; he would see the clouds first as high and then as low. But there would remain with him through the ages in that starry loneliness the idea of tallness; he would have in the awful spaces for companion and comfort the definite conception that he was growing taller and not (for instance) growing fatter.

And now it comes to my mind that Mr. H. G. Wells actually has written a very delightful romance about men growing as tall as trees; and that here, again, he seems to me to have been a victim of this vague relativism. “The Food of the Gods” is, like Mr. Bernard Shaw’s play, in essence a study of the Superman idea. And it lies, I think, even through the veil of a half-pantomimic allegory, open to the same intellectual attack. We cannot be expected to have any regard for a great creature if he does not in any manner conform to our standards. For unless he passes our standard of greatness we cannot even call him great. Nietszche summed up all that is interesting in the Superman idea when he said, “Man is a thing which has to be surpassed.” But the very word “surpass” implies the existence of a standard common to us and the thing surpassing us. If the Superman is more manly than men are, of course they will ultimately deify him, even if they happen to kill him first. But if he is simply more supermanly, they may be quite indifferent to him as they would be to another seemingly aimless monstrosity. He must submit to our test even in order to overawe us. Mere force or size even is a standard; but that alone will never make men think a man their superior. Giants, as in the wise old fairy-tales, are vermin. Supermen, if not good men, are vermin.

Ma credo che l’errore principale della filosofia del signor Wells sia alquanto più profondo, un errore che egli esprime in maniera assai divertente nella parte introduttiva della nuova Utopia. La sua filosofia equivale in un certo senso a una negazione della possibilità della filosofia stessa. Egli sostiene, almeno, che non vi sono idee sicure e affidabili su cui possiamo riposare con una definitiva soddisfazione mentale. Sarà però più chiaro, e insieme più divertente, citare il signor Wells stesso.

Egli dice: «Nulla dura, nulla è preciso e certo (tranne la mente di un pedante)… L’essere, davvero! — non v’è essere, ma un universale divenire di individualità, e Platone voltò le spalle alla verità quando si rivolse al suo museo di ideali specifici.» Il signor Wells dice, ancora: «Non v’è nulla di permanente in ciò che conosciamo. Passiamo da luci più deboli a luci più forti, e ogni luce più potente trafigge le nostre finora opache fondamenta e rivela nuove e diverse opacità di sotto.» Ora, quando il signor Wells dice cose simili, parlo con tutto il rispetto nel dire che egli non osserva un’evidente distinzione mentale. NON PUÒ essere vero che non vi sia nulla di permanente in ciò che conosciamo. Poiché, se così fosse, non lo conosceremmo affatto e non lo chiameremmo conoscenza. Il nostro stato mentale può essere assai diverso da quello di qualcun altro di alcune migliaia d’anni or sono; ma non può essere interamente diverso, altrimenti non saremmo consapevoli di una differenza. Il signor Wells deve pur rendersi conto del primo e più semplice dei paradossi che siedono presso le sorgenti della verità. Deve pur vedere che il fatto stesso che due cose siano diverse implica che siano simili. La lepre e la tartaruga possono differire nella qualità della rapidità, ma devono concordare nella qualità del moto. La lepre più rapida non può essere più rapida di un triangolo isoscele o dell’idea di rosa. Quando diciamo che la lepre si muove più veloce, diciamo che la tartaruga si muove. E quando diciamo di una cosa che si muove, diciamo, senza bisogno di altre parole, che vi sono cose che non si muovono. E perfino nell’atto di dire che le cose mutano, diciamo che vi è qualcosa d’immutabile.

Ma certo il miglior esempio della fallacia del signor Wells si trova nell’esempio che egli stesso sceglie. È verissimo che vediamo una luce fioca la quale, paragonata a una cosa più scura, è luce, ma che, paragonata a una luce più forte, è tenebra. Ma la qualità della luce rimane la stessa cosa, altrimenti non la chiameremmo una luce più forte né la riconosceremmo come tale. Se il carattere della luce non fosse fissato nella mente, saremmo altrettanto inclini a chiamare un’ombra più densa una luce più forte, o viceversa. Se il carattere della luce divenisse anche solo per un istante non fissato, se divenisse dubbio anche solo di un capello, se, per esempio, s’insinuasse nella nostra idea di luce qualche vaga idea di azzurro, allora in quel lampo saremmo incerti se la nuova luce abbia più luce o meno. In breve, il progresso può essere mutevole come una nuvola, ma la direzione dev’essere rigida come una strada francese. Nord e Sud sono relativi nel senso che io sono a Nord di Bournemouth e a Sud di Spitzbergen. Ma se vi è un qualche dubbio sulla posizione del Polo Nord, vi è in egual misura un dubbio se io sia davvero a Sud di Spitzbergen. L’idea assoluta di luce può essere praticamente irraggiungibile. Possiamo non essere in grado di procurarci la luce pura. Possiamo non essere in grado di arrivare al Polo Nord. Ma dal fatto che il Polo Nord è irraggiungibile non consegue che sia indefinibile. Ed è solo perché il Polo Nord non è indefinibile che possiamo tracciare una mappa soddisfacente di Brighton e Worthing.

In altre parole, Platone volse il viso alla verità ma le spalle al signor H. G. Wells, quando si rivolse al suo museo di ideali specificati. È proprio qui che Platone mostra il suo buon senso. Non è vero che tutto muta; le cose che mutano sono tutte le cose manifeste e materiali. Vi è qualcosa che non muta; ed è precisamente la qualità astratta, l’idea invisibile. Il signor Wells dice, abbastanza giustamente, che una cosa che abbiamo veduto in un contesto come scura possiamo vederla in un altro contesto come chiara. Ma la cosa comune a entrambi i casi è la mera idea di luce — che non abbiamo veduto affatto. Il signor Wells potrebbe crescere sempre più alto per interminabili eoni, finché il suo capo fosse più in alto della stella più solitaria. Immagino che ne scriverebbe un buon romanzo. In tal caso vedrebbe gli alberi dapprima come cose alte e poi come cose basse; vedrebbe le nubi dapprima come alte e poi come basse. Ma gli rimarrebbe attraverso i secoli, in quella stellata solitudine, l’idea dell’altezza; avrebbe negli spazi tremendi, per compagna e conforto, la definita concezione che stava crescendo in altezza e non (per esempio) in grassezza.

E ora mi torna alla mente che il signor H. G. Wells ha in effetti scritto un delizioso romanzo su uomini che crescono alti come alberi; e che anche qui, mi pare, egli sia stato vittima di questo vago relativismo. «The Food of the Gods» è, come la commedia del signor Bernard Shaw, in sostanza uno studio dell’idea del Superuomo. E mi pare esposto, anche attraverso il velo di una allegoria semipantomimica, al medesimo attacco intellettuale. Non ci si può aspettare che nutriamo alcun rispetto per una grande creatura se essa non si conforma in alcun modo ai nostri criteri. Poiché, se non supera il nostro criterio di grandezza, non possiamo neppure chiamarla grande. Nietzsche riassunse tutto ciò che vi è d’interessante nell’idea del Superuomo quando disse: «L’uomo è una cosa che dev’essere superata.» Ma la parola stessa «superare» implica l’esistenza di un criterio comune a noi e alla cosa che ci supera. Se il Superuomo è più virile di quanto siano gli uomini, naturalmente essi finiranno per deificarlo, anche se prima gli capitasse di ucciderlo. Ma se è semplicemente più superuomo, potranno restargli del tutto indifferenti come lo sarebbero verso un’altra mostruosità apparentemente priva di scopo. Egli deve sottomettersi alla nostra prova, se non altro per incuterci soggezione. La mera forza o mole è anch’essa un criterio; ma questo da solo non farà mai pensare agli uomini che un uomo sia loro superiore. I giganti, come nelle sagge vecchie fiabe, sono vermi. I superuomini, se non sono uomini buoni, sono vermi.

“The Food of the Gods” is the tale of “Jack the Giant-Killer” told from the point of view of the giant. This has not, I think, been done before in literature; but I have little doubt that the psychological substance of it existed in fact. I have little doubt that the giant whom Jack killed did regard himself as the Superman. It is likely enough that he considered Jack a narrow and parochial person who wished to frustrate a great forward movement of the life-force. If (as not unfrequently was the case) he happened to have two heads, he would point out the elementary maxim which declares them to be better than one. He would enlarge on the subtle modernity of such an equipment, enabling a giant to look at a subject from two points of view, or to correct himself with promptitude. But Jack was the champion of the enduring human standards, of the principle of one man one head and one man one conscience, of the single head and the single heart and the single eye. Jack was quite unimpressed by the question of whether the giant was a particularly gigantic giant. All he wished to know was whether he was a good giant—that is, a giant who was any good to us. What were the giant’s religious views; what his views on politics and the duties of the citizen? Was he fond of children— or fond of them only in a dark and sinister sense? To use a fine phrase for emotional sanity, was his heart in the right place? Jack had sometimes to cut him up with a sword in order to find out. The old and correct story of Jack the Giant-Killer is simply the whole story of man; if it were understood we should need no Bibles or histories. But the modern world in particular does not seem to understand it at all. The modern world, like Mr. Wells, is on the side of the giants; the safest place, and therefore the meanest and the most prosaic. The modern world, when it praises its little Caesars, talks of being strong and brave: but it does not seem to see the eternal paradox involved in the conjunction of these ideas. The strong cannot be brave. Only the weak can be brave; and yet again, in practice, only those who can be brave can be trusted, in time of doubt, to be strong. The only way in which a giant could really keep himself in training against the inevitable Jack would be by continually fighting other giants ten times as big as himself. That is, by ceasing to be a giant and becoming a Jack. Thus that sympathy with the small or the defeated as such, with which we Liberals and Nationalists have been often reproached, is not a useless sentimentalism at all, as Mr. Wells and his friends fancy. It is the first law of practical courage. To be in the weakest camp is to be in the strongest school. Nor can I imagine anything that would do humanity more good than the advent of a race of Supermen, for them to fight like dragons. If the Superman is better than we, of course we need not fight him; but in that case, why not call him the Saint? But if he is merely stronger (whether physically, mentally, or morally stronger, I do not care a farthing), then he ought to have to reckon with us at least for all the strength we have. It we are weaker than he, that is no reason why we should be weaker than ourselves. If we are not tall enough to touch the giant’s knees, that is no reason why we should become shorter by falling on our own. But that is at bottom the meaning of all modern hero-worship and celebration of the Strong Man, the Caesar, the Superman. That he may be something more than man, WE must be something less.

Doubtless there is an older and better hero-worship than this. But the old hero was a being who, like Achilles, was more human than humanity itself. Nietzsche’s Superman is cold and friendless. Achilles is so foolishly fond of his friend that he slaughters armies in the agony of his bereavement. Mr. Shaw’s sad Caesar says in his desolate pride, “He who has never hoped can never despair.” The Man-God of old answers from his awful hill, “Was ever sorrow like unto my sorrow?” A great man is not a man so strong that he feels less than other men; he is a man so strong that he feels more. And when Nietszche says, “A new commandment I give to you, ‘be hard,’” he is really saying, “A new commandment I give to you, ‘be dead.’” Sensibility is the definition of life.

I recur for a last word to Jack the Giant-Killer. I have dwelt on this matter of Mr. Wells and the giants, not because it is specially prominent in his mind; I know that the Superman does not bulk so large in his cosmos as in that of Mr. Bernard Shaw. I have dwelt on it for the opposite reason; because this heresy of immoral hero-worship has taken, I think, a slighter hold of him, and may perhaps still be prevented from perverting one of the best thinkers of the day. In the course of “The New Utopia” Mr. Wells makes more than one admiring allusion to Mr. W. E. Henley. That clever and unhappy man lived in admiration of a vague violence, and was always going back to rude old tales and rude old ballads, to strong and primitive literatures, to find the praise of strength and the justification of tyranny. But he could not find it. It is not there. The primitive literature is shown in the tale of Jack the Giant-Killer. The strong old literature is all in praise of the weak. The rude old tales are as tender to minorities as any modern political idealist. The rude old ballads are as sentimentally concerned for the under-dog as the Aborigines Protection Society. When men were tough and raw, when they lived amid hard knocks and hard laws, when they knew what fighting really was, they had only two kinds of songs. The first was a rejoicing that the weak had conquered the strong, the second a lamentation that the strong had, for once in a way, conquered the weak. For this defiance of the statu quo, this constant effort to alter the existing balance, this premature challenge to the powerful, is the whole nature and inmost secret of the psychological adventure which is called man. It is his strength to disdain strength. The forlorn hope is not only a real hope, it is the only real hope of mankind. In the coarsest ballads of the greenwood men are admired most when they defy, not only the king, but what is more to the point, the hero. The moment Robin Hood becomes a sort of Superman, that moment the chivalrous chronicler shows us Robin thrashed by a poor tinker whom he thought to thrust aside. And the chivalrous chronicler makes Robin Hood receive the thrashing in a glow of admiration. This magnanimity is not a product of modern humanitarianism; it is not a product of anything to do with peace. This magnanimity is merely one of the lost arts of war. The Henleyites call for a sturdy and fighting England, and they go back to the fierce old stories of the sturdy and fighting English. And the thing that they find written across that fierce old literature everywhere, is “the policy of Majuba.”

«The Food of the Gods» è il racconto di «Jack l’ammazzagiganti» narrato dal punto di vista del gigante. Ciò non era stato, credo, mai fatto prima in letteratura; ma ho pochi dubbi che la sostanza psicologica di esso esistesse di fatto. Ho pochi dubbi che il gigante ucciso da Jack considerasse davvero se stesso il Superuomo. È abbastanza probabile che considerasse Jack una persona angusta e provinciale, che voleva frustrare un grande movimento in avanti della forza vitale. Se (come non di rado accadeva) gli capitava di avere due teste, avrebbe fatto notare la massima elementare secondo cui esse valgono più di una. Si sarebbe dilungato sulla sottile modernità di un tale equipaggiamento, che permette a un gigante di guardare un tema da due punti di vista, o di correggersi con prontezza. Ma Jack era il campione dei durevoli criteri umani, del principio di una sola testa per ogni uomo e di una sola coscienza per ogni uomo, della testa unica, del cuore unico e dell’occhio unico. Jack non era affatto impressionato dalla questione se il gigante fosse un gigante particolarmente gigantesco. Tutto ciò che voleva sapere era se fosse un buon gigante — cioè un gigante che fosse in qualche modo un bene per noi. Quali erano le vedute religiose del gigante; quali le sue vedute sulla politica e sui doveri del cittadino? Amava i bambini — o li amava solo in un senso oscuro e sinistro? Per usare una bella frase a indicare la sanità delle emozioni, aveva il cuore al posto giusto? Jack doveva talvolta farlo a pezzi con la spada per scoprirlo. La vecchia e giusta storia di Jack l’ammazzagiganti è semplicemente tutta la storia dell’uomo; se la si comprendesse, non ci occorrerebbero Bibbie né storie. Ma il mondo moderno in particolare pare non comprenderla affatto. Il mondo moderno, come il signor Wells, sta dalla parte dei giganti; il posto più sicuro, e perciò il più meschino e il più prosaico. Il mondo moderno, quando esalta i suoi piccoli Cesari, parla di essere forti e coraggiosi: ma non pare vedere l’eterno paradosso insito nella congiunzione di queste idee. I forti non possono essere coraggiosi. Solo i deboli possono essere coraggiosi; e per di più, in pratica, solo di coloro che sanno essere coraggiosi ci si può fidare, nel tempo del dubbio, che siano forti. L’unico modo in cui un gigante potrebbe davvero tenersi in allenamento contro l’inevitabile Jack sarebbe di combattere continuamente altri giganti dieci volte più grossi di lui. Cioè, cessando di essere un gigante e diventando un Jack. Così quella simpatia per il piccolo o per lo sconfitto in quanto tali, di cui noi Liberali e Nazionalisti siamo stati spesso rimproverati, non è affatto un inutile sentimentalismo, come immaginano il signor Wells e i suoi amici. È la prima legge del coraggio pratico. Essere nel campo più debole è essere nella scuola più forte. Né riesco a immaginare alcunché che gioverebbe all’umanità più dell’avvento di una razza di Superuomini, per combatterli come draghi. Se il Superuomo è migliore di noi, naturalmente non abbiamo bisogno di combatterlo; ma in tal caso, perché non chiamarlo il Santo? Ma se è semplicemente più forte (che sia più forte fisicamente, mentalmente o moralmente, non me ne importa un fico), allora dovrà fare i conti con noi almeno per tutta la forza che abbiamo. Se siamo più deboli di lui, non è questa una ragione per cui dovremmo essere più deboli di noi stessi. Se non siamo abbastanza alti da toccare le ginocchia del gigante, non è questa una ragione per cui dovremmo farci più bassi cadendo sulle nostre. Ma questo è in fondo il significato di tutto il moderno culto dell’eroe e della celebrazione dell’Uomo Forte, del Cesare, del Superuomo. Che egli possa essere qualcosa di più dell’uomo, NOI dobbiamo essere qualcosa di meno.

Senza dubbio esiste un culto dell’eroe più antico e migliore di questo. Ma il vecchio eroe era un essere che, come Achille, era più umano dell’umanità stessa. Il Superuomo di Nietzsche è freddo e senza amici. Achille è così scioccamente affezionato al suo amico da massacrare eserciti nell’agonia della sua perdita. Il triste Cesare del signor Shaw dice, nel suo desolato orgoglio: «Chi non ha mai sperato non può mai disperare.» L’Uomo-Dio dei tempi antichi risponde dalla sua terribile collina: «Vi fu mai dolore simile al mio dolore?» Un grande uomo non è un uomo tanto forte da sentire meno degli altri uomini; è un uomo tanto forte da sentire di più. E quando Nietzsche dice: «Un nuovo comandamento vi do: “siate duri”», in realtà sta dicendo: «Un nuovo comandamento vi do: “siate morti”.» La sensibilità è la definizione della vita.

Torno per un’ultima parola a Jack l’ammazzagiganti. Mi sono soffermato su questa faccenda del signor Wells e dei giganti non perché essa occupi un posto particolarmente prominente nella sua mente; so che il Superuomo non ha nel suo cosmo la mole che ha in quello del signor Bernard Shaw. Mi ci sono soffermato per la ragione opposta; perché questa eresia dell’immorale culto dell’eroe ha, credo, preso di lui una presa più lieve, e potrà forse ancora essere impedita dal pervertire uno dei migliori pensatori del nostro tempo. Nel corso di «The New Utopia» il signor Wells fa più di un’allusione ammirata al signor W. E. Henley. Quell’uomo ingegnoso e infelice visse nell’ammirazione di una vaga violenza, e tornava sempre a rozzi vecchi racconti e a rozze vecchie ballate, a letterature forti e primitive, per trovarvi la lode della forza e la giustificazione della tirannide. Ma non riuscì a trovarla. Non è là. La letteratura primitiva è mostrata nel racconto di Jack l’ammazzagiganti. La forte vecchia letteratura è tutta in lode del debole. I rozzi vecchi racconti sono teneri verso le minoranze quanto ogni moderno idealista politico. Le rozze vecchie ballate sono sentimentalmente premurose per il perdente quanto la Società per la Protezione degli Aborigeni. Quando gli uomini erano duri e rudi, quando vivevano fra colpi duri e leggi dure, quando sapevano che cosa fosse davvero il combattere, avevano solo due specie di canti. Il primo era un giubilo perché il debole aveva vinto il forte, il secondo un lamento perché il forte aveva, una volta tanto, vinto il debole. Poiché questa sfida allo status quo, questo costante sforzo di alterare l’equilibrio esistente, questa prematura provocazione del potente, è tutta la natura e il segreto più intimo dell’avventura psicologica che si chiama uomo. È la sua forza disdegnare la forza. La speranza disperata non è soltanto una vera speranza, è l’unica vera speranza dell’umanità. Nelle più rozze ballate del bosco verde gli uomini sono ammirati più di tutto quando sfidano non solo il re, ma, ciò che più conta, l’eroe. Nel momento in cui Robin Hood diventa una sorta di Superuomo, in quel momento il cavalleresco cronista ci mostra Robin bastonato da un povero stagnino che egli pensava di spingere da parte. E il cavalleresco cronista fa sì che Robin Hood riceva la bastonatura in un fervore di ammirazione. Questa magnanimità non è un prodotto del moderno umanitarismo; non è un prodotto di alcunché abbia a che fare con la pace. Questa magnanimità è semplicemente una delle arti perdute della guerra. Gli Henleiani invocano un’Inghilterra vigorosa e battagliera, e tornano alle fiere vecchie storie dei vigorosi e battaglieri inglesi. E la cosa che trovano scritta dappertutto su quella fiera vecchia letteratura è «la politica di Majuba».

VI. Christmas and the Aesthetes

The world is round, so round that the schools of optimism and pessimism have been arguing from the beginning whether it is the right way up. The difficulty does not arise so much from the mere fact that good and evil are mingled in roughly equal proportions; it arises chiefly from the fact that men always differ about what parts are good and what evil. Hence the difficulty which besets “undenominational religions.” They profess to include what is beautiful in all creeds, but they appear to many to have collected all that is dull in them. All the colours mixed together in purity ought to make a perfect white. Mixed together on any human paint-box, they make a thing like mud, and a thing very like many new religions. Such a blend is often something much worse than any one creed taken separately, even the creed of the Thugs. The error arises from the difficulty of detecting what is really the good part and what is really the bad part of any given religion. And this pathos falls rather heavily on those persons who have the misfortune to think of some religion or other, that the parts commonly counted good are bad, and the parts commonly counted bad are good.

It is tragic to admire and honestly admire a human group, but to admire it in a photographic negative. It is difficult to congratulate all their whites on being black and all their blacks on their whiteness. This will often happen to us in connection with human religions. Take two institutions which bear witness to the religious energy of the nineteenth century. Take the Salvation Army and the philosophy of Auguste Comte.

The usual verdict of educated people on the Salvation Army is expressed in some such words as these: “I have no doubt they do a great deal of good, but they do it in a vulgar and profane style; their aims are excellent, but their methods are wrong.” To me, unfortunately, the precise reverse of this appears to be the truth. I do not know whether the aims of the Salvation Army are excellent, but I am quite sure their methods are admirable. Their methods are the methods of all intense and hearty religions; they are popular like all religion, military like all religion, public and sensational like all religion. They are not reverent any more than Roman Catholics are reverent, for reverence in the sad and delicate meaning of the term reverence is a thing only possible to infidels. That beautiful twilight you will find in Euripides, in Renan, in Matthew Arnold; but in men who believe you will not find it—you will find only laughter and war. A man cannot pay that kind of reverence to truth solid as marble; they can only be reverent towards a beautiful lie. And the Salvation Army, though their voice has broken out in a mean environment and an ugly shape, are really the old voice of glad and angry faith, hot as the riots of Dionysus, wild as the gargoyles of Catholicism, not to be mistaken for a philosophy. Professor Huxley, in one of his clever phrases, called the Salvation Army “corybantic Christianity.” Huxley was the last and noblest of those Stoics who have never understood the Cross. If he had understood Christianity he would have known that there never has been, and never can be, any Christianity that is not corybantic.

And there is this difference between the matter of aims and the matter of methods, that to judge of the aims of a thing like the Salvation Army is very difficult, to judge of their ritual and atmosphere very easy. No one, perhaps, but a sociologist can see whether General Booth’s housing scheme is right. But any healthy person can see that banging brass cymbals together must be right. A page of statistics, a plan of model dwellings, anything which is rational, is always difficult for the lay mind. But the thing which is irrational any one can understand. That is why religion came so early into the world and spread so far, while science came so late into the world and has not spread at all. History unanimously attests the fact that it is only mysticism which stands the smallest chance of being understanded of the people. Common sense has to be kept as an esoteric secret in the dark temple of culture. And so while the philanthropy of the Salvationists and its genuineness may be a reasonable matter for the discussion of the doctors, there can be no doubt about the genuineness of their brass bands, for a brass band is purely spiritual, and seeks only to quicken the internal life. The object of philanthropy is to do good; the object of religion is to be good, if only for a moment, amid a crash of brass.

And the same antithesis exists about another modern religion— I mean the religion of Comte, generally known as Positivism, or the worship of humanity. Such men as Mr. Frederic Harrison, that brilliant and chivalrous philosopher, who still, by his mere personality, speaks for the creed, would tell us that he offers us the philosophy of Comte, but not all Comte’s fantastic proposals for pontiffs and ceremonials, the new calendar, the new holidays and saints’ days. He does not mean that we should dress ourselves up as priests of humanity or let off fireworks because it is Milton’s birthday. To the solid English Comtist all this appears, he confesses, to be a little absurd. To me it appears the only sensible part of Comtism. As a philosophy it is unsatisfactory. It is evidently impossible to worship humanity, just as it is impossible to worship the Savile Club; both are excellent institutions to which we may happen to belong. But we perceive clearly that the Savile Club did not make the stars and does not fill the universe. And it is surely unreasonable to attack the doctrine of the Trinity as a piece of bewildering mysticism, and then to ask men to worship a being who is ninety million persons in one God, neither confounding the persons nor dividing the substance.

VI. Il Natale e gli esteti

Il mondo è rotondo, così rotondo che le scuole dell’ottimismo e del pessimismo discutono fin dall’inizio se stia dritto per il verso giusto. La difficoltà non nasce tanto dal mero fatto che il bene e il male sono mescolati in proporzioni all’incirca uguali; nasce soprattutto dal fatto che gli uomini differiscono sempre su quali parti siano buone e quali cattive. Di qui la difficoltà che affligge le «religioni interconfessionali». Esse pretendono di includere ciò che è bello in tutti i credi, ma a molti sembra che abbiano raccolto tutto ciò che in essi è insipido. Tutti i colori mescolati insieme in purezza dovrebbero dare un bianco perfetto. Mescolati insieme in una qualsiasi tavolozza umana, danno una cosa simile al fango, e una cosa assai simile a molte religioni nuove. Una tale mescolanza è spesso qualcosa di assai peggiore di ogni singolo credo preso a sé, perfino del credo dei Thug. L’errore nasce dalla difficoltà di scoprire quale sia davvero la parte buona e quale davvero la parte cattiva di una data religione. E questo pathos ricade piuttosto pesantemente su quelle persone che hanno la sventura di pensare, di una religione o dell’altra, che le parti comunemente ritenute buone sono cattive, e le parti comunemente ritenute cattive sono buone.

È tragico ammirare, e onestamente ammirare, un gruppo umano, ma ammirarlo in negativo fotografico. È difficile congratularsi con tutti i loro bianchi per essere neri e con tutti i loro neri per la loro bianchezza. Questo ci accadrà spesso a proposito delle religioni umane. Prendete due istituzioni che testimoniano l’energia religiosa del secolo diciannovesimo. Prendete l’Esercito della Salvezza e la filosofia di Auguste Comte.

Il verdetto usuale delle persone colte sull’Esercito della Salvezza è espresso in parole di questo genere: «Non ho dubbio che facciano un gran bene, ma lo fanno in uno stile volgare e profano; i loro scopi sono eccellenti, ma i loro metodi sono sbagliati.» A me, purtroppo, l’esatto contrario di ciò sembra essere la verità. Non so se gli scopi dell’Esercito della Salvezza siano eccellenti, ma sono ben certo che i loro metodi sono ammirevoli. I loro metodi sono i metodi di tutte le religioni intense e sincere; sono popolari come ogni religione, militari come ogni religione, pubblici e sensazionali come ogni religione. Non sono reverenti più di quanto lo siano i cattolici romani, poiché la reverenza, nel triste e delicato significato del termine reverenza, è cosa possibile soltanto agli infedeli. Quel bel crepuscolo lo troverete in Euripide, in Renan, in Matthew Arnold; ma negli uomini che credono non lo troverete — vi troverete soltanto riso e guerra. Un uomo non può rendere quel genere di reverenza a una verità solida come il marmo; si può essere reverenti soltanto verso una bella menzogna. E l’Esercito della Salvezza, benché la sua voce sia irrotta in un ambiente meschino e in una forma sgraziata, è davvero l’antica voce della fede lieta e adirata, calda come i tumulti di Dioniso, selvaggia come i gargoili del cattolicesimo, da non scambiarsi per una filosofia. Il professor Huxley, in una delle sue arguzie, chiamò l’Esercito della Salvezza «cristianesimo coribantico». Huxley fu l’ultimo e il più nobile di quegli Stoici che non hanno mai compreso la Croce. Se avesse compreso il Cristianesimo avrebbe saputo che non vi è mai stato, e non vi può mai essere, alcun Cristianesimo che non sia coribantico.

E vi è questa differenza fra la questione degli scopi e la questione dei metodi: che giudicare gli scopi di una cosa come l’Esercito della Salvezza è assai difficile, mentre giudicare il loro rituale e la loro atmosfera è assai facile. Nessuno, forse, all’infuori di un sociologo, può vedere se il piano edilizio del generale Booth sia giusto. Ma qualunque persona sana può vedere che sbattere insieme cembali d’ottone dev’essere giusto. Una pagina di statistiche, la pianta di alloggi modello, tutto ciò che è razionale è sempre difficile per la mente profana. Ma la cosa che è irrazionale chiunque la può capire. È per questo che la religione entrò così presto nel mondo e si diffuse così lontano, mentre la scienza entrò così tardi nel mondo e non si è diffusa affatto. La Storia attesta unanime il fatto che è soltanto il misticismo ad avere la più piccola probabilità di essere compreso dal popolo. Il buon senso dev’essere tenuto come un segreto esoterico nell’oscuro tempio della cultura. E così, mentre la filantropia dei Salvazionisti e la sua genuinità possono essere un ragionevole argomento di discussione per i dotti, non vi può essere alcun dubbio sulla genuinità delle loro bande d’ottoni, poiché una banda d’ottoni è puramente spirituale, e cerca solo di ravvivare la vita interiore. L’oggetto della filantropia è fare il bene; l’oggetto della religione è essere buoni, non fosse che per un momento, tra un fragore d’ottoni.

E la medesima antitesi esiste a proposito di un’altra religione moderna — intendo la religione di Comte, generalmente nota come Positivismo, ossia il culto dell’umanità. Uomini come il signor Frederic Harrison, quel brillante e cavalleresco filosofo che ancora, per la sua sola personalità, parla in nome del credo, ci direbbero che ci offre la filosofia di Comte, ma non tutte le fantastiche proposte di Comte per pontefici e cerimoniali, il nuovo calendario, le nuove festività e i giorni dei santi. Non intende che dovremmo agghindarci da sacerdoti dell’umanità o lanciare fuochi d’artificio perché è il compleanno di Milton. Al solido comtiano inglese tutto ciò appare, egli confessa, un po’ assurdo. A me appare l’unica parte sensata del comtismo. Come filosofia è insoddisfacente. È evidentemente impossibile adorare l’umanità, così come è impossibile adorare il Savile Club; entrambe sono ottime istituzioni cui ci può capitare di appartenere. Ma percepiamo chiaramente che il Savile Club non fece le stelle e non riempie l’universo. Ed è certo irragionevole attaccare la dottrina della Trinità come un pezzo di sconcertante misticismo, e poi chiedere agli uomini di adorare un essere che è novanta milioni di persone in un solo Dio, senza confondere le persone né dividere la sostanza.

But if the wisdom of Comte was insufficient, the folly of Comte was wisdom. In an age of dusty modernity, when beauty was thought of as something barbaric and ugliness as something sensible, he alone saw that men must always have the sacredness of mummery. He saw that while the brutes have all the useful things, the things that are truly human are the useless ones. He saw the falsehood of that almost universal notion of to-day, the notion that rites and forms are something artificial, additional, and corrupt. Ritual is really much older than thought; it is much simpler and much wilder than thought. A feeling touching the nature of things does not only make men feel that there are certain proper things to say; it makes them feel that there are certain proper things to do. The more agreeable of these consist of dancing, building temples, and shouting very loud; the less agreeable, of wearing green carnations and burning other philosophers alive. But everywhere the religious dance came before the religious hymn, and man was a ritualist before he could speak. If Comtism had spread the world would have been converted, not by the Comtist philosophy, but by the Comtist calendar. By discouraging what they conceive to be the weakness of their master, the English Positivists have broken the strength of their religion. A man who has faith must be prepared not only to be a martyr, but to be a fool. It is absurd to say that a man is ready to toil and die for his convictions when he is not even ready to wear a wreath round his head for them. I myself, to take a corpus vile, am very certain that I would not read the works of Comte through for any consideration whatever. But I can easily imagine myself with the greatest enthusiasm lighting a bonfire on Darwin Day.

That splendid effort failed, and nothing in the style of it has succeeded. There has been no rationalist festival, no rationalist ecstasy. Men are still in black for the death of God. When Christianity was heavily bombarded in the last century upon no point was it more persistently and brilliantly attacked than upon that of its alleged enmity to human joy. Shelley and Swinburne and all their armies have passed again and again over the ground, but they have not altered it. They have not set up a single new trophy or ensign for the world’s merriment to rally to. They have not given a name or a new occasion of gaiety. Mr. Swinburne does not hang up his stocking on the eve of the birthday of Victor Hugo. Mr. William Archer does not sing carols descriptive of the infancy of Ibsen outside people’s doors in the snow. In the round of our rational and mournful year one festival remains out of all those ancient gaieties that once covered the whole earth. Christmas remains to remind us of those ages, whether Pagan or Christian, when the many acted poetry instead of the few writing it. In all the winter in our woods there is no tree in glow but the holly.

The strange truth about the matter is told in the very word “holiday.” A bank holiday means presumably a day which bankers regard as holy. A half-holiday means, I suppose, a day on which a schoolboy is only partially holy. It is hard to see at first sight why so human a thing as leisure and larkiness should always have a religious origin. Rationally there appears no reason why we should not sing and give each other presents in honour of anything—the birth of Michael Angelo or the opening of Euston Station. But it does not work. As a fact, men only become greedily and gloriously material about something spiritualistic. Take away the Nicene Creed and similar things, and you do some strange wrong to the sellers of sausages. Take away the strange beauty of the saints, and what has remained to us is the far stranger ugliness of Wandsworth. Take away the supernatural, and what remains is the unnatural.

And now I have to touch upon a very sad matter. There are in the modern world an admirable class of persons who really make protest on behalf of that antiqua pulchritudo of which Augustine spoke, who do long for the old feasts and formalities of the childhood of the world. William Morris and his followers showed how much brighter were the dark ages than the age of Manchester. Mr. W. B. Yeats frames his steps in prehistoric dances, but no man knows and joins his voice to forgotten choruses that no one but he can hear. Mr. George Moore collects every fragment of Irish paganism that the forgetfulness of the Catholic Church has left or possibly her wisdom preserved. There are innumerable persons with eye-glasses and green garments who pray for the return of the maypole or the Olympian games. But there is about these people a haunting and alarming something which suggests that it is just possible that they do not keep Christmas. It is painful to regard human nature in such a light, but it seems somehow possible that Mr. George Moore does not wave his spoon and shout when the pudding is set alight. It is even possible that Mr. W. B. Yeats never pulls crackers. If so, where is the sense of all their dreams of festive traditions? Here is a solid and ancient festive tradition still plying a roaring trade in the streets, and they think it vulgar. if this is so, let them be very certain of this, that they are the kind of people who in the time of the maypole would have thought the maypole vulgar; who in the time of the Canterbury pilgrimage would have thought the Canterbury pilgrimage vulgar; who in the time of the Olympian games would have thought the Olympian games vulgar. Nor can there be any reasonable doubt that they were vulgar. Let no man deceive himself; if by vulgarity we mean coarseness of speech, rowdiness of behaviour, gossip, horseplay, and some heavy drinking, vulgarity there always was wherever there was joy, wherever there was faith in the gods. Wherever you have belief you will have hilarity, wherever you have hilarity you will have some dangers. And as creed and mythology produce this gross and vigorous life, so in its turn this gross and vigorous life will always produce creed and mythology. If we ever get the English back on to the English land they will become again a religious people, if all goes well, a superstitious people. The absence from modern life of both the higher and lower forms of faith is largely due to a divorce from nature and the trees and clouds. If we have no more turnip ghosts it is chiefly from the lack of turnips.

Ma se la saggezza di Comte fu insufficiente, la follia di Comte fu saggezza. In un’epoca di polverosa modernità, quando la bellezza era considerata qualcosa di barbaro e la bruttezza qualcosa di sensato, egli solo vide che gli uomini devono sempre avere la sacralità della mascherata. Vide che, mentre i bruti hanno tutte le cose utili, le cose veramente umane sono quelle inutili. Vide la falsità di quella nozione quasi universale d’oggigiorno, la nozione che i riti e le forme siano qualcosa di artificiale, di aggiunto e di corrotto. Il rituale è in realtà molto più antico del pensiero; è molto più semplice e molto più selvaggio del pensiero. Un sentimento che tocca la natura delle cose non fa soltanto sentire agli uomini che vi sono certe cose giuste da dire; fa loro sentire che vi sono certe cose giuste da fare. Le più gradevoli di queste consistono nel danzare, nell’erigere templi e nel gridare a gran voce; le meno gradevoli, nel portare garofani verdi e nel bruciare vivi altri filosofi. Ma dappertutto la danza religiosa venne prima dell’inno religioso, e l’uomo fu ritualista prima di saper parlare. Se il comtismo si fosse diffuso, il mondo sarebbe stato convertito non dalla filosofia comtiana, ma dal calendario comtiano. Scoraggiando ciò che concepiscono come la debolezza del loro maestro, i Positivisti inglesi hanno spezzato la forza della loro religione. Un uomo che ha fede dev’essere pronto non solo a essere martire, ma a essere folle. È assurdo dire che un uomo è pronto a faticare e a morire per le sue convinzioni quando non è nemmeno pronto a cingersi il capo di una ghirlanda per esse. Io stesso, per prendere un corpus vile, sono ben certo che non leggerei le opere di Comte da cima a fondo per nessuna ricompensa al mondo. Ma posso facilmente immaginare me stesso mentre, col più grande entusiasmo, accendo un falò nel Giorno di Darwin.

Quello splendido sforzo fallì, e nulla nel suo stile ha avuto successo. Non vi è stata alcuna festa razionalista, alcuna estasi razionalista. Gli uomini sono ancora in nero per la morte di Dio. Quando il Cristianesimo fu pesantemente bombardato nel secolo scorso, su nessun punto fu attaccato più tenacemente e brillantemente che su quello della sua presunta inimicizia verso la gioia umana. Shelley e Swinburne e tutti i loro eserciti sono passati e ripassati sul terreno, ma non l’hanno mutato. Non hanno innalzato un solo nuovo trofeo o insegna intorno a cui possa raccogliersi l’allegria del mondo. Non hanno dato un nome o una nuova occasione di gaiezza. Il signor Swinburne non appende la calza alla vigilia del compleanno di Victor Hugo. Il signor William Archer non canta canti descrittivi dell’infanzia di Ibsen davanti alle porte della gente nella neve. Nel giro del nostro razionale e mesto anno, un’unica festa rimane fra tutte quelle antiche gaiezze che un tempo coprivano l’intera terra. Il Natale rimane a ricordarci quelle età, pagane o cristiane, in cui i molti recitavano la poesia invece dei pochi che la scrivevano. In tutto l’inverno nei nostri boschi non v’è albero che risplenda tranne l’agrifoglio.

La strana verità su questa faccenda è detta nella parola stessa «holiday» (giorno festivo). Un «bank holiday» significa presumibilmente un giorno che i banchieri considerano santo. Un «half-holiday» (mezza festa) significa, suppongo, un giorno in cui uno scolaro è solo parzialmente santo. È arduo capire a prima vista perché una cosa tanto umana come lo svago e la spensieratezza debba avere sempre un’origine religiosa. Razionalmente non appare alcuna ragione per cui non dovremmo cantare e scambiarci doni in onore di qualunque cosa — la nascita di Michael Angelo o l’inaugurazione della stazione di Euston. Ma non funziona. Di fatto, gli uomini diventano avidamente e gloriosamente materiali soltanto intorno a qualcosa di spiritualistico. Togliete il Credo niceno e cose simili, e farete uno strano torto ai venditori di salsicce. Togliete la strana bellezza dei santi, e ciò che ci resta è la ben più strana bruttezza di Wandsworth. Togliete il Soprannaturale, e ciò che resta è l’innaturale.

E ora devo toccare una faccenda assai triste. Vi è nel mondo moderno una classe ammirevole di persone che davvero protestano in favore di quella antiqua pulchritudo di cui parlava Agostino, che davvero anelano alle vecchie feste e formalità dell’infanzia del mondo. William Morris e i suoi seguaci mostrarono quanto più luminosi fossero i secoli bui dell’età di Manchester. Il signor W. B. Yeats intreccia i suoi passi in danze preistoriche, ma nessuno lo conosce e unisce la sua voce a cori dimenticati che nessuno tranne lui può udire. Il signor George Moore raccoglie ogni frammento del paganesimo irlandese che la smemoratezza della Chiesa cattolica ha lasciato, o che forse la sua saggezza ha preservato. Vi sono innumerevoli persone con gli occhiali e le vesti verdi che pregano per il ritorno dell’albero di maggio o dei giochi olimpici. Ma vi è in queste persone un che di ossessivo e di allarmante che suggerisce essere solo possibile che esse non festeggino il Natale. È penoso considerare la natura umana sotto una tale luce, ma pare in qualche modo possibile che il signor George Moore non agiti il cucchiaio e non gridi quando si dà fuoco al budino. È perfino possibile che il signor W. B. Yeats non tiri mai i «crackers». Se è così, che senso hanno tutti i loro sogni di tradizioni festive? Ecco qui una solida e antica tradizione festiva che ancora esercita un fiorente commercio per le strade, ed essi la giudicano volgare. Se è così, siano ben certi di questo, che sono il genere di persone che nel tempo dell’albero di maggio avrebbero giudicato volgare l’albero di maggio; che nel tempo del pellegrinaggio di Canterbury avrebbero giudicato volgare il pellegrinaggio di Canterbury; che nel tempo dei giochi olimpici avrebbero giudicato volgari i giochi olimpici. Né vi può essere alcun ragionevole dubbio che essi fossero volgari. Nessuno si inganni; se per volgarità intendiamo grossolanità di linguaggio, chiassosità di comportamento, pettegolezzo, giochi turbolenti e un po’ di robusto bere, la volgarità ci fu sempre là dove ci fu gioia, là dove ci fu fede negli dèi. Dovunque avete la fede, avrete l’ilarità, dovunque avete l’ilarità, avrete qualche pericolo. E come il credo e la mitologia producono questa vita grossolana e vigorosa, così a sua volta questa vita grossolana e vigorosa produrrà sempre credo e mitologia. Se mai riporteremo gli inglesi sulla terra inglese, ridiventeranno un popolo religioso, se tutto va bene, un popolo superstizioso. L’assenza dalla vita moderna sia delle forme più alte sia di quelle più basse della fede è dovuta in gran parte a un divorzio dalla natura, dagli alberi e dalle nubi. Se non abbiamo più fantasmi di rapa, è soprattutto per la mancanza di rape.

VII. Omar and the Sacred Vine

A new morality has burst upon us with some violence in connection with the problem of strong drink; and enthusiasts in the matter range from the man who is violently thrown out at 12.30, to the lady who smashes American bars with an axe. In these discussions it is almost always felt that one very wise and moderate position is to say that wine or such stuff should only be drunk as a medicine. With this I should venture to disagree with a peculiar ferocity. The one genuinely dangerous and immoral way of drinking wine is to drink it as a medicine. And for this reason: If a man drinks wine in order to obtain pleasure, he is trying to obtain something exceptional, something he does not expect every hour of the day, something which, unless he is a little insane, he will not try to get every hour of the day. But if a man drinks wine in order to obtain health, he is trying to get something natural; something, that is, that he ought not to be without; something that he may find it difficult to reconcile himself to being without. The man may not be seduced who has seen the ecstasy of being ecstatic; it is more dazzling to catch a glimpse of the ecstasy of being ordinary. If there were a magic ointment, and we took it to a strong man, and said, “This will enable you to jump off the Monument,” doubtless he would jump off the Monument, but he would not jump off the Monument all day long to the delight of the City. But if we took it to a blind man, saying, “This will enable you to see,” he would be under a heavier temptation. It would be hard for him not to rub it on his eyes whenever he heard the hoof of a noble horse or the birds singing at daybreak. It is easy to deny one’s self festivity; it is difficult to deny one’s self normality. Hence comes the fact which every doctor knows, that it is often perilous to give alcohol to the sick even when they need it. I need hardly say that I do not mean that I think the giving of alcohol to the sick for stimulus is necessarily unjustifiable. But I do mean that giving it to the healthy for fun is the proper use of it, and a great deal more consistent with health.

The sound rule in the matter would appear to be like many other sound rules—a paradox. Drink because you are happy, but never because you are miserable. Never drink when you are wretched without it, or you will be like the grey-faced gin-drinker in the slum; but drink when you would be happy without it, and you will be like the laughing peasant of Italy. Never drink because you need it, for this is rational drinking, and the way to death and hell. But drink because you do not need it, for this is irrational drinking, and the ancient health of the world.

For more than thirty years the shadow and glory of a great Eastern figure has lain upon our English literature. Fitzgerald’s translation of Omar Khayyam concentrated into an immortal poignancy all the dark and drifting hedonism of our time. Of the literary splendour of that work it would be merely banal to speak; in few other of the books of men has there been anything so combining the gay pugnacity of an epigram with the vague sadness of a song. But of its philosophical, ethical, and religious influence which has been almost as great as its brilliancy, I should like to say a word, and that word, I confess, one of uncompromising hostility. There are a great many things which might be said against the spirit of the Rubaiyat, and against its prodigious influence. But one matter of indictment towers ominously above the rest— a genuine disgrace to it, a genuine calamity to us. This is the terrible blow that this great poem has struck against sociability and the joy of life. Some one called Omar “the sad, glad old Persian.” Sad he is; glad he is not, in any sense of the word whatever. He has been a worse foe to gladness than the Puritans.

A pensive and graceful Oriental lies under the rose-tree with his wine-pot and his scroll of poems. It may seem strange that any one’s thoughts should, at the moment of regarding him, fly back to the dark bedside where the doctor doles out brandy. It may seem stranger still that they should go back to the grey wastrel shaking with gin in Houndsditch. But a great philosophical unity links the three in an evil bond. Omar Khayyam’s wine-bibbing is bad, not because it is wine-bibbing. It is bad, and very bad, because it is medical wine-bibbing. It is the drinking of a man who drinks because he is not happy. His is the wine that shuts out the universe, not the wine that reveals it. It is not poetical drinking, which is joyous and instinctive; it is rational drinking, which is as prosaic as an investment, as unsavoury as a dose of camomile. Whole heavens above it, from the point of view of sentiment, though not of style, rises the splendour of some old English drinking-song

“Then pass the bowl, my comrades all, And let the zider vlow.”

For this song was caught up by happy men to express the worth of truly worthy things, of brotherhood and garrulity, and the brief and kindly leisure of the poor. Of course, the great part of the more stolid reproaches directed against the Omarite morality are as false and babyish as such reproaches usually are. One critic, whose work I have read, had the incredible foolishness to call Omar an atheist and a materialist. It is almost impossible for an Oriental to be either; the East understands metaphysics too well for that. Of course, the real objection which a philosophical Christian would bring against the religion of Omar, is not that he gives no place to God, it is that he gives too much place to God. His is that terrible theism which can imagine nothing else but deity, and which denies altogether the outlines of human personality and human will.

VII. Omar e la sacra vite

Una nuova morale ci è piombata addosso con una certa violenza a proposito del problema delle bevande forti; e gli entusiasti in materia vanno dall’uomo che viene buttato fuori a viva forza alle dodici e mezza, fino alla signora che a colpi d’ascia sfascia i bar americani. In queste discussioni si ritiene quasi sempre che una posizione assai saggia e moderata sia quella di dire che il vino, o roba del genere, andrebbe bevuto soltanto come medicina. Su questo mi permetto di dissentire con una ferocia tutta particolare. L’unico modo davvero pericoloso e immorale di bere il vino è berlo come medicina. E per questa ragione: se un uomo beve vino allo scopo di ottenere piacere, egli cerca di ottenere qualcosa di eccezionale, qualcosa che non si aspetta ogni ora del giorno, qualcosa che, a meno di non essere un po’ folle, non tenterà di procurarsi ogni ora del giorno. Ma se un uomo beve vino allo scopo di ottenere salute, egli cerca di ottenere qualcosa di naturale; qualcosa, cioè, di cui non dovrebbe essere privo; qualcosa a cui potrebbe riuscirgli difficile rassegnarsi a rinunciare. Può non lasciarsi sedurre chi ha veduto l’estasi dell’essere estatico; ben più abbagliante è cogliere un barlume dell’estasi dell’essere ordinari. Se ci fosse un unguento magico, e lo portassimo a un uomo robusto dicendogli: «Questo ti permetterà di saltar giù dal Monumento», egli senza dubbio salterebbe giù dal Monumento, ma non salterebbe giù dal Monumento tutto il giorno per la delizia della City. Ma se lo portassimo a un cieco, dicendogli: «Questo ti permetterà di vedere», egli si troverebbe sotto una tentazione più grave. Gli riuscirebbe difficile non spalmarselo sugli occhi ogni volta che udisse lo zoccolo di un nobile cavallo o gli uccelli cantare all’alba. È facile negare a se stessi la festa; è difficile negare a se stessi la normalità. Di qui viene quel fatto che ogni medico conosce, e cioè che spesso è pericoloso somministrare alcol ai malati anche quando ne hanno bisogno. Non ho quasi bisogno di dire che non intendo affatto sostenere che dare alcol ai malati per stimolarli sia necessariamente ingiustificabile. Ma intendo bensì dire che darlo ai sani per divertimento è l’uso appropriato che se ne deve fare, e assai più conforme alla salute.

La regola sana in questa materia sembrerebbe essere, come tante altre regole sane, un paradosso. Bevi perché sei felice, ma mai perché sei infelice. Non bere mai quando senza di esso saresti disperato, o diverrai come il beone dal volto grigio che tracanna gin nei bassifondi; ma bevi quando senza di esso saresti felice, e sarai come il ridente contadino d’Italia. Non bere mai perché ne hai bisogno, ché questo è il bere razionale, e la via che porta alla morte e all’inferno. Ma bevi perché non ne hai bisogno, ché questo è il bere irrazionale, e l’antica salute del mondo.

Da più di trent’anni l’ombra e la gloria di una grande figura orientale gravano sulla nostra letteratura inglese. La traduzione dell’Omar Khayyam fatta da Fitzgerald ha concentrato in una struggente intensità immortale tutto l’edonismo oscuro e alla deriva del nostro tempo. Dello splendore letterario di quell’opera sarebbe banale parlare; in pochi altri libri usciti dalla mano degli uomini si è mai trovato qualcosa che unisse così bene la gaia combattività di un epigramma alla vaga tristezza di una canzone. Ma della sua influenza filosofica, etica e religiosa, che è stata quasi altrettanto grande quanto il suo fulgore, vorrei dire una parola, e quella parola, lo confesso, è di ostilità intransigente. Vi sono moltissime cose che si potrebbero dire contro lo spirito del Rubaiyat, e contro la sua prodigiosa influenza. Ma un solo capo d’accusa si erge minaccioso al di sopra di tutti gli altri: una genuina onta per quell’opera, una genuina calamità per noi. È il colpo terribile che questo grande poema ha vibrato contro la socievolezza e la gioia di vivere. Qualcuno ha chiamato Omar «il vecchio Persiano triste e lieto». Triste egli è; lieto non è, in nessun senso della parola. È stato un nemico della letizia peggiore dei Puritani.

Un Orientale pensoso e aggraziato giace sotto il cespuglio di rose con la sua brocca di vino e il suo rotolo di poesie. Può sembrare strano che i pensieri di chiunque, nel momento stesso in cui lo contempla, volino indietro fino all’oscuro capezzale dove il medico centellina il brandy. Può sembrare ancor più strano che tornino al grigio disgraziato che trema per il gin a Houndsditch. Ma una grande unità filosofica lega i tre in un vincolo malvagio. Il gozzovigliare di vino di Omar Khayyam è cattivo non perché sia gozzovigliare di vino. È cattivo, e molto cattivo, perché è un gozzovigliare di vino medicinale. È il bere di un uomo che beve perché non è felice. Il suo è il vino che esclude l’universo, non il vino che lo rivela. Non è un bere poetico, che è gioioso e istintivo; è un bere razionale, prosaico come un investimento, sgradevole come una dose di camomilla. Interi cieli al di sopra di esso, dal punto di vista del sentimento se non dello stile, si leva lo splendore di qualche vecchia canzone inglese da taverna:

«E allora fate girar la coppa, compagni miei, e lasciate che scorra il sidro.»

Poiché questa canzone fu intonata da uomini felici per esprimere il valore di cose veramente degne, della fratellanza e della loquacità, e del breve e amabile ozio dei poveri. Naturalmente, gran parte dei rimproveri più ottusi mossi contro la morale omariana sono falsi e puerili come tali rimproveri di solito sono. Un critico, di cui ho letto l’opera, ebbe l’incredibile insipienza di chiamare Omar un ateo e un materialista. È quasi impossibile per un Orientale essere l’uno o l’altro; l’Oriente intende la metafisica troppo bene per questo. Naturalmente, la vera obiezione che un cristiano filosofo muoverebbe alla religione di Omar non è che egli non dia posto a Dio, bensì che ne dia troppo. Il suo è quel terribile teismo che non riesce a immaginare nient’altro se non la divinità, e che nega del tutto i contorni della personalità umana e della volontà umana.

“The ball no question makes of Ayes or Noes, But Here or There as strikes the Player goes; And He that tossed you down into the field, He knows about it all—he knows—he knows.”

A Christian thinker such as Augustine or Dante would object to this because it ignores free-will, which is the valour and dignity of the soul. The quarrel of the highest Christianity with this scepticism is not in the least that the scepticism denies the existence of God; it is that it denies the existence of man.

In this cult of the pessimistic pleasure-seeker the Rubaiyat stands first in our time; but it does not stand alone. Many of the most brilliant intellects of our time have urged us to the same self-conscious snatching at a rare delight. Walter Pater said that we were all under sentence of death, and the only course was to enjoy exquisite moments simply for those moments’ sake. The same lesson was taught by the very powerful and very desolate philosophy of Oscar Wilde. It is the carpe diem religion; but the carpe diem religion is not the religion of happy people, but of very unhappy people. Great joy does not gather the rosebuds while it may; its eyes are fixed on the immortal rose which Dante saw. Great joy has in it the sense of immortality; the very splendour of youth is the sense that it has all space to stretch its legs in. In all great comic literature, in “Tristram Shandy” or “Pickwick,” there is this sense of space and incorruptibility; we feel the characters are deathless people in an endless tale.

It is true enough, of course, that a pungent happiness comes chiefly in certain passing moments; but it is not true that we should think of them as passing, or enjoy them simply “for those moments’ sake.” To do this is to rationalize the happiness, and therefore to destroy it. Happiness is a mystery like religion, and should never be rationalized. Suppose a man experiences a really splendid moment of pleasure. I do not mean something connected with a bit of enamel, I mean something with a violent happiness in it—an almost painful happiness. A man may have, for instance, a moment of ecstasy in first love, or a moment of victory in battle. The lover enjoys the moment, but precisely not for the moment’s sake. He enjoys it for the woman’s sake, or his own sake. The warrior enjoys the moment, but not for the sake of the moment; he enjoys it for the sake of the flag. The cause which the flag stands for may be foolish and fleeting; the love may be calf-love, and last a week. But the patriot thinks of the flag as eternal; the lover thinks of his love as something that cannot end. These moments are filled with eternity; these moments are joyful because they do not seem momentary. Once look at them as moments after Pater’s manner, and they become as cold as Pater and his style. Man cannot love mortal things. He can only love immortal things for an instant.

Pater’s mistake is revealed in his most famous phrase. He asks us to burn with a hard, gem-like flame. Flames are never hard and never gem-like—they cannot be handled or arranged. So human emotions are never hard and never gem-like; they are always dangerous, like flames, to touch or even to examine. There is only one way in which our passions can become hard and gem-like, and that is by becoming as cold as gems. No blow then has ever been struck at the natural loves and laughter of men so sterilizing as this carpe diem of the aesthetes. For any kind of pleasure a totally different spirit is required; a certain shyness, a certain indeterminate hope, a certain boyish expectation. Purity and simplicity are essential to passions— yes even to evil passions. Even vice demands a sort of virginity.

Omar’s (or Fitzgerald’s) effect upon the other world we may let go, his hand upon this world has been heavy and paralyzing. The Puritans, as I have said, are far jollier than he. The new ascetics who follow Thoreau or Tolstoy are much livelier company; for, though the surrender of strong drink and such luxuries may strike us as an idle negation, it may leave a man with innumerable natural pleasures, and, above all, with man’s natural power of happiness. Thoreau could enjoy the sunrise without a cup of coffee. If Tolstoy cannot admire marriage, at least he is healthy enough to admire mud. Nature can be enjoyed without even the most natural luxuries. A good bush needs no wine. But neither nature nor wine nor anything else can be enjoyed if we have the wrong attitude towards happiness, and Omar (or Fitzgerald) did have the wrong attitude towards happiness. He and those he has influenced do not see that if we are to be truly gay, we must believe that there is some eternal gaiety in the nature of things. We cannot enjoy thoroughly even a pas-de-quatre at a subscription dance unless we believe that the stars are dancing to the same tune. No one can be really hilarious but the serious man. “Wine,” says the Scripture, “maketh glad the heart of man,” but only of the man who has a heart. The thing called high spirits is possible only to the spiritual. Ultimately a man cannot rejoice in anything except the nature of things. Ultimately a man can enjoy nothing except religion. Once in the world’s history men did believe that the stars were dancing to the tune of their temples, and they danced as men have never danced since. With this old pagan eudaemonism the sage of the Rubaiyat has quite as little to do as he has with any Christian variety. He is no more a Bacchanal than he is a saint. Dionysus and his church was grounded on a serious joie-de-vivre like that of Walt Whitman. Dionysus made wine, not a medicine, but a sacrament. Jesus Christ also made wine, not a medicine, but a sacrament. But Omar makes it, not a sacrament, but a medicine. He feasts because life is not joyful; he revels because he is not glad. “Drink,” he says, “for you know not whence you come nor why. Drink, for you know not when you go nor where. Drink, because the stars are cruel and the world as idle as a humming-top. Drink, because there is nothing worth trusting, nothing worth fighting for. Drink, because all things are lapsed in a base equality and an evil peace.” So he stands offering us the cup in his hand. And at the high altar of Christianity stands another figure, in whose hand also is the cup of the vine. “Drink” he says “for the whole world is as red as this wine, with the crimson of the love and wrath of God. Drink, for the trumpets are blowing for battle and this is the stirrup-cup. Drink, for this my blood of the new testament that is shed for you. Drink, for I know of whence you come and why. Drink, for I know of when you go and where.”

«La palla non solleva questione di Sì o di No, ma di Qua o di Là, dove la spinge il colpo del Giocatore; e Colui che ti ha gettato giù nel campo, Egli sa tutto di ciò — lo sa — lo sa.»

Un pensatore cristiano come Agostino o Dante obietterebbe a questo perché ignora il libero arbitrio, che è il valore e la dignità dell’anima. La contesa del più alto Cristianesimo con questo scetticismo non consiste minimamente nel fatto che lo scetticismo neghi l’esistenza di Dio; consiste nel fatto che esso nega l’esistenza dell’uomo.

In questo culto del cercatore di piaceri pessimista il Rubaiyat sta al primo posto nel nostro tempo; ma non sta solo. Molti degli intelletti più brillanti del nostro tempo ci hanno spinto verso lo stesso autocosciente afferrare al volo un raro diletto. Walter Pater diceva che eravamo tutti condannati a morte, e che l’unica via era godere gli attimi squisiti semplicemente in vista di quegli attimi. La stessa lezione fu insegnata dalla potentissima e desolatissima filosofia di Oscar Wilde. È la religione del carpe diem; ma la religione del carpe diem non è la religione della gente felice, bensì della gente molto infelice. La grande gioia non coglie i boccioli di rosa finché può; i suoi occhi sono fissi sulla rosa immortale che Dante vide. La grande gioia ha in sé il senso dell’immortalità; il vero splendore della giovinezza è la sensazione di avere tutto lo spazio in cui distendere le gambe. In tutta la grande letteratura comica, nel «Tristram Shandy» o nel «Pickwick», c’è questo senso di spazio e di incorruttibilità; sentiamo che i personaggi sono gente immortale in un racconto senza fine.

È abbastanza vero, certo, che una felicità pungente giunge soprattutto in certi attimi fuggevoli; ma non è vero che dovremmo pensarli come fuggevoli, o goderli semplicemente «in vista di quegli attimi». Fare questo significa razionalizzare la felicità, e dunque distruggerla. La felicità è un mistero come la religione, e non dovrebbe mai essere razionalizzata. Supponiamo che un uomo provi un momento davvero splendido di piacere. Non intendo qualcosa che abbia a che fare con un pezzetto di smalto, intendo qualcosa che racchiuda una felicità violenta — una felicità quasi dolorosa. Un uomo può avere, per esempio, un momento di estasi nel primo amore, o un momento di vittoria in battaglia. L’amante gode il momento, ma appunto non in vista del momento. Lo gode in vista della donna, o in vista di se stesso. Il guerriero gode il momento, ma non in vista del momento; lo gode in vista della bandiera. La causa che la bandiera rappresenta può essere sciocca e fugace; l’amore può essere un amore da ragazzi, e durare una settimana. Ma il patriota pensa alla bandiera come a qualcosa di eterno; l’amante pensa al suo amore come a qualcosa che non può finire. Questi momenti sono colmi di eternità; questi momenti sono gioiosi perché non sembrano momentanei. Guardali una volta come momenti alla maniera di Pater, e diventano freddi come Pater e il suo stile. L’uomo non può amare le cose mortali. Egli può amare le cose immortali solo per un istante.

L’errore di Pater si rivela nella sua frase più famosa. Ci chiede di ardere di una fiamma dura, simile a una gemma. Le fiamme non sono mai dure né mai simili a gemme: non possono essere maneggiate né disposte a piacere. Così le emozioni umane non sono mai dure né mai simili a gemme; sono sempre pericolose, come le fiamme, a toccarle o anche solo a esaminarle. C’è un solo modo in cui le nostre passioni possono diventare dure e simili a gemme, ed è diventando fredde come le gemme. Nessun colpo è mai stato vibrato contro gli amori e le risa naturali degli uomini così sterilizzante come questo carpe diem degli esteti. Per qualsiasi genere di piacere si richiede uno spirito totalmente diverso; una certa timidezza, una certa indeterminata speranza, una certa attesa fanciullesca. La purezza e la semplicità sono essenziali alle passioni — sì, anche alle passioni malvagie. Persino il vizio esige una sorta di verginità.

L’effetto di Omar (o di Fitzgerald) sull’altro mondo possiamo lasciarlo perdere; la sua mano su questo mondo è stata pesante e paralizzante. I Puritani, come ho detto, sono di gran lunga più gioviali di lui. I nuovi asceti che seguono Thoreau o Tolstoj sono compagnia assai più vivace; poiché, per quanto la rinuncia alle bevande forti e a simili lussi possa colpirci come una vana negazione, essa può lasciare a un uomo innumerevoli piaceri naturali e, soprattutto, il naturale potere umano di essere felice. Thoreau sapeva godere l’alba senza una tazza di caffè. Se Tolstoj non può ammirare il matrimonio, è almeno abbastanza sano da ammirare il fango. La Natura può essere goduta anche senza i più naturali dei lussi. A un buon cespuglio non serve vino. Ma né la Natura, né il vino, né qualsiasi altra cosa possono essere goduti se abbiamo l’atteggiamento sbagliato verso la felicità, e Omar (o Fitzgerald) aveva davvero l’atteggiamento sbagliato verso la felicità. Egli, e coloro che ha influenzato, non vedono che, se dobbiamo essere veramente allegri, dobbiamo credere che vi sia una qualche eterna allegria nella natura delle cose. Non possiamo goderci fino in fondo neppure un pas-de-quatre a un ballo su sottoscrizione a meno di non credere che le stelle danzino sulla stessa aria. Nessuno può essere davvero ilare se non l’uomo serio. «Il vino», dice la Scrittura, «rallegra il cuore dell’uomo», ma soltanto dell’uomo che ha un cuore. Ciò che si chiama buonumore è possibile solo agli spirituali. In ultima analisi un uomo non può rallegrarsi di nulla se non della natura delle cose. In ultima analisi un uomo non può godere di nulla se non della religione. Una volta, nella storia del mondo, gli uomini credettero davvero che le stelle danzassero sull’aria dei loro templi, e danzarono come gli uomini non hanno più danzato da allora. Con questo antico eudemonismo pagano il saggio del Rubaiyat ha ben poco a che fare, tanto poco quanto ne ha con qualsiasi varietà cristiana. Non è più un baccante di quanto sia un santo. Dioniso e la sua chiesa erano fondati su una seria joie-de-vivre come quella di Walt Whitman. Dioniso fece del vino non una medicina, ma un sacramento. Anche Gesù Cristo fece del vino non una medicina, ma un sacramento. Ma Omar ne fa non un sacramento, bensì una medicina. Egli banchetta perché la vita non è gioiosa; gozzoviglia perché non è lieto. «Bevi», dice, «perché non sai donde vieni né perché. Bevi, perché non sai quando te ne vai né dove. Bevi, perché le stelle sono crudeli e il mondo è ozioso come una trottola ronzante. Bevi, perché non c’è nulla di cui valga la pena fidarsi, nulla per cui valga la pena combattere. Bevi, perché tutte le cose sono precipitate in una vile uguaglianza e in una malvagia pace.» Così egli sta lì porgendoci la coppa nella sua mano. E all’alto altare del Cristianesimo sta un’altra figura, nella cui mano è anch’essa la coppa della vite. «Bevi», dice, «perché il mondo intero è rosso come questo vino, del cremisi dell’amore e dell’ira di Dio. Bevi, perché le trombe suonano a battaglia e questo è il bicchiere della staffa. Bevi, perché questo è il mio sangue del nuovo testamento, che è versato per te. Bevi, perché io so donde vieni e perché. Bevi, perché io so quando te ne vai e dove.»

VIII. The Mildness of the Yellow Press

There is a great deal of protest made from one quarter or another nowadays against the influence of that new journalism which is associated with the names of Sir Alfred Harmsworth and Mr. Pearson. But almost everybody who attacks it attacks on the ground that it is very sensational, very violent and vulgar and startling. I am speaking in no affected contrariety, but in the simplicity of a genuine personal impression, when I say that this journalism offends as being not sensational or violent enough. The real vice is not that it is startling, but that it is quite insupportably tame. The whole object is to keep carefully along a certain level of the expected and the commonplace; it may be low, but it must take care also to be flat. Never by any chance in it is there any of that real plebeian pungency which can be heard from the ordinary cabman in the ordinary street. We have heard of a certain standard of decorum which demands that things should be funny without being vulgar, but the standard of this decorum demands that if things are vulgar they shall be vulgar without being funny. This journalism does not merely fail to exaggerate life—it positively underrates it; and it has to do so because it is intended for the faint and languid recreation of men whom the fierceness of modern life has fatigued. This press is not the yellow press at all; it is the drab press. Sir Alfred Harmsworth must not address to the tired clerk any observation more witty than the tired clerk might be able to address to Sir Alfred Harmsworth. It must not expose anybody (anybody who is powerful, that is), it must not offend anybody, it must not even please anybody, too much. A general vague idea that in spite of all this, our yellow press is sensational, arises from such external accidents as large type or lurid headlines. It is quite true that these editors print everything they possibly can in large capital letters. But they do this, not because it is startling, but because it is soothing. To people wholly weary or partly drunk in a dimly lighted train, it is a simplification and a comfort to have things presented in this vast and obvious manner. The editors use this gigantic alphabet in dealing with their readers, for exactly the same reason that parents and governesses use a similar gigantic alphabet in teaching children to spell. The nursery authorities do not use an A as big as a horseshoe in order to make the child jump; on the contrary, they use it to put the child at his ease, to make things smoother and more evident. Of the same character is the dim and quiet dame school which Sir Alfred Harmsworth and Mr. Pearson keep. All their sentiments are spelling-book sentiments—that is to say, they are sentiments with which the pupil is already respectfully familiar. All their wildest posters are leaves torn from a copy-book.

Of real sensational journalism, as it exists in France, in Ireland, and in America, we have no trace in this country. When a journalist in Ireland wishes to create a thrill, he creates a thrill worth talking about. He denounces a leading Irish member for corruption, or he charges the whole police system with a wicked and definite conspiracy. When a French journalist desires a frisson there is a frisson; he discovers, let us say, that the President of the Republic has murdered three wives. Our yellow journalists invent quite as unscrupulously as this; their moral condition is, as regards careful veracity, about the same. But it is their mental calibre which happens to be such that they can only invent calm and even reassuring things. The fictitious version of the massacre of the envoys of Pekin was mendacious, but it was not interesting, except to those who had private reasons for terror or sorrow. It was not connected with any bold and suggestive view of the Chinese situation. It revealed only a vague idea that nothing could be impressive except a great deal of blood. Real sensationalism, of which I happen to be very fond, may be either moral or immoral. But even when it is most immoral, it requires moral courage. For it is one of the most dangerous things on earth genuinely to surprise anybody. If you make any sentient creature jump, you render it by no means improbable that it will jump on you. But the leaders of this movement have no moral courage or immoral courage; their whole method consists in saying, with large and elaborate emphasis, the things which everybody else says casually, and without remembering what they have said. When they brace themselves up to attack anything, they never reach the point of attacking anything which is large and real, and would resound with the shock. They do not attack the army as men do in France, or the judges as men do in Ireland, or the democracy itself as men did in England a hundred years ago. They attack something like the War Office—something, that is, which everybody attacks and nobody bothers to defend, something which is an old joke in fourth-rate comic papers. Just as a man shows he has a weak voice by straining it to shout, so they show the hopelessly unsensational nature of their minds when they really try to be sensational. With the whole world full of big and dubious institutions, with the whole wickedness of civilization staring them in the face, their idea of being bold and bright is to attack the War Office. They might as well start a campaign against the weather, or form a secret society in order to make jokes about mothers-in-law. Nor is it only from the point of view of particular amateurs of the sensational such as myself, that it is permissible to say, in the words of Cowper’s Alexander Selkirk, that “their tameness is shocking to me.” The whole modern world is pining for a genuinely sensational journalism. This has been discovered by that very able and honest journalist, Mr. Blatchford, who started his campaign against Christianity, warned on all sides, I believe, that it would ruin his paper, but who continued from an honourable sense of intellectual responsibility. He discovered, however, that while he had undoubtedly shocked his readers, he had also greatly advanced his newspaper. It was bought—first, by all the people who agreed with him and wanted to read it; and secondly, by all the people who disagreed with him, and wanted to write him letters. Those letters were voluminous (I helped, I am glad to say, to swell their volume), and they were generally inserted with a generous fulness. Thus was accidentally discovered (like the steam-engine) the great journalistic maxim— that if an editor can only make people angry enough, they will write half his newspaper for him for nothing.

VIII. La mitezza della stampa scandalistica

Da più parti si leva oggigiorno una gran quantità di proteste contro l’influenza di quel nuovo giornalismo che si associa ai nomi di Sir Alfred Harmsworth e del signor Pearson. Ma quasi tutti coloro che lo attaccano lo attaccano perché sarebbe assai sensazionalistico, assai violento, volgare e sconvolgente. Non parlo per affettato spirito di contraddizione, bensì nella semplicità di un’impressione personale sincera, quando affermo che questo giornalismo offende proprio perché non è abbastanza sensazionalistico né violento. Il vizio vero non è che sia sconvolgente, ma che sia intollerabilmente scialbo. Il suo unico scopo è mantenersi con cura entro un certo livello di ciò che è prevedibile e ordinario; potrà anche essere basso, ma deve pure aver cura di restare piatto. Mai, per nessun caso, vi si ritrova un briciolo di quel vero, plebeo mordente che si può udire da un qualsiasi cocchiere in una qualsiasi strada. Abbiamo sentito parlare di un certo canone di decoro che esige che le cose siano spiritose senza essere volgari; ma il canone di questo decoro esige invece che, se le cose sono volgari, esse siano volgari senza essere spiritose. Questo giornalismo non si limita a non esagerare la vita: la sottovaluta positivamente; ed è costretto a farlo perché è destinato allo svago fiacco e languido di uomini che la ferocia della vita moderna ha spossato. Questa stampa non è affatto la stampa gialla; è la stampa grigia. Sir Alfred Harmsworth non deve rivolgere all’impiegato affaticato alcuna osservazione più arguta di quanto l’impiegato affaticato potrebbe rivolgere a Sir Alfred Harmsworth. Non deve smascherare nessuno (nessuno che sia potente, s’intende), non deve offendere nessuno, non deve nemmeno compiacere nessuno, troppo. L’idea generale e vaga che, nonostante tutto ciò, la nostra stampa gialla sia sensazionalistica nasce da accidenti esterni come i caratteri di stampa cubitali o i titoli sanguigni. È verissimo che questi direttori stampano tutto ciò che possono in grandi lettere maiuscole. Ma lo fanno non perché sia sconvolgente, bensì perché è rassicurante. Per gente del tutto sfinita o in parte ubriaca, in un treno fiocamente illuminato, è una semplificazione e un conforto vedersi presentare le cose in questa maniera vasta e ovvia. I direttori adoperano questo alfabeto gigantesco nel trattare con i propri lettori per la medesima ragione per cui genitori e istitutrici adoperano un analogo alfabeto gigantesco nell’insegnare ai bambini a compitare. Le autorità della stanza dei bambini non usano una A grande come un ferro di cavallo per far sobbalzare il bambino; al contrario, la usano per mettere il bambino a proprio agio, per rendere le cose più agevoli ed evidenti. Del medesimo carattere è la scuoletta fioca e quieta che Sir Alfred Harmsworth e il signor Pearson tengono aperta. Tutti i loro sentimenti sono sentimenti da sillabario; vale a dire, sono sentimenti che l’allievo già conosce con rispettosa familiarità. Tutti i loro manifesti più sfrenati sono pagine strappate da un quaderno di bella copia.

Del vero giornalismo sensazionalistico, quale esiste in Francia, in Irlanda e in America, non abbiamo in questo paese la benché minima traccia. Quando un giornalista in Irlanda vuole creare un brivido, crea un brivido di cui valga la pena parlare. Denuncia un eminente deputato irlandese per corruzione, oppure accusa l’intero sistema di polizia di una perfida e ben precisa cospirazione. Quando un giornalista francese desidera un frisson, ecco un frisson: scopre, poniamo, che il Presidente della Repubblica ha assassinato tre mogli. I nostri giornalisti gialli inventano con altrettanta spregiudicatezza; la loro condizione morale, quanto a scrupolosa veracità, è pressappoco la stessa. Ma è il loro calibro mentale a essere tale che possono inventare soltanto cose placide e persino rassicuranti. La versione fittizia del massacro degli inviati a Pechino era menzognera, ma non era interessante, se non per coloro che avevano ragioni private di terrore o di dolore. Non si collegava ad alcuna veduta ardita e suggestiva sulla situazione cinese. Rivelava soltanto la vaga idea che nulla potesse essere impressionante tranne una gran quantità di sangue. Il vero sensazionalismo, di cui io mi trovo a essere assai ghiotto, può essere tanto morale quanto immorale. Ma anche quando è quanto mai immorale, richiede coraggio morale. Poiché è una delle cose più pericolose sulla terra sorprendere davvero qualcuno. Se fai sobbalzare una qualsiasi creatura senziente, rendi tutt’altro che improbabile che essa sobbalzi addosso a te. Ma i capofila di questo movimento non hanno né coraggio morale né coraggio immorale; tutto il loro metodo consiste nel dire, con enfasi ampia ed elaborata, le cose che tutti gli altri dicono casualmente, e senza ricordarsi di ciò che hanno detto. Quando prendono l’abbrivio per attaccare qualcosa, non giungono mai al punto di attaccare qualcosa che sia grande e reale, e che rimbomberebbe sotto il colpo. Non attaccano l’esercito, come fanno gli uomini in Francia, né i giudici, come fanno gli uomini in Irlanda, né la democrazia stessa, come facevano gli uomini in Inghilterra cent’anni fa. Attaccano qualcosa come il Ministero della Guerra: qualcosa, cioè, che tutti attaccano e che nessuno si cura di difendere, qualcosa che è una vecchia barzelletta sui giornali umoristici di quart’ordine. Proprio come un uomo mostra di avere una voce debole sforzandola per gridare, così essi mostrano la natura irrimediabilmente non sensazionalistica delle loro menti quando davvero tentano di essere sensazionalistici. Con il mondo intero pieno di istituzioni grandi e dubbie, con tutta la malvagità della civiltà che li fissa in faccia, la loro idea di essere audaci e brillanti è attaccare il Ministero della Guerra. Tanto varrebbe che avviassero una campagna contro il tempo atmosferico, o che formassero una società segreta allo scopo di fare battute sulle suocere. Né è soltanto dal punto di vista di particolari amatori del sensazionale come me che è lecito dire, con le parole dell’Alexander Selkirk di Cowper, che «la loro mitezza è per me sconvolgente». Il mondo moderno intero si strugge per un giornalismo genuinamente sensazionalistico. Questo l’ha scoperto quel giornalista assai capace e onesto, il signor Blatchford, il quale iniziò la sua campagna contro il Cristianesimo, ammonito da ogni parte, credo, che ciò avrebbe rovinato il suo giornale, ma che proseguì per un onorevole senso di responsabilità intellettuale. Egli scoprì, tuttavia, che se da un lato aveva senza dubbio scandalizzato i suoi lettori, dall’altro aveva anche assai fatto avanzare il suo giornale. Esso veniva comprato: in primo luogo, da tutti coloro che concordavano con lui e volevano leggerlo; e in secondo luogo, da tutti coloro che dissentivano da lui, e volevano scrivergli delle lettere. Quelle lettere erano voluminose (contribuii anch’io, sono lieto di dirlo, a gonfiarne il volume), e venivano generalmente pubblicate con generosa abbondanza. Fu così scoperta per caso (come la macchina a vapore) la grande massima giornalistica: che, purché un direttore riesca a rendere la gente abbastanza infuriata, essa gli scriverà metà del giornale gratis.

Some hold that such papers as these are scarcely the proper objects of so serious a consideration; but that can scarcely be maintained from a political or ethical point of view. In this problem of the mildness and tameness of the Harmsworth mind there is mirrored the outlines of a much larger problem which is akin to it.

The Harmsworthian journalist begins with a worship of success and violence, and ends in sheer timidity and mediocrity. But he is not alone in this, nor does he come by this fate merely because he happens personally to be stupid. Every man, however brave, who begins by worshipping violence, must end in mere timidity. Every man, however wise, who begins by worshipping success, must end in mere mediocrity. This strange and paradoxical fate is involved, not in the individual, but in the philosophy, in the point of view. It is not the folly of the man which brings about this necessary fall; it is his wisdom. The worship of success is the only one out of all possible worships of which this is true, that its followers are foredoomed to become slaves and cowards. A man may be a hero for the sake of Mrs. Gallup’s ciphers or for the sake of human sacrifice, but not for the sake of success. For obviously a man may choose to fail because he loves Mrs. Gallup or human sacrifice; but he cannot choose to fail because he loves success. When the test of triumph is men’s test of everything, they never endure long enough to triumph at all. As long as matters are really hopeful, hope is a mere flattery or platitude; it is only when everything is hopeless that hope begins to be a strength at all. Like all the Christian virtues, it is as unreasonable as it is indispensable.

It was through this fatal paradox in the nature of things that all these modern adventurers come at last to a sort of tedium and acquiescence. They desired strength; and to them to desire strength was to admire strength; to admire strength was simply to admire the statu quo. They thought that he who wished to be strong ought to respect the strong. They did not realize the obvious verity that he who wishes to be strong must despise the strong. They sought to be everything, to have the whole force of the cosmos behind them, to have an energy that would drive the stars. But they did not realize the two great facts—first, that in the attempt to be everything the first and most difficult step is to be something; second, that the moment a man is something, he is essentially defying everything. The lower animals, say the men of science, fought their way up with a blind selfishness. If this be so, the only real moral of it is that our unselfishness, if it is to triumph, must be equally blind. The mammoth did not put his head on one side and wonder whether mammoths were a little out of date. Mammoths were at least as much up to date as that individual mammoth could make them. The great elk did not say, “Cloven hoofs are very much worn now.” He polished his own weapons for his own use. But in the reasoning animal there has arisen a more horrible danger, that he may fail through perceiving his own failure. When modern sociologists talk of the necessity of accommodating one’s self to the trend of the time, they forget that the trend of the time at its best consists entirely of people who will not accommodate themselves to anything. At its worst it consists of many millions of frightened creatures all accommodating themselves to a trend that is not there. And that is becoming more and more the situation of modern England. Every man speaks of public opinion, and means by public opinion, public opinion minus his opinion. Every man makes his contribution negative under the erroneous impression that the next man’s contribution is positive. Every man surrenders his fancy to a general tone which is itself a surrender. And over all the heartless and fatuous unity spreads this new and wearisome and platitudinous press, incapable of invention, incapable of audacity, capable only of a servility all the more contemptible because it is not even a servility to the strong. But all who begin with force and conquest will end in this.

The chief characteristic of the “New journalism” is simply that it is bad journalism. It is beyond all comparison the most shapeless, careless, and colourless work done in our day.

I read yesterday a sentence which should be written in letters of gold and adamant; it is the very motto of the new philosophy of Empire. I found it (as the reader has already eagerly guessed) in Pearson’s Magazine, while I was communing (soul to soul) with Mr. C. Arthur Pearson, whose first and suppressed name I am afraid is Chilperic. It occurred in an article on the American Presidential Election. This is the sentence, and every one should read it carefully, and roll it on the tongue, till all the honey be tasted.

“A little sound common sense often goes further with an audience of American working-men than much high-flown argument. A speaker who, as he brought forward his points, hammered nails into a board, won hundreds of votes for his side at the last Presidential Election.”

I do not wish to soil this perfect thing with comment; the words of Mercury are harsh after the songs of Apollo. But just think for a moment of the mind, the strange inscrutable mind, of the man who wrote that, of the editor who approved it, of the people who are probably impressed by it, of the incredible American working-man, of whom, for all I know, it may be true. Think what their notion of “common sense” must be! It is delightful to realize that you and I are now able to win thousands of votes should we ever be engaged in a Presidential Election, by doing something of this kind. For I suppose the nails and the board are not essential to the exhibition of “common sense;” there may be variations. We may read—

Alcuni sostengono che giornali come questi difficilmente siano il degno oggetto di una considerazione tanto seria; ma ciò difficilmente può reggere da un punto di vista politico o etico. In questo problema della mitezza e dell’insipidezza della mente Harmsworthiana si specchiano i contorni di un problema assai più vasto che gli è affine.

Il giornalista Harmsworthiano comincia con l’adorazione del successo e della violenza, e finisce nella pura pusillanimità e mediocrità. Ma non è solo in questo, né incorre in tale sorte semplicemente perché gli càpita di essere personalmente stupido. Ogni uomo, per quanto coraggioso, che cominci adorando la violenza, deve finire nella mera pusillanimità. Ogni uomo, per quanto saggio, che cominci adorando il successo, deve finire nella mera mediocrità. Questa sorte strana e paradossale è insita non nell’individuo, ma nella filosofia, nel punto di vista. Non è la follia dell’uomo a determinare questa caduta necessaria; è la sua saggezza. L’adorazione del successo è la sola, fra tutte le adorazioni possibili, di cui questo sia vero: che i suoi seguaci sono predestinati a diventare schiavi e codardi. Un uomo può essere un eroe per amore dei cifrari della signora Gallup o per amore del sacrificio umano, ma non per amore del successo. Poiché è evidente che un uomo può scegliere di fallire perché ama la signora Gallup o il sacrificio umano; ma non può scegliere di fallire perché ama il successo. Quando il criterio del trionfo è il criterio con cui gli uomini misurano ogni cosa, essi non resistono mai abbastanza a lungo per trionfare affatto. Finché le cose vanno davvero bene, la speranza è mera lusinga o luogo comune; è soltanto quando tutto è disperato che la speranza comincia a essere una forza. Come tutte le virtù cristiane, essa è tanto irragionevole quanto indispensabile.

Fu attraverso questo fatale paradosso insito nella natura delle cose che tutti questi avventurieri moderni giunsero da ultimo a una sorta di tedio e di acquiescenza. Desideravano la forza; e per loro desiderare la forza equivaleva ad ammirare la forza; ammirare la forza equivaleva semplicemente ad ammirare lo statu quo. Pensavano che colui il quale voleva essere forte dovesse rispettare i forti. Non si rendevano conto dell’ovvia verità che colui il quale vuole essere forte deve disprezzare i forti. Cercavano di essere tutto, di avere alle proprie spalle l’intera forza del cosmo, di possedere un’energia capace di spingere le stelle. Ma non si rendevano conto dei due grandi fatti: primo, che nel tentativo di essere tutto il primo e più arduo passo è essere qualcosa; secondo, che nell’istante in cui un uomo è qualcosa, egli sta essenzialmente sfidando ogni cosa. Gli animali inferiori, dicono gli uomini di scienza, si aprirono la strada verso l’alto con un cieco egoismo. Se così è, l’unica morale reale che se ne trae è che il nostro altruismo, se vuole trionfare, deve essere ugualmente cieco. Il mammut non piegava la testa da un lato a domandarsi se i mammut non fossero un po’ fuori moda. I mammut erano perlomeno all’ultima moda quanto quel singolo mammut sapeva renderli. Il grande alce non diceva: «Gli zoccoli fessi si portano molto adesso». Lucidava le proprie armi per il proprio uso. Ma nell’animale ragionante è sorto un pericolo più orribile: quello di poter fallire per il fatto stesso di percepire il proprio fallimento. Quando i sociologi moderni parlano della necessità di adeguare il proprio io alla tendenza del tempo, dimenticano che la tendenza del tempo, nella sua espressione migliore, consiste interamente di persone che non vogliono adeguarsi ad alcunché. Nella sua espressione peggiore consiste di molti milioni di creature spaventate che tutte si adeguano a una tendenza che non c’è. E questa sta diventando sempre più la situazione dell’Inghilterra moderna. Ogni uomo parla dell’opinione pubblica, e intende per opinione pubblica l’opinione pubblica meno la propria opinione. Ogni uomo rende negativo il proprio contributo, nell’erronea convinzione che il contributo del prossimo sia positivo. Ogni uomo cede la propria fantasia a un tono generale che è esso stesso una resa. E su tutta questa spietata e fatua unità si stende questa nuova, tediosa e banale stampa, incapace d’invenzione, incapace d’audacia, capace soltanto di una servilità tanto più spregevole in quanto non è nemmeno una servilità verso i forti. Ma tutti coloro che cominciano con la forza e la conquista finiranno così.

Il tratto principale del «Nuovo giornalismo» è semplicemente che è cattivo giornalismo. Esso è, senza possibile paragone, il lavoro più informe, sciatto e scolorito prodotto ai giorni nostri.

Ho letto ieri una frase che dovrebbe essere scritta a lettere d’oro e d’adamante; è il vero e proprio motto della nuova filosofia dell’Impero. L’ho trovata (come il lettore avrà già avidamente indovinato) sul Pearson’s Magazine, mentre stavo comunicando (anima con anima) con il signor C. Arthur Pearson, il cui primo e taciuto nome temo sia Chilperico. Compariva in un articolo sull’elezione presidenziale americana. Ecco la frase, e ognuno dovrebbe leggerla con attenzione, e farla rotolare sulla lingua, finché tutto il miele ne sia gustato.

«Un po’ di solido buon senso spesso vale di più, con un uditorio di operai americani, di molte argomentazioni altisonanti. Un oratore che, mentre esponeva i suoi punti, piantava chiodi in un’asse, si guadagnò centinaia di voti per la propria parte all’ultima elezione presidenziale.»

Non voglio insozzare questa cosa perfetta con un commento; le parole di Mercurio sono aspre dopo i canti di Apollo. Ma pensate un momento alla mente, alla strana e imperscrutabile mente, dell’uomo che scrisse ciò, del direttore che lo approvò, delle persone che probabilmente ne restano impressionate, dell’incredibile operaio americano, del quale, per quanto ne so, la cosa potrebbe essere vera. Pensate a quale debba essere la loro nozione di «buon senso»! È delizioso rendersi conto che tu e io siamo ora in grado di conquistarci migliaia di voti, qualora ci trovassimo mai impegnati in un’elezione presidenziale, facendo qualcosa di questo genere. Poiché suppongo che i chiodi e l’asse non siano essenziali all’esibizione del «buon senso»; potrebbero esserci delle varianti. Potremmo leggere:

“A little common sense impresses American working-men more than high-flown argument. A speaker who, as he made his points, pulled buttons off his waistcoat, won thousands of votes for his side.” Or, “Sound common sense tells better in America than high-flown argument. Thus Senator Budge, who threw his false teeth in the air every time he made an epigram, won the solid approval of American working-men.” Or again, “The sound common sense of a gentleman from Earlswood, who stuck straws in his hair during the progress of his speech, assured the victory of Mr. Roosevelt.”

There are many other elements in this article on which I should love to linger. But the matter which I wish to point out is that in that sentence is perfectly revealed the whole truth of what our Chamberlainites, hustlers, bustlers, Empire-builders, and strong, silent men, really mean by “common sense.” They mean knocking, with deafening noise and dramatic effect, meaningless bits of iron into a useless bit of wood. A man goes on to an American platform and behaves like a mountebank fool with a board and a hammer; well, I do not blame him; I might even admire him. He may be a dashing and quite decent strategist. He may be a fine romantic actor, like Burke flinging the dagger on the floor. He may even (for all I know) be a sublime mystic, profoundly impressed with the ancient meaning of the divine trade of the Carpenter, and offering to the people a parable in the form of a ceremony. All I wish to indicate is the abyss of mental confusion in which such wild ritualism can be called “sound common sense.” And it is in that abyss of mental confusion, and in that alone, that the new Imperialism lives and moves and has its being. The whole glory and greatness of Mr. Chamberlain consists in this: that if a man hits the right nail on the head nobody cares where he hits it to or what it does. They care about the noise of the hammer, not about the silent drip of the nail. Before and throughout the African war, Mr. Chamberlain was always knocking in nails, with ringing decisiveness. But when we ask, “But what have these nails held together? Where is your carpentry? Where are your contented Outlanders? Where is your free South Africa? Where is your British prestige? What have your nails done?” then what answer is there? We must go back (with an affectionate sigh) to our Pearson for the answer to the question of what the nails have done: “The speaker who hammered nails into a board won thousands of votes.”

Now the whole of this passage is admirably characteristic of the new journalism which Mr. Pearson represents, the new journalism which has just purchased the Standard. To take one instance out of hundreds, the incomparable man with the board and nails is described in the Pearson’s article as calling out (as he smote the symbolic nail), “Lie number one. Nailed to the Mast! Nailed to the Mast!” In the whole office there was apparently no compositor or office-boy to point out that we speak of lies being nailed to the counter, and not to the mast. Nobody in the office knew that Pearson’s Magazine was falling into a stale Irish bull, which must be as old as St. Patrick. This is the real and essential tragedy of the sale of the Standard. It is not merely that journalism is victorious over literature. It is that bad journalism is victorious over good journalism.

It is not that one article which we consider costly and beautiful is being ousted by another kind of article which we consider common or unclean. It is that of the same article a worse quality is preferred to a better. If you like popular journalism (as I do), you will know that Pearson’s Magazine is poor and weak popular journalism. You will know it as certainly as you know bad butter. You will know as certainly that it is poor popular journalism as you know that the Strand, in the great days of Sherlock Holmes, was good popular journalism. Mr. Pearson has been a monument of this enormous banality. About everything he says and does there is something infinitely weak-minded. He clamours for home trades and employs foreign ones to print his paper. When this glaring fact is pointed out, he does not say that the thing was an oversight, like a sane man. He cuts it off with scissors, like a child of three. His very cunning is infantile. And like a child of three, he does not cut it quite off. In all human records I doubt if there is such an example of a profound simplicity in deception. This is the sort of intelligence which now sits in the seat of the sane and honourable old Tory journalism. If it were really the triumph of the tropical exuberance of the Yankee press, it would be vulgar, but still tropical. But it is not. We are delivered over to the bramble, and from the meanest of the shrubs comes the fire upon the cedars of Lebanon.

The only question now is how much longer the fiction will endure that journalists of this order represent public opinion. It may be doubted whether any honest and serious Tariff Reformer would for a moment maintain that there was any majority for Tariff Reform in the country comparable to the ludicrous preponderance which money has given it among the great dailies. The only inference is that for purposes of real public opinion the press is now a mere plutocratic oligarchy. Doubtless the public buys the wares of these men, for one reason or another. But there is no more reason to suppose that the public admires their politics than that the public admires the delicate philosophy of Mr. Crosse or the darker and sterner creed of Mr. Blackwell. If these men are merely tradesmen, there is nothing to say except that there are plenty like them in the Battersea Park Road, and many much better. But if they make any sort of attempt to be politicians, we can only point out to them that they are not as yet even good journalists.

«Un po’ di buon senso impressiona gli operai americani più delle argomentazioni altisonanti. Un oratore che, mentre esponeva i suoi punti, si strappava i bottoni dal panciotto, si guadagnò migliaia di voti per la propria parte.» Oppure: «Il solido buon senso rende meglio in America delle argomentazioni altisonanti. Così il senatore Budge, che lanciava in aria la propria dentiera ogni volta che faceva un epigramma, si guadagnò la salda approvazione degli operai americani.» O ancora: «Il solido buon senso di un gentiluomo di Earlswood, che si ficcava fili di paglia tra i capelli durante lo svolgimento del suo discorso, assicurò la vittoria del signor Roosevelt.»

Vi sono molti altri elementi in questo articolo sui quali mi piacerebbe indugiare. Ma la cosa che desidero far notare è che in quella frase si rivela perfettamente tutta la verità di ciò che i nostri chamberlainiani, arruffoni, faccendieri, costruttori d’Impero e uomini forti e silenziosi intendono davvero per «buon senso». Intendono conficcare, con fragore assordante ed effetto drammatico, insensati pezzetti di ferro in un inutile pezzo di legno. Un uomo sale su una tribuna americana e si comporta come un buffone da baraccone con un’asse e un martello; ebbene, io non lo biasimo; potrei persino ammirarlo. Potrebbe essere uno stratega spavaldo e affatto rispettabile. Potrebbe essere un fine attore romantico, come Burke che scaglia il pugnale sul pavimento. Potrebbe persino (per quanto ne so) essere un mistico sublime, profondamente compreso dell’antico significato del divino mestiere del Falegname, e offrire al popolo una parabola sotto forma di cerimonia. Tutto ciò che voglio indicare è l’abisso di confusione mentale nel quale un simile selvaggio ritualismo può essere chiamato «solido buon senso». Ed è in quell’abisso di confusione mentale, e in quello soltanto, che il nuovo Imperialismo vive, si muove e ha il suo essere. Tutta la gloria e la grandezza del signor Chamberlain consiste in questo: che se un uomo colpisce il chiodo giusto sulla testa, a nessuno importa dove lo colpisca né che cosa faccia. A loro importa il rumore del martello, non il silenzioso stillare del chiodo. Prima e durante tutta la guerra africana, il signor Chamberlain era sempre a conficcare chiodi, con squillante risolutezza. Ma quando domandiamo: «Ma che cosa hanno tenuto insieme questi chiodi? Dov’è la vostra carpenteria? Dove sono i vostri Outlander soddisfatti? Dov’è il vostro Sudafrica libero? Dov’è il vostro prestigio britannico? Che cosa hanno fatto i vostri chiodi?», allora quale risposta c’è? Dobbiamo tornare (con un affettuoso sospiro) al nostro Pearson per la risposta alla domanda su che cosa abbiano fatto i chiodi: «L’oratore che piantava chiodi in un’asse si guadagnò migliaia di voti».

Ora, l’intero passo è mirabilmente caratteristico del nuovo giornalismo che il signor Pearson rappresenta, il nuovo giornalismo che ha appena acquistato lo Standard. Per prendere un esempio fra le centinaia, l’incomparabile uomo con l’asse e i chiodi è descritto nell’articolo di Pearson mentre grida (nel colpire il chiodo simbolico): «Bugia numero uno. Inchiodata all’albero maestro! Inchiodata all’albero maestro!». In tutta la redazione non vi era, a quanto pare, un solo tipografo o fattorino capace di far notare che si parla di menzogne inchiodate al banco, e non all’albero maestro. Nessuno in redazione sapeva che il Pearson’s Magazine stava cadendo in un trito controsenso irlandese, che dev’essere antico quanto San Patrizio. Questa è la reale ed essenziale tragedia della vendita dello Standard. Non è soltanto che il giornalismo trionfa sulla letteratura. È che il cattivo giornalismo trionfa sul buon giornalismo.

Non è che un certo tipo di articolo, che noi consideriamo prezioso e bello, venga scalzato da un altro tipo di articolo, che noi consideriamo comune o immondo. È che, del medesimo articolo, si preferisce una qualità peggiore a una migliore. Se vi piace il giornalismo popolare (come piace a me), saprete che il Pearson’s Magazine è giornalismo popolare povero e debole. Lo saprete con la stessa certezza con cui riconoscete il burro cattivo. Saprete che è povero giornalismo popolare con la stessa certezza con cui sapete che lo Strand, nei grandi giorni di Sherlock Holmes, era buon giornalismo popolare. Il signor Pearson è stato un monumento a questa enorme banalità. In tutto ciò che dice e fa c’è qualcosa di infinitamente ottuso. Reclama a gran voce le industrie nazionali e ne impiega di straniere per stampare il proprio giornale. Quando questo fatto lampante gli viene fatto notare, non dice che si è trattato di una svista, come farebbe un uomo assennato. Lo ritaglia via con le forbici, come un bambino di tre anni. La sua stessa astuzia è infantile. E, come un bambino di tre anni, non lo ritaglia via del tutto. In tutti gli annali umani dubito che vi sia un simile esempio di profonda semplicità nell’inganno. Questa è la sorta d’intelligenza che ora siede al posto del sano e onorevole vecchio giornalismo Tory. Se fosse davvero il trionfo della tropicale esuberanza della stampa yankee, sarebbe volgare, ma pur sempre tropicale. Ma non lo è. Siamo consegnati al rovo, e dal più meschino degli arbusti esce il fuoco sui cedri del Libano.

L’unica domanda ora è quanto più a lungo durerà la finzione che i giornalisti di questa risma rappresentino l’opinione pubblica. C’è da dubitare che un qualsiasi Riformatore Tariffario onesto e serio possa sostenere per un solo istante che vi fosse nel paese una qualsiasi maggioranza a favore della Riforma Tariffaria paragonabile alla ridicola preponderanza che il denaro le ha conferito fra i grandi quotidiani. L’unica deduzione è che, ai fini della reale opinione pubblica, la stampa è ormai una mera oligarchia plutocratica. Senza dubbio il pubblico compra la merce di questi uomini, per una ragione o per l’altra. Ma non vi è più motivo di supporre che il pubblico ammiri la loro politica di quanto ve ne sia di supporre che il pubblico ammiri la delicata filosofia del signor Crosse o il più tetro e severo credo del signor Blackwell. Se questi uomini sono meri bottegai, non c’è nulla da dire, se non che ce ne sono a bizzeffe come loro nella Battersea Park Road, e molti assai migliori. Ma se compiono un qualsiasi tentativo di essere uomini politici, possiamo soltanto far loro notare che non sono ancora nemmeno dei buoni giornalisti.

IX. The Moods of Mr. George Moore

Mr. George Moore began his literary career by writing his personal confessions; nor is there any harm in this if he had not continued them for the remainder of his life. He is a man of genuinely forcible mind and of great command over a kind of rhetorical and fugitive conviction which excites and pleases. He is in a perpetual state of temporary honesty. He has admired all the most admirable modern eccentrics until they could stand it no longer. Everything he writes, it is to be fully admitted, has a genuine mental power. His account of his reason for leaving the Roman Catholic Church is possibly the most admirable tribute to that communion which has been written of late years. For the fact of the matter is, that the weakness which has rendered barren the many brilliancies of Mr. Moore is actually that weakness which the Roman Catholic Church is at its best in combating. Mr. Moore hates Catholicism because it breaks up the house of looking-glasses in which he lives. Mr. Moore does not dislike so much being asked to believe in the spiritual existence of miracles or sacraments, but he does fundamentally dislike being asked to believe in the actual existence of other people. Like his master Pater and all the aesthetes, his real quarrel with life is that it is not a dream that can be moulded by the dreamer. It is not the dogma of the reality of the other world that troubles him, but the dogma of the reality of this world.

The truth is that the tradition of Christianity (which is still the only coherent ethic of Europe) rests on two or three paradoxes or mysteries which can easily be impugned in argument and as easily justified in life. One of them, for instance, is the paradox of hope or faith— that the more hopeless is the situation the more hopeful must be the man. Stevenson understood this, and consequently Mr. Moore cannot understand Stevenson. Another is the paradox of charity or chivalry that the weaker a thing is the more it should be respected, that the more indefensible a thing is the more it should appeal to us for a certain kind of defence. Thackeray understood this, and therefore Mr. Moore does not understand Thackeray. Now, one of these very practical and working mysteries in the Christian tradition, and one which the Roman Catholic Church, as I say, has done her best work in singling out, is the conception of the sinfulness of pride. Pride is a weakness in the character; it dries up laughter, it dries up wonder, it dries up chivalry and energy. The Christian tradition understands this; therefore Mr. Moore does not understand the Christian tradition.

For the truth is much stranger even than it appears in the formal doctrine of the sin of pride. It is not only true that humility is a much wiser and more vigorous thing than pride. It is also true that vanity is a much wiser and more vigorous thing than pride. Vanity is social—it is almost a kind of comradeship; pride is solitary and uncivilized. Vanity is active; it desires the applause of infinite multitudes; pride is passive, desiring only the applause of one person, which it already has. Vanity is humorous, and can enjoy the joke even of itself; pride is dull, and cannot even smile. And the whole of this difference is the difference between Stevenson and Mr. George Moore, who, as he informs us, has “brushed Stevenson aside.” I do not know where he has been brushed to, but wherever it is I fancy he is having a good time, because he had the wisdom to be vain, and not proud. Stevenson had a windy vanity; Mr. Moore has a dusty egoism. Hence Stevenson could amuse himself as well as us with his vanity; while the richest effects of Mr. Moore’s absurdity are hidden from his eyes.

If we compare this solemn folly with the happy folly with which Stevenson belauds his own books and berates his own critics, we shall not find it difficult to guess why it is that Stevenson at least found a final philosophy of some sort to live by, while Mr. Moore is always walking the world looking for a new one. Stevenson had found that the secret of life lies in laughter and humility. Self is the gorgon. Vanity sees it in the mirror of other men and lives. Pride studies it for itself and is turned to stone.

It is necessary to dwell on this defect in Mr. Moore, because it is really the weakness of work which is not without its strength. Mr. Moore’s egoism is not merely a moral weakness, it is a very constant and influential aesthetic weakness as well. We should really be much more interested in Mr. Moore if he were not quite so interested in himself. We feel as if we were being shown through a gallery of really fine pictures, into each of which, by some useless and discordant convention, the artist had represented the same figure in the same attitude. “The Grand Canal with a distant view of Mr. Moore,” “Effect of Mr. Moore through a Scotch Mist,” “Mr. Moore by Firelight,” “Ruins of Mr. Moore by Moonlight,” and so on, seems to be the endless series. He would no doubt reply that in such a book as this he intended to reveal himself. But the answer is that in such a book as this he does not succeed. One of the thousand objections to the sin of pride lies precisely in this, that self-consciousness of necessity destroys self-revelation. A man who thinks a great deal about himself will try to be many-sided, attempt a theatrical excellence at all points, will try to be an encyclopaedia of culture, and his own real personality will be lost in that false universalism. Thinking about himself will lead to trying to be the universe; trying to be the universe will lead to ceasing to be anything. If, on the other hand, a man is sensible enough to think only about the universe; he will think about it in his own individual way. He will keep virgin the secret of God; he will see the grass as no other man can see it, and look at a sun that no man has ever known. This fact is very practically brought out in Mr. Moore’s “Confessions.” In reading them we do not feel the presence of a clean-cut personality like that of Thackeray and Matthew Arnold. We only read a number of quite clever and largely conflicting opinions which might be uttered by any clever person, but which we are called upon to admire specifically, because they are uttered by Mr. Moore. He is the only thread that connects Catholicism and Protestantism, realism and mysticism—he or rather his name. He is profoundly absorbed even in views he no longer holds, and he expects us to be. And he intrudes the capital “I” even where it need not be intruded—even where it weakens the force of a plain statement. Where another man would say, “It is a fine day,” Mr. Moore says, “Seen through my temperament, the day appeared fine.” Where another man would say “Milton has obviously a fine style,” Mr. Moore would say, “As a stylist Milton had always impressed me.” The Nemesis of this self-centred spirit is that of being totally ineffectual. Mr. Moore has started many interesting crusades, but he has abandoned them before his disciples could begin. Even when he is on the side of the truth he is as fickle as the children of falsehood. Even when he has found reality he cannot find rest. One Irish quality he has which no Irishman was ever without—pugnacity; and that is certainly a great virtue, especially in the present age. But he has not the tenacity of conviction which goes with the fighting spirit in a man like Bernard Shaw. His weakness of introspection and selfishness in all their glory cannot prevent him fighting; but they will always prevent him winning.

IX. Gli umori del signor George Moore

Il signor George Moore inaugurò la propria carriera letteraria scrivendo le sue confessioni personali; e non vi sarebbe stato alcun male in ciò, se non avesse continuato a scriverle per tutto il resto della vita. È uomo di mente genuinamente vigorosa e dotato di gran padronanza di una sorta di convinzione retorica e fuggevole che eccita e diletta. Vive in uno stato perpetuo di onestà provvisoria. Ha ammirato tutti i più mirabili eccentrici moderni finché essi non hanno più potuto sopportarlo. Tutto ciò che scrive, va pienamente riconosciuto, possiede una genuina forza intellettuale. Il resoconto delle ragioni per cui abbandonò la Chiesa cattolica romana è forse il più mirabile tributo a quella comunione che sia stato scritto negli ultimi anni. Poiché il nocciolo della faccenda è che la debolezza la quale ha reso sterili i molti splendori del signor Moore è proprio quella debolezza che la Chiesa cattolica romana meglio d’ogni altra sa combattere. Il signor Moore odia il cattolicesimo perché esso manda in frantumi la casa di specchi in cui egli vive. Al signor Moore non ripugna tanto che gli si chieda di credere nell’esistenza spirituale dei miracoli o dei sacramenti, quanto invece gli ripugna in modo profondo che gli si chieda di credere nell’esistenza reale delle altre persone. Come il suo maestro Pater e come tutti gli esteti, la sua vera contesa con la vita è che essa non è un sogno che il sognatore possa plasmare a piacimento. Non è il dogma della realtà dell’altro mondo a tormentarlo, ma il dogma della realtà di questo mondo.

La verità è che la tradizione del Cristianesimo (che rimane l’unica etica coerente d’Europa) poggia su due o tre paradossi o misteri che è facile confutare nella discussione e altrettanto facile giustificare nella vita. Uno di essi, per esempio, è il paradosso della speranza o della fede: che quanto più disperata è la situazione, tanto più speranzoso deve essere l’uomo. Stevenson lo comprese, e di conseguenza il signor Moore non riesce a comprendere Stevenson. Un altro è il paradosso della carità o della cavalleria: che quanto più debole è una cosa, tanto più la si deve rispettare; che quanto più una cosa è indifendibile, tanto più deve reclamare da noi una certa specie di difesa. Thackeray lo comprese, e perciò il signor Moore non comprende Thackeray. Ora, uno di questi misteri assai pratici e operanti della tradizione cristiana, e uno di quelli che la Chiesa cattolica romana, come dicevo, ha saputo isolare con la sua opera migliore, è la concezione della peccaminosità dell’orgoglio. L’orgoglio è una debolezza del carattere; dissecca il riso, dissecca lo stupore, dissecca la cavalleria e l’energia. La tradizione cristiana lo comprende; perciò il signor Moore non comprende la tradizione cristiana.

Poiché la verità è ancora più singolare di quanto non appaia nella dottrina formale del peccato d’orgoglio. Non solo è vero che l’umiltà è cosa assai più saggia e vigorosa dell’orgoglio. È anche vero che la vanità è cosa assai più saggia e vigorosa dell’orgoglio. La vanità è sociale: è quasi una specie di cameratismo; l’orgoglio è solitario e incivile. La vanità è attiva; desidera l’applauso di moltitudini infinite; l’orgoglio è passivo, e desidera soltanto l’applauso di una sola persona, che già possiede. La vanità è spiritosa, e sa godere lo scherzo persino a proprie spese; l’orgoglio è ottuso, e non sa nemmeno sorridere. E tutta questa differenza è la differenza fra Stevenson e il signor George Moore, il quale, come egli stesso ci informa, ha «scostato Stevenson con un gesto della mano». Non so verso dove lo abbia scostato, ma ovunque sia immagino che stia trascorrendo un lieto momento, poiché ebbe la saggezza di essere vano, e non orgoglioso. Stevenson aveva una vanità ventosa; il signor Moore ha un egoismo polveroso. Perciò Stevenson poteva divertire con la propria vanità sé stesso altrettanto bene di noi; mentre gli effetti più squisiti dell’assurdità del signor Moore restano nascosti ai suoi stessi occhi.

Se paragoniamo questa solenne follia con la lieta follia con cui Stevenson tesse le lodi dei propri libri e strapazza i propri critici, non ci sarà difficile indovinare perché mai Stevenson, almeno, abbia infine trovato una qualche filosofia su cui vivere, mentre il signor Moore va sempre errando per il mondo in cerca di una nuova. Stevenson aveva scoperto che il segreto della vita sta nel riso e nell’umiltà. Il è la gòrgone. La vanità la vede nello specchio degli altri uomini e vive. L’orgoglio la contempla per sé stesso e resta tramutato in pietra.

È necessario soffermarsi su questo difetto del signor Moore, perché esso è veramente la debolezza di un’opera che non è priva della sua forza. L’egoismo del signor Moore non è soltanto una debolezza morale, ma è altresì una debolezza estetica assai costante e influente. In verità proveremmo molto più interesse per il signor Moore, se egli non fosse così interessato a sé stesso. Ci sentiamo come se ci facessero attraversare una galleria di quadri davvero pregevoli, in ciascuno dei quali, per una qualche convenzione inutile e stonata, l’artista avesse ritratto la medesima figura nel medesimo atteggiamento. «Il Canal Grande con una veduta lontana del signor Moore», «Effetto del signor Moore attraverso una nebbiolina scozzese», «Il signor Moore al chiaro di focolare», «Rovine del signor Moore al chiaro di luna», e così via, pare essere la serie senza fine. Egli senza dubbio replicherebbe che in un libro come questo intendeva rivelare sé stesso. Ma la risposta è che in un libro come questo egli non vi riesce. Una delle mille obiezioni al peccato d’orgoglio sta appunto in questo, che la coscienza del distrugge necessariamente la rivelazione del . Un uomo che pensa moltissimo a sé stesso cercherà di essere sfaccettato, tenterà una teatrale eccellenza in ogni punto, cercherà di essere un’enciclopedia di cultura, e la sua vera personalità andrà perduta in quel falso universalismo. Pensare a sé stesso lo condurrà a tentare di essere l’universo; tentare di essere l’universo lo condurrà a cessare di essere alcunché. Se, d’altra parte, un uomo è tanto assennato da pensare soltanto all’universo, penserà ad esso a suo proprio, individuale modo. Custodirà vergine il segreto di Dio; vedrà l’erba come nessun altro sa vederla, e guarderà un sole che nessun uomo ha mai conosciuto. Questo fatto emerge molto praticamente dalle «Confessions» del signor Moore. Leggendole non avvertiamo la presenza di una personalità netta e definita come quella di Thackeray e di Matthew Arnold. Leggiamo soltanto una serie di opinioni assai argute e in gran parte contraddittorie, che qualunque persona arguta potrebbe pronunciare, ma che siamo chiamati ad ammirare precisamente perché le pronuncia il signor Moore. Egli è l’unico filo che collega cattolicesimo e protestantesimo, realismo e misticismo: egli, o piuttosto il suo nome. È profondamente assorto perfino in opinioni che ormai non sostiene più, e si aspetta che lo siamo anche noi. E introduce l’«io» maiuscolo persino là dove non occorre introdurlo, persino là dove esso indebolisce la forza di una semplice affermazione. Dove un altro uomo direbbe: «È una bella giornata», il signor Moore dice: «Vista attraverso il mio temperamento, la giornata appariva bella». Dove un altro uomo direbbe: «Milton ha evidentemente uno stile pregevole», il signor Moore direbbe: «Come stilista, Milton mi aveva sempre colpito». La Nèmesi di questo spirito incentrato sul è quella di essere totalmente inefficace. Il signor Moore ha avviato molte interessanti crociate, ma le ha abbandonate prima ancora che i suoi discepoli potessero cominciarle. Perfino quando sta dalla parte della verità è volubile come i figli della menzogna. Perfino quando ha trovato la realtà non sa trovare quiete. Possiede una qualità irlandese di cui nessun irlandese fu mai privo: la combattività; e questa è certamente una gran virtù, specie nell’età presente. Ma non possiede quella tenacia di convinzione che si accompagna allo spirito battagliero in un uomo come Bernard Shaw. La sua debolezza fatta d’introspezione e di egoismo in tutto il loro splendore non può impedirgli di combattere; ma gli impedirà sempre di vincere.

X. On Sandals and Simplicity

The great misfortune of the modern English is not at all that they are more boastful than other people (they are not); it is that they are boastful about those particular things which nobody can boast of without losing them. A Frenchman can be proud of being bold and logical, and still remain bold and logical. A German can be proud of being reflective and orderly, and still remain reflective and orderly. But an Englishman cannot be proud of being simple and direct, and still remain simple and direct. In the matter of these strange virtues, to know them is to kill them. A man may be conscious of being heroic or conscious of being divine, but he cannot (in spite of all the Anglo-Saxon poets) be conscious of being unconscious.

Now, I do not think that it can be honestly denied that some portion of this impossibility attaches to a class very different in their own opinion, at least, to the school of Anglo-Saxonism. I mean that school of the simple life, commonly associated with Tolstoy. If a perpetual talk about one’s own robustness leads to being less robust, it is even more true that a perpetual talking about one’s own simplicity leads to being less simple. One great complaint, I think, must stand against the modern upholders of the simple life— the simple life in all its varied forms, from vegetarianism to the honourable consistency of the Doukhobors. This complaint against them stands, that they would make us simple in the unimportant things, but complex in the important things. They would make us simple in the things that do not matter— that is, in diet, in costume, in etiquette, in economic system. But they would make us complex in the things that do matter— in philosophy, in loyalty, in spiritual acceptance, and spiritual rejection. It does not so very much matter whether a man eats a grilled tomato or a plain tomato; it does very much matter whether he eats a plain tomato with a grilled mind. The only kind of simplicity worth preserving is the simplicity of the heart, the simplicity which accepts and enjoys. There may be a reasonable doubt as to what system preserves this; there can surely be no doubt that a system of simplicity destroys it. There is more simplicity in the man who eats caviar on impulse than in the man who eats grape-nuts on principle. The chief error of these people is to be found in the very phrase to which they are most attached—“plain living and high thinking.” These people do not stand in need of, will not be improved by, plain living and high thinking. They stand in need of the contrary. They would be improved by high living and plain thinking. A little high living (I say, having a full sense of responsibility, a little high living) would teach them the force and meaning of the human festivities, of the banquet that has gone on from the beginning of the world. It would teach them the historic fact that the artificial is, if anything, older than the natural. It would teach them that the loving-cup is as old as any hunger. It would teach them that ritualism is older than any religion. And a little plain thinking would teach them how harsh and fanciful are the mass of their own ethics, how very civilized and very complicated must be the brain of the Tolstoyan who really believes it to be evil to love one’s country and wicked to strike a blow.

A man approaches, wearing sandals and simple raiment, a raw tomato held firmly in his right hand, and says, “The affections of family and country alike are hindrances to the fuller development of human love;” but the plain thinker will only answer him, with a wonder not untinged with admiration, “What a great deal of trouble you must have taken in order to feel like that.” High living will reject the tomato. Plain thinking will equally decisively reject the idea of the invariable sinfulness of war. High living will convince us that nothing is more materialistic than to despise a pleasure as purely material. And plain thinking will convince us that nothing is more materialistic than to reserve our horror chiefly for material wounds.

The only simplicity that matters is the simplicity of the heart. If that be gone, it can be brought back by no turnips or cellular clothing; but only by tears and terror and the fires that are not quenched. If that remain, it matters very little if a few Early Victorian armchairs remain along with it. Let us put a complex entree into a simple old gentleman; let us not put a simple entree into a complex old gentleman. So long as human society will leave my spiritual inside alone, I will allow it, with a comparative submission, to work its wild will with my physical interior. I will submit to cigars. I will meekly embrace a bottle of Burgundy. I will humble myself to a hansom cab. If only by this means I may preserve to myself the virginity of the spirit, which enjoys with astonishment and fear. I do not say that these are the only methods of preserving it. I incline to the belief that there are others. But I will have nothing to do with simplicity which lacks the fear, the astonishment, and the joy alike. I will have nothing to do with the devilish vision of a child who is too simple to like toys.

The child is, indeed, in these, and many other matters, the best guide. And in nothing is the child so righteously childlike, in nothing does he exhibit more accurately the sounder order of simplicity, than in the fact that he sees everything with a simple pleasure, even the complex things. The false type of naturalness harps always on the distinction between the natural and the artificial. The higher kind of naturalness ignores that distinction. To the child the tree and the lamp-post are as natural and as artificial as each other; or rather, neither of them are natural but both supernatural. For both are splendid and unexplained. The flower with which God crowns the one, and the flame with which Sam the lamplighter crowns the other, are equally of the gold of fairy-tales. In the middle of the wildest fields the most rustic child is, ten to one, playing at steam-engines. And the only spiritual or philosophical objection to steam-engines is not that men pay for them or work at them, or make them very ugly, or even that men are killed by them; but merely that men do not play at them. The evil is that the childish poetry of clockwork does not remain. The wrong is not that engines are too much admired, but that they are not admired enough. The sin is not that engines are mechanical, but that men are mechanical.

In this matter, then, as in all the other matters treated in this book, our main conclusion is that it is a fundamental point of view, a philosophy or religion which is needed, and not any change in habit or social routine. The things we need most for immediate practical purposes are all abstractions. We need a right view of the human lot, a right view of the human society; and if we were living eagerly and angrily in the enthusiasm of those things, we should, ipso facto, be living simply in the genuine and spiritual sense. Desire and danger make every one simple. And to those who talk to us with interfering eloquence about Jaeger and the pores of the skin, and about Plasmon and the coats of the stomach, at them shall only be hurled the words that are hurled at fops and gluttons, “Take no thought what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink, or wherewithal ye shall be clothed. For after all these things do the Gentiles seek. But seek first the kingdom of God and His righteousness, and all these things shall be added unto you.” Those amazing words are not only extraordinarily good, practical politics; they are also superlatively good hygiene. The one supreme way of making all those processes go right, the processes of health, and strength, and grace, and beauty, the one and only way of making certain of their accuracy, is to think about something else. If a man is bent on climbing into the seventh heaven, he may be quite easy about the pores of his skin. If he harnesses his waggon to a star, the process will have a most satisfactory effect upon the coats of his stomach. For the thing called “taking thought,” the thing for which the best modern word is “rationalizing,” is in its nature, inapplicable to all plain and urgent things. Men take thought and ponder rationalistically, touching remote things— things that only theoretically matter, such as the transit of Venus. But only at their peril can men rationalize about so practical a matter as health.

X. Dei sandali e della semplicità

La grande sventura degl’Inglesi moderni non è affatto che siano più vanagloriosi degli altri popoli (non lo sono); è che si vantano proprio di quelle particolari cose delle quali nessuno può vantarsi senza perderle. Un Francese può andar fiero d’essere audace e logico, e rimanere pur sempre audace e logico. Un Tedesco può andar fiero d’essere riflessivo e ordinato, e rimanere pur sempre riflessivo e ordinato. Ma un Inglese non può andar fiero d’essere semplice e diretto, e rimanere pur sempre semplice e diretto. In fatto di queste strane virtù, conoscerle è ucciderle. Un uomo può essere consapevole d’essere eroico o consapevole d’essere divino, ma non può (a dispetto di tutti i poeti anglosassoni) essere consapevole d’essere inconsapevole.

Ora, non credo si possa onestamente negare che qualche porzione di questa impossibilità si attacchi a una classe molto diversa, almeno nella propria opinione, dalla scuola dell’anglosassonismo. Intendo quella scuola della vita semplice, comunemente associata a Tolstoj. Se un perpetuo parlare della propria robustezza conduce a essere meno robusti, è ancor più vero che un perpetuo parlare della propria semplicità conduce a essere meno semplici. Una grande accusa, credo, deve levarsi contro i moderni fautori della vita semplice — la vita semplice in tutte le sue varie forme, dal vegetarianismo all’onorevole coerenza dei Duchobori. Questa accusa contro di loro si regge su questo, che ci renderebbero semplici nelle cose senza importanza, ma complessi nelle cose che contano. Ci renderebbero semplici nelle cose che non importano — cioè nella dieta, nel vestire, nell’etichetta, nel sistema economico. Ma ci renderebbero complessi nelle cose che importano — nella filosofia, nella fedeltà, nell’accettazione spirituale, e nel rifiuto spirituale. Non importa poi molto se un uomo mangi un pomodoro alla griglia o un pomodoro semplice; importa moltissimo invece se mangi un pomodoro semplice con una mente alla griglia. L’unica specie di semplicità che valga la pena di conservare è la semplicità del cuore, la semplicità che accetta e gode. Vi può essere un ragionevole dubbio su quale sistema la preservi; non vi può certo essere alcun dubbio che un sistema di semplicità la distrugga. Vi è più semplicità nell’uomo che mangia caviale per impulso che nell’uomo che mangia fiocchi d’uva per principio. L’errore capitale di questa gente si ritrova proprio nella frase alla quale è più affezionata — «vivere povero e pensare alto». Questa gente non ha bisogno, né trarrebbe alcun miglioramento, dal vivere povero e pensare alto. Ha bisogno del contrario. Trarrebbe miglioramento dal vivere alto e pensare povero. Un poco di vita alta (lo dico, avendo piena coscienza della responsabilità, un poco di vita alta) insegnerebbe loro la forza e il significato delle festività umane, del banchetto che si perpetua fin dal principio del mondo. Insegnerebbe loro il fatto storico che l’artificiale è, semmai, più antico del naturale. Insegnerebbe loro che la coppa dell’amore è antica quanto ogni fame. Insegnerebbe loro che il ritualismo è più antico d’ogni religione. E un poco di pensiero povero insegnerebbe loro quanto aspra e fantasiosa sia la massa della loro stessa etica, quanto molto civilizzato e molto complicato debba essere il cervello del tolstoiano che crede davvero essere un male amare la propria patria e cosa iniqua il vibrare un colpo.

Un uomo s’avvicina, in sandali e semplice veste, un pomodoro crudo saldamente stretto nella destra, e dice: «Gli affetti della famiglia e della patria del pari sono ostacoli al più pieno sviluppo dell’amore umano»; ma il pensatore povero gli risponderà soltanto, con una meraviglia non priva d’ammirazione: «Quanto disturbo dovete esservi preso per arrivare a sentire così». La vita alta rifiuterà il pomodoro. Il pensiero povero rifiuterà con eguale decisione l’idea dell’invariabile peccaminosità della guerra. La vita alta ci convincerà che nulla è più materialistico che disprezzare un piacere in quanto puramente materiale. E il pensiero povero ci convincerà che nulla è più materialistico che riservare il nostro orrore principalmente alle ferite materiali.

L’unica semplicità che importi è la semplicità del cuore. Se quella se n’è andata, non la si può richiamare con rape o vestiti di tessuto cellulare; ma soltanto con lacrime e terrore e i fuochi che non si spengono. Se quella rimane, importa assai poco che qualche poltrona di primo stile vittoriano rimanga insieme a lei. Mettiamo un complesso intingolo dentro un semplice vecchio signore; non mettiamo un semplice intingolo dentro un complesso vecchio signore. Finché la società umana lascerà in pace il mio interno spirituale, le permetterò, con relativa sottomissione, di operare la sua sfrenata volontà sul mio interno fisico. Mi sottometterò ai sigari. Abbraccerò mansueto una bottiglia di Borgogna. Mi umilierò fino a una carrozza da nolo. Se solo per questo mezzo io possa conservare la verginità dello spirito, che gode con stupore e paura. Non dico che questi siano gli unici metodi per conservarla. Inclino a credere che ve ne siano altri. Ma non voglio aver nulla a che fare con una semplicità cui manchino la paura, lo stupore, e la gioia del pari. Non voglio aver nulla a che fare con la diabolica visione d’un bambino troppo semplice per amare i balocchi.

Il bambino è, in verità, in queste e in molte altre faccende, la miglior guida. E in nulla il bambino è così giustamente fanciullesco, in nulla esibisce con più esattezza l’ordine più sano della semplicità, quanto nel fatto che egli vede ogni cosa con un semplice piacere, persino le cose complesse. Il falso tipo di naturalezza insiste sempre sulla distinzione tra il naturale e l’artificiale. La specie più alta di naturalezza ignora quella distinzione. Per il bambino l’albero e il lampione sono naturali e artificiali l’uno quanto l’altro; o piuttosto, nessuno dei due è naturale ma entrambi soprannaturali. Poiché entrambi sono splendidi e inspiegati. Il fiore con cui Dio corona l’uno, e la fiamma con cui Sam il lampionaio corona l’altro, sono egualmente dell’oro delle fiabe. In mezzo ai più selvaggi campi il più rustico bambino sta, dieci a uno, giocando alle locomotive a vapore. E l’unica obiezione spirituale o filosofica alle locomotive a vapore non è che gli uomini le paghino o vi lavorino, o le facciano bruttissime, e neppure che gli uomini ne siano uccisi; ma soltanto che gli uomini non ci giocano. Il male è che la poesia fanciullesca del meccanismo a molla non permane. Il torto non è che le macchine siano troppo ammirate, ma che non siano ammirate abbastanza. Il peccato non è che le macchine siano meccaniche, ma che gli uomini siano meccanici.

In questa faccenda, dunque, come in tutte le altre faccende trattate in questo libro, la nostra conclusione principale è che ciò che occorre è un punto di vista fondamentale, una filosofia o una religione, e non un qualche mutamento d’abitudine o di consuetudine sociale. Le cose di cui abbiamo più bisogno per gli immediati scopi pratici sono tutte astrazioni. Abbiamo bisogno d’una giusta visione della sorte umana, d’una giusta visione della società umana; e se vivessimo avidamente e collericamente nell’entusiasmo di quelle cose, vivremmo, ipso facto, semplicemente nel senso genuino e spirituale. Il desiderio e il pericolo rendono chiunque semplice. E a coloro che ci parlano con intromettente eloquenza del Jaeger e dei pori della pelle, e del Plasmon e delle pareti dello stomaco, ad essi non saranno scagliate se non le parole che si scagliano contro i bellimbusti e i ghiottoni: «Non datevi pensiero di che cosa mangerete o di che cosa berrete, o di che cosa vi vestirete. Poiché di tutte queste cose vanno in cerca i Gentili. Ma cercate prima il regno di Dio e la Sua giustizia, e tutte queste cose vi saranno date in aggiunta». Quelle sorprendenti parole non sono soltanto una straordinariamente buona, pratica politica; sono anche una superlativamente buona igiene. L’unico modo supremo di far andare per il verso giusto tutti quei processi, i processi della salute, e della forza, e della grazia, e della bellezza, l’unico e solo modo d’esser certi della loro precisione, è pensare a qualcos’altro. Se un uomo è deciso a inerpicarsi fino al settimo cielo, può stare del tutto tranquillo sui pori della sua pelle. Se aggioga il proprio carro a una stella, il procedimento avrà un effetto quanto mai soddisfacente sulle pareti del suo stomaco. Poiché quel che si chiama «darsi pensiero», la cosa per cui il miglior termine moderno è «razionalizzare», è per sua natura inapplicabile a tutte le cose piane e urgenti. Gli uomini si danno pensiero e ponderano razionalisticamente, toccando cose remote — cose che solo teoricamente importano, come il transito di Venere. Ma solo a loro rischio e pericolo possono gli uomini razionalizzare su una faccenda tanto pratica quanto la salute.

XI. Science and the Savages

A permanent disadvantage of the study of folk-lore and kindred subjects is that the man of science can hardly be in the nature of things very frequently a man of the world. He is a student of nature; he is scarcely ever a student of human nature. And even where this difficulty is overcome, and he is in some sense a student of human nature, this is only a very faint beginning of the painful progress towards being human. For the study of primitive race and religion stands apart in one important respect from all, or nearly all, the ordinary scientific studies. A man can understand astronomy only by being an astronomer; he can understand entomology only by being an entomologist (or, perhaps, an insect); but he can understand a great deal of anthropology merely by being a man. He is himself the animal which he studies. Hence arises the fact which strikes the eye everywhere in the records of ethnology and folk-lore— the fact that the same frigid and detached spirit which leads to success in the study of astronomy or botany leads to disaster in the study of mythology or human origins. It is necessary to cease to be a man in order to do justice to a microbe; it is not necessary to cease to be a man in order to do justice to men. That same suppression of sympathies, that same waving away of intuitions or guess-work which make a man preternaturally clever in dealing with the stomach of a spider, will make him preternaturally stupid in dealing with the heart of man. He is making himself inhuman in order to understand humanity. An ignorance of the other world is boasted by many men of science; but in this matter their defect arises, not from ignorance of the other world, but from ignorance of this world. For the secrets about which anthropologists concern themselves can be best learnt, not from books or voyages, but from the ordinary commerce of man with man. The secret of why some savage tribe worships monkeys or the moon is not to be found even by travelling among those savages and taking down their answers in a note-book, although the cleverest man may pursue this course. The answer to the riddle is in England; it is in London; nay, it is in his own heart. When a man has discovered why men in Bond Street wear black hats he will at the same moment have discovered why men in Timbuctoo wear red feathers. The mystery in the heart of some savage war-dance should not be studied in books of scientific travel; it should be studied at a subscription ball. If a man desires to find out the origins of religions, let him not go to the Sandwich Islands; let him go to church. If a man wishes to know the origin of human society, to know what society, philosophically speaking, really is, let him not go into the British Museum; let him go into society.

This total misunderstanding of the real nature of ceremonial gives rise to the most awkward and dehumanized versions of the conduct of men in rude lands or ages. The man of science, not realizing that ceremonial is essentially a thing which is done without a reason, has to find a reason for every sort of ceremonial, and, as might be supposed, the reason is generally a very absurd one—absurd because it originates not in the simple mind of the barbarian, but in the sophisticated mind of the professor. The teamed man will say, for instance, “The natives of Mumbojumbo Land believe that the dead man can eat and will require food upon his journey to the other world. This is attested by the fact that they place food in the grave, and that any family not complying with this rite is the object of the anger of the priests and the tribe.” To any one acquainted with humanity this way of talking is topsy-turvy. It is like saying, “The English in the twentieth century believed that a dead man could smell. This is attested by the fact that they always covered his grave with lilies, violets, or other flowers. Some priestly and tribal terrors were evidently attached to the neglect of this action, as we have records of several old ladies who were very much disturbed in mind because their wreaths had not arrived in time for the funeral.” It may be of course that savages put food with a dead man because they think that a dead man can eat, or weapons with a dead man because they think that a dead man can fight. But personally I do not believe that they think anything of the kind. I believe they put food or weapons on the dead for the same reason that we put flowers, because it is an exceedingly natural and obvious thing to do. We do not understand, it is true, the emotion which makes us think it obvious and natural; but that is because, like all the important emotions of human existence, it is essentially irrational. We do not understand the savage for the same reason that the savage does not understand himself. And the savage does not understand himself for the same reason that we do not understand ourselves either.

The obvious truth is that the moment any matter has passed through the human mind it is finally and for ever spoilt for all purposes of science. It has become a thing incurably mysterious and infinite; this mortal has put on immortality. Even what we call our material desires are spiritual, because they are human. Science can analyse a pork-chop, and say how much of it is phosphorus and how much is protein; but science cannot analyse any man’s wish for a pork-chop, and say how much of it is hunger, how much custom, how much nervous fancy, how much a haunting love of the beautiful. The man’s desire for the pork-chop remains literally as mystical and ethereal as his desire for heaven. All attempts, therefore, at a science of any human things, at a science of history, a science of folk-lore, a science of sociology, are by their nature not merely hopeless, but crazy. You can no more be certain in economic history that a man’s desire for money was merely a desire for money than you can be certain in hagiology that a saint’s desire for God was merely a desire for God. And this kind of vagueness in the primary phenomena of the study is an absolutely final blow to anything in the nature of a science. Men can construct a science with very few instruments, or with very plain instruments; but no one on earth could construct a science with unreliable instruments. A man might work out the whole of mathematics with a handful of pebbles, but not with a handful of clay which was always falling apart into new fragments, and falling together into new combinations. A man might measure heaven and earth with a reed, but not with a growing reed.

XI. La scienza e i selvaggi

Un permanente svantaggio dello studio del folclore e delle materie affini è che l’uomo di scienza difficilmente può essere, per la natura stessa delle cose, un uomo di mondo. Egli è uno studioso della natura; ben di rado è uno studioso della natura umana. E anche là dove questa difficoltà viene superata, ed egli è in qualche senso uno studioso della natura umana, ciò non è che un debolissimo inizio del faticoso cammino verso l’essere umano. Poiché lo studio delle razze e delle religioni primitive si distingue, sotto un aspetto importante, da tutti, o quasi tutti, gli ordinari studi scientifici. Un uomo può comprendere l’astronomia solo essendo astronomo; può comprendere l’entomologia solo essendo entomologo (o, forse, un insetto); ma può comprendere gran parte dell’antropologia semplicemente essendo un uomo. Egli è lui stesso l’animale che studia. Di qui nasce quel fatto che salta agli occhi ovunque nelle testimonianze dell’etnologia e del folclore: il fatto che quello stesso spirito freddo e distaccato che conduce al successo nello studio dell’astronomia o della botanica conduce al disastro nello studio della mitologia o delle origini umane. È necessario cessare di essere uomo per rendere giustizia a un microbo; non è necessario cessare di essere uomo per rendere giustizia agli uomini. Quella medesima soppressione delle simpatie, quel medesimo scacciare le intuizioni o le congetture che rendono un uomo prodigiosamente abile nel trattare lo stomaco di un ragno, lo renderanno prodigiosamente stupido nel trattare il cuore dell’uomo. Egli si rende disumano per comprendere l’umanità. Molti uomini di scienza si vantano di un’ignoranza dell’altro mondo; ma in questa faccenda il loro difetto non deriva dall’ignoranza dell’altro mondo, bensì dall’ignoranza di questo. Poiché i segreti di cui si occupano gli antropologi possono apprendersi meglio non dai libri o dai viaggi, ma dall’ordinario commercio dell’uomo con l’uomo. Il segreto del perché qualche tribù selvaggia adori le scimmie o la luna non si trova nemmeno viaggiando fra quei selvaggi e annotandone le risposte in un taccuino, per quanto l’uomo più ingegnoso possa seguire tale via. La risposta all’enigma è in Inghilterra; è a Londra; anzi, è nel suo stesso cuore. Quando un uomo avrà scoperto perché gli uomini in Bond Street portano il cappello nero, avrà nel medesimo istante scoperto perché gli uomini a Timbuctù portano piume rosse. Il mistero nel cuore di qualche selvaggia danza di guerra non andrebbe studiato nei libri di viaggi scientifici; andrebbe studiato in un ballo per sottoscrizione. Se un uomo desidera scoprire le origini delle religioni, non vada alle Isole Sandwich; vada in chiesa. Se un uomo desidera conoscere l’origine della società umana, sapere che cosa la società, filosoficamente parlando, sia davvero, non vada al British Museum; entri nella società.

Questo totale fraintendimento della vera natura del cerimoniale dà origine alle più goffe e disumanizzate versioni della condotta degli uomini in terre o epoche rozze. L’uomo di scienza, non comprendendo che il cerimoniale è essenzialmente una cosa che si fa senza una ragione, deve trovare una ragione per ogni sorta di cerimoniale, e, com’era da supporre, la ragione è generalmente assai assurda: assurda perché ha origine non nella mente semplice del barbaro, ma nella mente sofisticata del professore. L’uomo dotto dirà, per esempio: «Gli indigeni della Terra di Mumbojumbo credono che il morto possa mangiare e avrà bisogno di cibo durante il suo viaggio verso l’altro mondo. Ciò è attestato dal fatto che pongono del cibo nella tomba, e che ogni famiglia la quale non si attenga a questo rito è oggetto dell’ira dei sacerdoti e della tribù». Per chiunque abbia dimestichezza con l’umanità, questo modo di parlare è capovolto. È come dire: «Gli inglesi del ventesimo secolo credevano che un morto potesse odorare. Ciò è attestato dal fatto che ne coprivano sempre la tomba di gigli, viole o altri fiori. A trascurare quest’azione erano evidentemente connessi certi terrori sacerdotali e tribali, poiché abbiamo notizia di parecchie vecchie signore assai turbate nell’animo perché le loro corone non erano giunte in tempo per il funerale». Può darsi, certo, che i selvaggi mettano cibo accanto a un morto perché pensano che un morto possa mangiare, o armi accanto a un morto perché pensano che un morto possa combattere. Ma personalmente non credo che pensino nulla del genere. Credo che pongano cibo o armi sui morti per la medesima ragione per cui noi poniamo fiori: perché è una cosa estremamente naturale e ovvia da farsi. Non comprendiamo, è vero, l’emozione che ce la fa parere ovvia e naturale; ma ciò è perché, come tutte le emozioni importanti dell’esistenza umana, essa è essenzialmente irrazionale. Non comprendiamo il selvaggio per la medesima ragione per cui il selvaggio non comprende sé stesso. E il selvaggio non comprende sé stesso per la medesima ragione per cui neppure noi comprendiamo noi stessi.

L’ovvia verità è che, nel momento in cui una qualsiasi materia è passata attraverso la mente umana, essa è definitivamente e per sempre rovinata per ogni fine scientifico. È divenuta una cosa incurabilmente misteriosa e infinita; questo mortale si è rivestito d’immortalità. Persino ciò che chiamiamo i nostri desideri materiali è spirituale, perché è umano. La scienza può analizzare una braciola di maiale, e dire quanto di essa sia fosforo e quanto proteina; ma la scienza non può analizzare il desiderio d’una braciola di maiale in alcun uomo, e dire quanto di esso sia fame, quanto abitudine, quanto fantasia nervosa, quanto un ossessivo amore del bello. Il desiderio della braciola resta, in quell’uomo, letteralmente tanto mistico ed etereo quanto il suo desiderio del cielo. Ogni tentativo, dunque, di una scienza delle cose umane, di una scienza della storia, di una scienza del folclore, di una scienza della sociologia, è per sua natura non solo senza speranza, ma folle. Non si può essere più certi, nella storia economica, che il desiderio di denaro d’un uomo fosse un mero desiderio di denaro di quanto si possa essere certi, nell’agiografia, che il desiderio di Dio d’un santo fosse un mero desiderio di Dio. E questa specie di vaghezza nei fenomeni primari dello studio è un colpo assolutamente definitivo a qualsiasi cosa abbia la natura di una scienza. Gli uomini possono costruire una scienza con pochissimi strumenti, o con strumenti assai rozzi; ma nessuno al mondo potrebbe costruire una scienza con strumenti inaffidabili. Un uomo potrebbe elaborare l’intera matematica con una manciata di ciottoli, ma non con una manciata di argilla che si sgretolasse di continuo in nuovi frammenti e si ricomponesse in nuove combinazioni. Un uomo potrebbe misurare cielo e terra con una canna, ma non con una canna che crescesse.

As one of the enormous follies of folk-lore, let us take the case of the transmigration of stories, and the alleged unity of their source. Story after story the scientific mythologists have cut out of its place in history, and pinned side by side with similar stories in their museum of fables. The process is industrious, it is fascinating, and the whole of it rests on one of the plainest fallacies in the world. That a story has been told all over the place at some time or other, not only does not prove that it never really happened; it does not even faintly indicate or make slightly more probable that it never happened. That a large number of fishermen have falsely asserted that they have caught a pike two feet long, does not in the least affect the question of whether any one ever really did so. That numberless journalists announce a Franco-German war merely for money is no evidence one way or the other upon the dark question of whether such a war ever occurred. Doubtless in a few hundred years the innumerable Franco-German wars that did not happen will have cleared the scientific mind of any belief in the legendary war of ‘70 which did. But that will be because if folk-lore students remain at all, their nature win be unchanged; and their services to folk-lore will be still as they are at present, greater than they know. For in truth these men do something far more godlike than studying legends; they create them.

There are two kinds of stories which the scientists say cannot be true, because everybody tells them. The first class consists of the stories which are told everywhere, because they are somewhat odd or clever; there is nothing in the world to prevent their having happened to somebody as an adventure any more than there is anything to prevent their having occurred, as they certainly did occur, to somebody as an idea. But they are not likely to have happened to many people. The second class of their “myths” consist of the stories that are told everywhere for the simple reason that they happen everywhere. Of the first class, for instance, we might take such an example as the story of William Tell, now generally ranked among legends upon the sole ground that it is found in the tales of other peoples. Now, it is obvious that this was told everywhere because whether true or fictitious it is what is called “a good story;” it is odd, exciting, and it has a climax. But to suggest that some such eccentric incident can never have happened in the whole history of archery, or that it did not happen to any particular person of whom it is told, is stark impudence. The idea of shooting at a mark attached to some valuable or beloved person is an idea doubtless that might easily have occurred to any inventive poet. But it is also an idea that might easily occur to any boastful archer. It might be one of the fantastic caprices of some story-teller. It might equally well be one of the fantastic caprices of some tyrant. It might occur first in real life and afterwards occur in legends. Or it might just as well occur first in legends and afterwards occur in real life. If no apple has ever been shot off a boy’s head from the beginning of the world, it may be done tomorrow morning, and by somebody who has never heard of William Tell.

This type of tale, indeed, may be pretty fairly paralleled with the ordinary anecdote terminating in a repartee or an Irish bull. Such a retort as the famous “Je ne vois pas la necessite” we have all seen attributed to Talleyrand, to Voltaire, to Henri Quatre, to an anonymous judge, and so on. But this variety does not in any way make it more likely that the thing was never said at all. It is highly likely that it was really said by somebody unknown. It is highly likely that it was really said by Talleyrand. In any case, it is not any more difficult to believe that the mot might have occurred to a man in conversation than to a man writing memoirs. It might have occurred to any of the men I have mentioned. But there is this point of distinction about it, that it is not likely to have occurred to all of them. And this is where the first class of so-called myth differs from the second to which I have previously referred. For there is a second class of incident found to be common to the stories of five or six heroes, say to Sigurd, to Hercules, to Rustem, to the Cid, and so on. And the peculiarity of this myth is that not only is it highly reasonable to imagine that it really happened to one hero, but it is highly reasonable to imagine that it really happened to all of them. Such a story, for instance, is that of a great man having his strength swayed or thwarted by the mysterious weakness of a woman. The anecdotal story, the story of William Tell, is as I have said, popular, because it is peculiar. But this kind of story, the story of Samson and Delilah, of Arthur and Guinevere, is obviously popular because it is not peculiar. It is popular as good, quiet fiction is popular, because it tells the truth about people. If the ruin of Samson by a woman, and the ruin of Hercules by a woman, have a common legendary origin, it is gratifying to know that we can also explain, as a fable, the ruin of Nelson by a woman and the ruin of Parnell by a woman. And, indeed, I have no doubt whatever that, some centuries hence, the students of folk-lore will refuse altogether to believe that Elizabeth Barrett eloped with Robert Browning, and will prove their point up to the hilt by the unquestionable fact that the whole fiction of the period was full of such elopements from end to end.

Possibly the most pathetic of all the delusions of the modern students of primitive belief is the notion they have about the thing they call anthropomorphism. They believe that primitive men attributed phenomena to a god in human form in order to explain them, because his mind in its sullen limitation could not reach any further than his own clownish existence. The thunder was called the voice of a man, the lightning the eyes of a man, because by this explanation they were made more reasonable and comfortable. The final cure for all this kind of philosophy is to walk down a lane at night. Any one who does so will discover very quickly that men pictured something semi-human at the back of all things, not because such a thought was natural, but because it was supernatural; not because it made things more comprehensible, but because it made them a hundred times more incomprehensible and mysterious. For a man walking down a lane at night can see the conspicuous fact that as long as nature keeps to her own course, she has no power with us at all. As long as a tree is a tree, it is a top-heavy monster with a hundred arms, a thousand tongues, and only one leg. But so long as a tree is a tree, it does not frighten us at all. It begins to be something alien, to be something strange, only when it looks like ourselves. When a tree really looks like a man our knees knock under us. And when the whole universe looks like a man we fall on our faces.

Come una delle enormi follie del folclore, prendiamo il caso della trasmigrazione delle storie, e della presunta unità della loro fonte. Storia dopo storia, i mitologi scientifici hanno ritagliato dal suo posto nella storia, per appuntarle fianco a fianco con storie simili nel loro museo di favole. Il procedimento è laborioso, è affascinante, e poggia interamente su una delle più evidenti fallacie del mondo. Che una storia sia stata narrata in ogni dove in un tempo o nell’altro non solo non prova che essa non sia mai realmente accaduta; non lascia nemmeno lievemente intendere, né rende un poco più probabile, che non sia mai accaduta. Che un gran numero di pescatori abbia falsamente affermato di aver preso un luccio lungo due piedi non tocca minimamente la questione se qualcuno l’abbia mai fatto davvero. Che innumerevoli giornalisti annuncino una guerra franco-tedesca soltanto per denaro non è prova né in un senso né nell’altro riguardo all’oscura questione se una simile guerra sia mai avvenuta. Senza dubbio, fra qualche centinaio d’anni, le innumerevoli guerre franco-tedesche che non avvennero avranno mondato la mente scientifica da ogni credenza nella leggendaria guerra del ‘70 che invece avvenne. Ma ciò avverrà perché, se gli studiosi del folclore sopravvivranno del tutto, la loro natura sarà immutata; e i loro servigi al folclore saranno ancora, come lo sono al presente, maggiori di quanto essi sappiano. Poiché in verità questi uomini fanno qualcosa di ben più divino che studiare le leggende: le creano.

Vi sono due specie di storie che gli scienziati dicono non poter essere vere, perché tutti le raccontano. La prima classe consiste nelle storie che si raccontano dappertutto perché sono in qualche modo curiose o argute; nulla al mondo impedisce che siano capitate a qualcuno come avventura, non più di quanto nulla impedisca che siano venute in mente, come certamente vennero, a qualcuno come idea. Ma non è probabile che siano capitate a molte persone. La seconda classe dei loro «miti» consiste nelle storie che si raccontano dappertutto per la semplice ragione che accadono dappertutto. Della prima classe, per esempio, potremmo prendere un caso come la storia di Guglielmo Tell, oggi generalmente annoverata fra le leggende sul solo fondamento che si ritrova nei racconti di altri popoli. Ora, è ovvio che essa fu narrata dappertutto perché, vera o inventata che fosse, è ciò che si chiama «una bella storia»; è curiosa, avvincente, e ha un culmine. Ma suggerire che un simile eccentrico episodio non possa mai essere accaduto in tutta la storia del tiro con l’arco, o che non sia accaduto proprio alla persona di cui si narra, è pura impudenza. L’idea di tirare a un bersaglio fissato a una persona preziosa o amata è un’idea che, senza dubbio, avrebbe potuto facilmente venire in mente a qualsiasi poeta inventivo. Ma è anche un’idea che potrebbe facilmente venire in mente a qualsiasi arciere spaccone. Potrebbe essere uno dei fantastici capricci di qualche narratore. Potrebbe altrettanto bene essere uno dei fantastici capricci di qualche tiranno. Potrebbe presentarsi prima nella vita reale e poi presentarsi nelle leggende. Oppure potrebbe altrettanto bene presentarsi prima nelle leggende e poi presentarsi nella vita reale. Se nessuna mela è mai stata colpita sulla testa di un ragazzo dall’inizio del mondo, potrà accadere domani mattina, e per opera di qualcuno che non ha mai udito nominare Guglielmo Tell.

Questo tipo di racconto, invero, può essere abbastanza ragionevolmente accostato all’ordinario aneddoto che termina in una battuta di spirito o in una sciocchezza all’irlandese. Una replica come la celebre «Je ne vois pas la nécessité» l’abbiamo tutti vista attribuire a Talleyrand, a Voltaire, a Enrico Quarto, a un anonimo giudice, e così via. Ma questa varietà non rende in alcun modo più probabile che la cosa non sia mai stata detta affatto. È altamente probabile che sia stata realmente detta da qualcuno di ignoto. È altamente probabile che sia stata realmente detta da Talleyrand. In ogni caso, non è più difficile credere che il mot possa esser venuto in mente a un uomo in conversazione anziché a un uomo che scriveva memorie. Potrebbe esser venuto in mente a chiunque degli uomini che ho menzionato. Ma c’è questo tratto distintivo: che non è probabile sia venuto in mente a tutti loro. Ed è qui che la prima classe del cosiddetto mito differisce dalla seconda cui ho precedentemente accennato. Poiché vi è una seconda classe di episodi che si ritrovano comuni alle storie di cinque o sei eroi, diciamo a Sigurd, a Ercole, a Rustem, al Cid, e così via. E la particolarità di questo mito è che non solo è altamente ragionevole immaginare che sia realmente accaduto a un eroe, ma è altamente ragionevole immaginare che sia realmente accaduto a tutti loro. Una storia siffatta è, per esempio, quella di un grand’uomo la cui forza viene piegata o frustrata dalla misteriosa debolezza di una donna. La storia aneddotica, la storia di Guglielmo Tell, è, come ho detto, popolare perché è peculiare. Ma questa specie di storia, la storia di Sansone e Dalila, di Artù e Ginevra, è ovviamente popolare perché non è peculiare. È popolare come è popolare una buona, tranquilla narrazione, perché dice la verità sulla gente. Se la rovina di Sansone per opera di una donna, e la rovina di Ercole per opera di una donna, hanno una comune origine leggendaria, è confortante sapere che possiamo anche spiegare, come favola, la rovina di Nelson per opera di una donna e la rovina di Parnell per opera di una donna. E, in verità, non ho il minimo dubbio che, fra qualche secolo, gli studiosi del folclore rifiuteranno del tutto di credere che Elizabeth Barrett sia fuggita con Robert Browning, e proveranno il loro assunto fino in fondo mediante l’incontestabile fatto che l’intera letteratura di fantasia del periodo era piena, da capo a fondo, di simili fughe d’amore.

Forse la più patetica di tutte le illusioni dei moderni studiosi della credenza primitiva è l’idea che essi hanno riguardo alla cosa che chiamano antropomorfismo. Essi credono che gli uomini primitivi attribuissero i fenomeni a un dio in forma umana per spiegarli, perché la loro mente, nella sua cupa limitatezza, non poteva spingersi più in là della propria zotica esistenza. Il tuono era chiamato la voce di un uomo, il fulmine gli occhi di un uomo, perché con questa spiegazione essi venivano resi più ragionevoli e confortevoli. Il rimedio definitivo a tutta questa specie di filosofia è camminare lungo un viottolo di notte. Chiunque lo faccia scoprirà assai presto che gli uomini immaginarono qualcosa di semi-umano dietro ogni cosa non perché un tale pensiero fosse naturale, ma perché era soprannaturale; non perché rendesse le cose più comprensibili, ma perché le rendeva cento volte più incomprensibili e misteriose. Poiché un uomo che cammini lungo un viottolo di notte può vedere il fatto lampante che, finché la natura segue il proprio corso, essa non ha alcun potere su di noi. Finché un albero è un albero, è un mostro traballante con cento braccia, mille lingue e una sola gamba. Ma finché un albero è un albero, non ci spaventa affatto. Comincia a essere qualcosa di alieno, a essere qualcosa di strano, solo quando somiglia a noi stessi. Quando un albero somiglia davvero a un uomo, le ginocchia ci tremano. E quando l’intero universo somiglia a un uomo, cadiamo bocconi.

XII. Paganism and Mr. Lowes Dickinson

Of the New Paganism (or neo-Paganism), as it was preached flamboyantly by Mr. Swinburne or delicately by Walter Pater, there is no necessity to take any very grave account, except as a thing which left behind it incomparable exercises in the English language. The New Paganism is no longer new, and it never at any time bore the smallest resemblance to Paganism. The ideas about the ancient civilization which it has left loose in the public mind are certainly extraordinary enough. The term “pagan” is continually used in fiction and light literature as meaning a man without any religion, whereas a pagan was generally a man with about half a dozen. The pagans, according to this notion, were continually crowning themselves with flowers and dancing about in an irresponsible state, whereas, if there were two things that the best pagan civilization did honestly believe in, they were a rather too rigid dignity and a much too rigid responsibility. Pagans are depicted as above all things inebriate and lawless, whereas they were above all things reasonable and respectable. They are praised as disobedient when they had only one great virtue— civic obedience. They are envied and admired as shamelessly happy when they had only one great sin—despair.

Mr. Lowes Dickinson, the most pregnant and provocative of recent writers on this and similar subjects, is far too solid a man to have fallen into this old error of the mere anarchy of Paganism. In order to make hay of that Hellenic enthusiasm which has as its ideal mere appetite and egotism, it is not necessary to know much philosophy, but merely to know a little Greek. Mr. Lowes Dickinson knows a great deal of philosophy, and also a great deal of Greek, and his error, if error he has, is not that of the crude hedonist. But the contrast which he offers between Christianity and Paganism in the matter of moral ideals—a contrast which he states very ably in a paper called “How long halt ye?” which appeared in the Independent Review—does, I think, contain an error of a deeper kind. According to him, the ideal of Paganism was not, indeed, a mere frenzy of lust and liberty and caprice, but was an ideal of full and satisfied humanity. According to him, the ideal of Christianity was the ideal of asceticism. When I say that I think this idea wholly wrong as a matter of philosophy and history, I am not talking for the moment about any ideal Christianity of my own, or even of any primitive Christianity undefiled by after events. I am not, like so many modern Christian idealists, basing my case upon certain things which Christ said. Neither am I, like so many other Christian idealists, basing my case upon certain things that Christ forgot to say. I take historic Christianity with all its sins upon its head; I take it, as I would take Jacobinism, or Mormonism, or any other mixed or unpleasing human product, and I say that the meaning of its action was not to be found in asceticism. I say that its point of departure from Paganism was not asceticism. I say that its point of difference with the modern world was not asceticism. I say that St. Simeon Stylites had not his main inspiration in asceticism. I say that the main Christian impulse cannot be described as asceticism, even in the ascetics.

Let me set about making the matter clear. There is one broad fact about the relations of Christianity and Paganism which is so simple that many will smile at it, but which is so important that all moderns forget it. The primary fact about Christianity and Paganism is that one came after the other. Mr. Lowes Dickinson speaks of them as if they were parallel ideals—even speaks as if Paganism were the newer of the two, and the more fitted for a new age. He suggests that the Pagan ideal will be the ultimate good of man; but if that is so, we must at least ask with more curiosity than he allows for, why it was that man actually found his ultimate good on earth under the stars, and threw it away again. It is this extraordinary enigma to which I propose to attempt an answer.

There is only one thing in the modern world that has been face to face with Paganism; there is only one thing in the modern world which in that sense knows anything about Paganism: and that is Christianity. That fact is really the weak point in the whole of that hedonistic neo-Paganism of which I have spoken. All that genuinely remains of the ancient hymns or the ancient dances of Europe, all that has honestly come to us from the festivals of Phoebus or Pan, is to be found in the festivals of the Christian Church. If any one wants to hold the end of a chain which really goes back to the heathen mysteries, he had better take hold of a festoon of flowers at Easter or a string of sausages at Christmas. Everything else in the modern world is of Christian origin, even everything that seems most anti-Christian. The French Revolution is of Christian origin. The newspaper is of Christian origin. The anarchists are of Christian origin. Physical science is of Christian origin. The attack on Christianity is of Christian origin. There is one thing, and one thing only, in existence at the present day which can in any sense accurately be said to be of pagan origin, and that is Christianity.

The real difference between Paganism and Christianity is perfectly summed up in the difference between the pagan, or natural, virtues, and those three virtues of Christianity which the Church of Rome calls virtues of grace. The pagan, or rational, virtues are such things as justice and temperance, and Christianity has adopted them. The three mystical virtues which Christianity has not adopted, but invented, are faith, hope, and charity. Now much easy and foolish Christian rhetoric could easily be poured out upon those three words, but I desire to confine myself to the two facts which are evident about them. The first evident fact (in marked contrast to the delusion of the dancing pagan)—the first evident fact, I say, is that the pagan virtues, such as justice and temperance, are the sad virtues, and that the mystical virtues of faith, hope, and charity are the gay and exuberant virtues. And the second evident fact, which is even more evident, is the fact that the pagan virtues are the reasonable virtues, and that the Christian virtues of faith, hope, and charity are in their essence as unreasonable as they can be.

XII. Il paganesimo e il signor Lowes Dickinson

Del Nuovo Paganesimo (o neopaganesimo), quale fu predicato con enfasi sfarzosa dal signor Swinburne o con delicatezza da Walter Pater, non c’è alcuna necessità di tenere gran conto, se non come di una cosa che si è lasciata dietro incomparabili esercizi di lingua inglese. Il Nuovo Paganesimo non è più nuovo, e in nessun tempo ebbe mai la benché minima somiglianza con il paganesimo. Le idee sull’antica civiltà che esso ha lasciate vagare nella mente del pubblico sono davvero abbastanza straordinarie. Il termine «pagano» viene di continuo usato nella narrativa e nella letteratura leggera nel senso di uomo privo di qualsiasi religione, mentre un pagano era per lo più un uomo che ne aveva una mezza dozzina. I pagani, secondo questa credenza, si sarebbero di continuo incoronati di fiori danzando qua e là in uno stato irresponsabile, laddove, se vi erano due cose in cui la migliore civiltà pagana onestamente credeva, erano una dignità piuttosto troppo rigida e una responsabilità di gran lunga troppo rigida. I pagani vengono raffigurati come sopra ogni cosa ubriachi e senza legge, mentre erano sopra ogni cosa ragionevoli e rispettabili. Vengono lodati come disobbedienti quando avevano una sola grande virtù: l’obbedienza civica. Vengono invidiati e ammirati come sfacciatamente felici quando avevano un solo grande peccato: la disperazione.

Il signor Lowes Dickinson, il più denso e provocatorio degli scrittori recenti su questo e su argomenti affini, è un uomo troppo solido per essere caduto in questo vecchio errore della mera anarchia del paganesimo. Per fare strame di quell’entusiasmo ellenico che ha per ideale il mero appetito e l’egotismo, non è necessario conoscere molta filosofia, ma soltanto un po’ di greco. Il signor Lowes Dickinson conosce moltissima filosofia, e anche moltissimo greco, e il suo errore, se pure ne ha uno, non è quello del rozzo edonista. Ma il contrasto che egli propone tra il cristianesimo e il paganesimo in fatto di ideali morali — un contrasto che egli espone con grande abilità in uno scritto intitolato «How long halt ye?», apparso nella Independent Review — contiene, io credo, un errore di natura più profonda. Secondo lui, l’ideale del paganesimo non era, in verità, una mera frenesia di lussuria, di libertà e di capriccio, bensì un ideale di umanità piena e appagata. Secondo lui, l’ideale del cristianesimo era l’ideale dell’ascetismo. Quando dico che ritengo questa idea del tutto errata come questione di filosofia e di storia, non sto parlando, per il momento, di alcun cristianesimo ideale mio proprio, e neppure di alcun cristianesimo primitivo incontaminato dagli eventi posteriori. Non sto, come tanti idealisti cristiani moderni, fondando il mio ragionamento su certe cose che Cristo disse. E neppure sto, come tanti altri idealisti cristiani, fondando il mio ragionamento su certe cose che Cristo tralasciò di dire. Prendo il cristianesimo storico con tutti i suoi peccati sul capo; lo prendo come prenderei il giacobinismo, o il mormonismo, o qualunque altro prodotto umano misto o sgradevole, e affermo che il senso della sua azione non era da cercarsi nell’ascetismo. Affermo che il suo punto di partenza dal paganesimo non fu l’ascetismo. Affermo che il suo punto di differenza con il mondo moderno non fu l’ascetismo. Affermo che san Simeone Stilita non aveva la sua ispirazione principale nell’ascetismo. Affermo che l’impulso cristiano fondamentale non può essere descritto come ascetismo, neppure negli asceti.

Mi accingo a rendere chiara la questione. C’è un ampio fatto riguardo ai rapporti tra cristianesimo e paganesimo, così semplice che molti ne sorrideranno, ma così importante che tutti i moderni lo dimenticano. Il fatto primario riguardo al cristianesimo e al paganesimo è che l’uno venne dopo l’altro. Il signor Lowes Dickinson ne parla come se fossero ideali paralleli — parla addirittura come se il paganesimo fosse il più nuovo dei due, e il più adatto a un’età nuova. Egli lascia intendere che l’ideale pagano sarà il bene ultimo dell’uomo; ma se è così, dobbiamo almeno chiederci, con più curiosità di quanta egli ne conceda, come mai accadde che l’uomo trovasse realmente il suo bene ultimo in terra sotto le stelle, e poi lo gettasse via di nuovo. È a questo straordinario enigma che mi propongo di tentare una risposta.

C’è una sola cosa nel mondo moderno che si sia trovata faccia a faccia con il paganesimo; c’è una sola cosa nel mondo moderno che in quel senso sappia qualcosa del paganesimo: ed è il cristianesimo. Questo fatto è davvero il punto debole di tutto quel neopaganesimo edonistico di cui ho parlato. Tutto ciò che genuinamente rimane degli antichi inni o delle antiche danze d’Europa, tutto ciò che onestamente ci è giunto dalle feste di Febo o di Pan, si ritrova nelle feste della Chiesa cristiana. Chi voglia tenere in mano il capo di una catena che risalga davvero ai misteri pagani, farà meglio ad afferrare un festone di fiori a Pasqua o una filza di salsicce a Natale. Ogni altra cosa nel mondo moderno è di origine cristiana, perfino tutto ciò che sembra più anticristiano. La Rivoluzione francese è di origine cristiana. Il giornale è di origine cristiana. Gli anarchici sono di origine cristiana. La scienza fisica è di origine cristiana. L’attacco al cristianesimo è di origine cristiana. C’è una cosa, e una cosa soltanto, esistente al giorno d’oggi, che in un qualche senso si possa accuratamente dire di origine pagana, ed è il cristianesimo.

La vera differenza tra il paganesimo e il cristianesimo è perfettamente riassunta nella differenza tra le virtù pagane, o naturali, e quelle tre virtù del cristianesimo che la Chiesa di Roma chiama virtù di grazia. Le virtù pagane, o razionali, sono cose come la giustizia e la temperanza, e il cristianesimo le ha fatte proprie. Le tre virtù mistiche che il cristianesimo non ha fatte proprie, bensì inventate, sono la fede, la speranza e la carità. Ora, molta facile e sciocca retorica cristiana potrebbe agevolmente riversarsi su quelle tre parole, ma io desidero limitarmi ai due fatti che di esse sono evidenti. Il primo fatto evidente (in marcato contrasto con l’illusione del pagano danzante) — il primo fatto evidente, dico, è che le virtù pagane, come la giustizia e la temperanza, sono le virtù mestamente serie, e che le virtù mistiche della fede, della speranza e della carità sono le virtù gaie ed esuberanti. E il secondo fatto evidente, che è ancora più evidente, è il fatto che le virtù pagane sono le virtù ragionevoli, e che le virtù cristiane della fede, della speranza e della carità sono nella loro essenza tanto irragionevoli quanto è possibile esserlo.

As the word “unreasonable” is open to misunderstanding, the matter may be more accurately put by saying that each one of these Christian or mystical virtues involves a paradox in its own nature, and that this is not true of any of the typically pagan or rationalist virtues. Justice consists in finding out a certain thing due to a certain man and giving it to him. Temperance consists in finding out the proper limit of a particular indulgence and adhering to that. But charity means pardoning what is unpardonable, or it is no virtue at all. Hope means hoping when things are hopeless, or it is no virtue at all. And faith means believing the incredible, or it is no virtue at all.

It is somewhat amusing, indeed, to notice the difference between the fate of these three paradoxes in the fashion of the modern mind. Charity is a fashionable virtue in our time; it is lit up by the gigantic firelight of Dickens. Hope is a fashionable virtue to-day; our attention has been arrested for it by the sudden and silver trumpet of Stevenson. But faith is unfashionable, and it is customary on every side to cast against it the fact that it is a paradox. Everybody mockingly repeats the famous childish definition that faith is “the power of believing that which we know to be untrue.” Yet it is not one atom more paradoxical than hope or charity. Charity is the power of defending that which we know to be indefensible. Hope is the power of being cheerful in circumstances which we know to be desperate. It is true that there is a state of hope which belongs to bright prospects and the morning; but that is not the virtue of hope. The virtue of hope exists only in earthquake and eclipse. It is true that there is a thing crudely called charity, which means charity to the deserving poor; but charity to the deserving is not charity at all, but justice. It is the undeserving who require it, and the ideal either does not exist at all, or exists wholly for them. For practical purposes it is at the hopeless moment that we require the hopeful man, and the virtue either does not exist at all, or begins to exist at that moment. Exactly at the instant when hope ceases to be reasonable it begins to be useful. Now the old pagan world went perfectly straightforward until it discovered that going straightforward is an enormous mistake. It was nobly and beautifully reasonable, and discovered in its death-pang this lasting and valuable truth, a heritage for the ages, that reasonableness will not do. The pagan age was truly an Eden or golden age, in this essential sense, that it is not to be recovered. And it is not to be recovered in this sense again that, while we are certainly jollier than the pagans, and much more right than the pagans, there is not one of us who can, by the utmost stretch of energy, be so sensible as the pagans. That naked innocence of the intellect cannot be recovered by any man after Christianity; and for this excellent reason, that every man after Christianity knows it to be misleading. Let me take an example, the first that occurs to the mind, of this impossible plainness in the pagan point of view. The greatest tribute to Christianity in the modern world is Tennyson’s “Ulysses.” The poet reads into the story of Ulysses the conception of an incurable desire to wander. But the real Ulysses does not desire to wander at all. He desires to get home. He displays his heroic and unconquerable qualities in resisting the misfortunes which baulk him; but that is all. There is no love of adventure for its own sake; that is a Christian product. There is no love of Penelope for her own sake; that is a Christian product. Everything in that old world would appear to have been clean and obvious. A good man was a good man; a bad man was a bad man. For this reason they had no charity; for charity is a reverent agnosticism towards the complexity of the soul. For this reason they had no such thing as the art of fiction, the novel; for the novel is a creation of the mystical idea of charity. For them a pleasant landscape was pleasant, and an unpleasant landscape unpleasant. Hence they had no idea of romance; for romance consists in thinking a thing more delightful because it is dangerous; it is a Christian idea. In a word, we cannot reconstruct or even imagine the beautiful and astonishing pagan world. It was a world in which common sense was really common.

My general meaning touching the three virtues of which I have spoken will now, I hope, be sufficiently clear. They are all three paradoxical, they are all three practical, and they are all three paradoxical because they are practical. it is the stress of ultimate need, and a terrible knowledge of things as they are, which led men to set up these riddles, and to die for them. Whatever may be the meaning of the contradiction, it is the fact that the only kind of hope that is of any use in a battle is a hope that denies arithmetic. Whatever may be the meaning of the contradiction, it is the fact that the only kind of charity which any weak spirit wants, or which any generous spirit feels, is the charity which forgives the sins that are like scarlet. Whatever may be the meaning of faith, it must always mean a certainty about something we cannot prove. Thus, for instance, we believe by faith in the existence of other people.

But there is another Christian virtue, a virtue far more obviously and historically connected with Christianity, which will illustrate even better the connection between paradox and practical necessity. This virtue cannot be questioned in its capacity as a historical symbol; certainly Mr. Lowes Dickinson will not question it. It has been the boast of hundreds of the champions of Christianity. It has been the taunt of hundreds of the opponents of Christianity. It is, in essence, the basis of Mr. Lowes Dickinson’s whole distinction between Christianity and Paganism. I mean, of course, the virtue of humility. I admit, of course, most readily, that a great deal of false Eastern humility (that is, of strictly ascetic humility) mixed itself with the main stream of European Christianity. We must not forget that when we speak of Christianity we are speaking of a whole continent for about a thousand years. But of this virtue even more than of the other three, I would maintain the general proposition adopted above. Civilization discovered Christian humility for the same urgent reason that it discovered faith and charity— that is, because Christian civilization had to discover it or die.

Poiché la parola «irragionevole» si presta a fraintendimenti, la questione può essere posta più accuratamente dicendo che ciascuna di queste virtù cristiane o mistiche implica un paradosso nella propria natura, e che ciò non è vero di nessuna delle virtù tipicamente pagane o razionaliste. La giustizia consiste nello scoprire che una certa cosa è dovuta a un certo uomo e nel dargliela. La temperanza consiste nel trovare il giusto limite di un particolare piacere e nell’attenervisi. Ma la carità significa perdonare ciò che è imperdonabile, oppure non è affatto una virtù. La speranza significa sperare quando le cose sono senza speranza, oppure non è affatto una virtù. E la fede significa credere l’incredibile, oppure non è affatto una virtù.

È in verità alquanto divertente notare la differenza tra il destino di questi tre paradossi nella moda della mente moderna. La carità è una virtù alla moda nel nostro tempo; è illuminata dal gigantesco chiarore d’incendio di Dickens. La speranza è una virtù alla moda oggigiorno; la nostra attenzione è stata richiamata su di essa dall’improvvisa e argentina tromba di Stevenson. Ma la fede è fuori moda, ed è consuetudine da ogni parte scagliarle contro il fatto che è un paradosso. Tutti ripetono beffardamente la famosa, puerile definizione secondo cui la fede è «la facoltà di credere ciò che sappiamo essere falso». Eppure essa non è di un atomo più paradossale della speranza o della carità. La carità è la facoltà di difendere ciò che sappiamo essere indifendibile. La speranza è la facoltà di essere allegri in circostanze che sappiamo essere disperate. È vero che esiste uno stato di speranza che appartiene alle prospettive luminose e al mattino; ma quella non è la virtù della speranza. La virtù della speranza esiste soltanto nel terremoto e nell’eclissi. È vero che esiste una cosa rozzamente chiamata carità, che significa carità verso i poveri meritevoli; ma la carità verso i meritevoli non è affatto carità, bensì giustizia. Sono gli immeritevoli che ne hanno bisogno, e l’ideale o non esiste affatto, oppure esiste interamente per loro. Ai fini pratici è nel momento disperato che ci occorre l’uomo speranzoso, e la virtù o non esiste affatto, oppure comincia a esistere in quel momento. Esattamente nell’istante in cui la speranza cessa di essere ragionevole essa comincia a essere utile. Ora, il vecchio mondo pagano andò perfettamente diritto finché non scoprì che andare diritto è un errore enorme. Era nobilmente e magnificamente ragionevole, e scoprì nella sua agonia di morte questa duratura e preziosa verità, un’eredità per i secoli: che la ragionevolezza non basta. L’età pagana fu davvero un Eden o un’età dell’oro, in questo senso essenziale, che non è più recuperabile. E non è più recuperabile in quest’altro senso, che, mentre noi siamo certamente più gioviali dei pagani, e molto più nel giusto dei pagani, non c’è uno di noi che possa, per quanto tenda le proprie energie, essere assennato come i pagani. Quella nuda innocenza dell’intelletto non può essere recuperata da alcun uomo dopo il cristianesimo; e per questa eccellente ragione, che ogni uomo dopo il cristianesimo sa che essa è ingannevole. Prendiamo un esempio, il primo che venga in mente, di questa impossibile schiettezza propria del punto di vista pagano. Il più grande tributo al cristianesimo nel mondo moderno è l’«Ulisse» di Tennyson. Il poeta legge nella storia di Ulisse la concezione di un incurabile desiderio di errare. Ma il vero Ulisse non desidera affatto errare. Egli desidera tornare a casa. Egli manifesta le sue qualità eroiche e indomabili nel resistere alle sventure che lo ostacolano; ma è tutto qui. Non c’è alcun amore dell’avventura per se stessa; quello è un prodotto cristiano. Non c’è alcun amore di Penelope per lei stessa; quello è un prodotto cristiano. Ogni cosa in quel vecchio mondo pare fosse limpida e ovvia. Un uomo buono era un uomo buono; un uomo cattivo era un uomo cattivo. Per questa ragione essi non avevano carità; poiché la carità è un reverente agnosticismo di fronte alla complessità dell’anima. Per questa ragione essi non avevano nulla di simile all’arte della finzione narrativa, il romanzo; poiché il romanzo è una creazione dell’idea mistica della carità. Per loro un paesaggio piacevole era piacevole, e un paesaggio spiacevole spiacevole. Perciò non avevano alcuna idea del romanzesco; poiché il romanzesco consiste nel trovare una cosa più deliziosa perché è pericolosa; ed è un’idea cristiana. In una parola, non possiamo ricostruire e neppure immaginare il bello e stupefacente mondo pagano. Era un mondo in cui il buon senso era davvero comune.

Il mio significato generale a proposito delle tre virtù di cui ho parlato sarà ormai, spero, sufficientemente chiaro. Sono tutte e tre paradossali, sono tutte e tre pratiche, e sono tutte e tre paradossali perché sono pratiche. È la pressione del bisogno estremo, e una terribile conoscenza delle cose come sono, che indusse gli uomini a erigere questi enigmi, e a morire per essi. Qualunque possa essere il significato della contraddizione, resta il fatto che l’unica specie di speranza che serva a qualcosa in una battaglia è una speranza che smentisce l’aritmetica. Qualunque possa essere il significato della contraddizione, resta il fatto che l’unica specie di carità che qualunque spirito debole desideri, o che qualunque spirito generoso senta, è la carità che perdona i peccati che sono come lo scarlatto. Qualunque possa essere il significato della fede, essa deve sempre significare una certezza intorno a qualcosa che non possiamo provare. Così, per esempio, noi crediamo per fede nell’esistenza delle altre persone.

Ma c’è un’altra virtù cristiana, una virtù connessa in modo assai più manifesto e storico con il cristianesimo, che illustrerà ancora meglio il legame tra paradosso e necessità pratica. Questa virtù non può essere messa in dubbio nella sua funzione di simbolo storico; di certo il signor Lowes Dickinson non la metterà in dubbio. È stata il vanto di centinaia di campioni del cristianesimo. È stata lo scherno di centinaia di avversari del cristianesimo. Essa è, in sostanza, il fondamento dell’intera distinzione che il signor Lowes Dickinson traccia tra il cristianesimo e il paganesimo. Intendo, naturalmente, la virtù dell’umiltà. Ammetto, s’intende, prontissimamente, che una gran quantità di falsa umiltà orientale (vale a dire di umiltà strettamente ascetica) si mescolò con la corrente principale del cristianesimo europeo. Non dobbiamo dimenticare che, quando parliamo di cristianesimo, parliamo di un intero continente per circa mille anni. Ma di questa virtù ancor più che delle altre tre sosterrei la proposizione generale adottata sopra. La civiltà scoprì l’umiltà cristiana per la stessa urgente ragione per cui scoprì la fede e la carità: cioè perché la civiltà cristiana doveva scoprirla o morire.

The great psychological discovery of Paganism, which turned it into Christianity, can be expressed with some accuracy in one phrase. The pagan set out, with admirable sense, to enjoy himself. By the end of his civilization he had discovered that a man cannot enjoy himself and continue to enjoy anything else. Mr. Lowes Dickinson has pointed out in words too excellent to need any further elucidation, the absurd shallowness of those who imagine that the pagan enjoyed himself only in a materialistic sense. Of course, he enjoyed himself, not only intellectually even, he enjoyed himself morally, he enjoyed himself spiritually. But it was himself that he was enjoying; on the face of it, a very natural thing to do. Now, the psychological discovery is merely this, that whereas it had been supposed that the fullest possible enjoyment is to be found by extending our ego to infinity, the truth is that the fullest possible enjoyment is to be found by reducing our ego to zero.

Humility is the thing which is for ever renewing the earth and the stars. It is humility, and not duty, which preserves the stars from wrong, from the unpardonable wrong of casual resignation; it is through humility that the most ancient heavens for us are fresh and strong. The curse that came before history has laid on us all a tendency to be weary of wonders. If we saw the sun for the first time it would be the most fearful and beautiful of meteors. Now that we see it for the hundredth time we call it, in the hideous and blasphemous phrase of Wordsworth, “the light of common day.” We are inclined to increase our claims. We are inclined to demand six suns, to demand a blue sun, to demand a green sun. Humility is perpetually putting us back in the primal darkness. There all light is lightning, startling and instantaneous. Until we understand that original dark, in which we have neither sight nor expectation, we can give no hearty and childlike praise to the splendid sensationalism of things. The terms “pessimism” and “optimism,” like most modern terms, are unmeaning. But if they can be used in any vague sense as meaning something, we may say that in this great fact pessimism is the very basis of optimism. The man who destroys himself creates the universe. To the humble man, and to the humble man alone, the sun is really a sun; to the humble man, and to the humble man alone, the sea is really a sea. When he looks at all the faces in the street, he does not only realize that men are alive, he realizes with a dramatic pleasure that they are not dead.

I have not spoken of another aspect of the discovery of humility as a psychological necessity, because it is more commonly insisted on, and is in itself more obvious. But it is equally clear that humility is a permanent necessity as a condition of effort and self-examination. It is one of the deadly fallacies of Jingo politics that a nation is stronger for despising other nations. As a matter of fact, the strongest nations are those, like Prussia or Japan, which began from very mean beginnings, but have not been too proud to sit at the feet of the foreigner and learn everything from him. Almost every obvious and direct victory has been the victory of the plagiarist. This is, indeed, only a very paltry by-product of humility, but it is a product of humility, and, therefore, it is successful. Prussia had no Christian humility in its internal arrangements; hence its internal arrangements were miserable. But it had enough Christian humility slavishly to copy France (even down to Frederick the Great’s poetry), and that which it had the humility to copy it had ultimately the honour to conquer. The case of the Japanese is even more obvious; their only Christian and their only beautiful quality is that they have humbled themselves to be exalted. All this aspect of humility, however, as connected with the matter of effort and striving for a standard set above us, I dismiss as having been sufficiently pointed out by almost all idealistic writers.

It may be worth while, however, to point out the interesting disparity in the matter of humility between the modern notion of the strong man and the actual records of strong men. Carlyle objected to the statement that no man could be a hero to his valet. Every sympathy can be extended towards him in the matter if he merely or mainly meant that the phrase was a disparagement of hero-worship. Hero-worship is certainly a generous and human impulse; the hero may be faulty, but the worship can hardly be. It may be that no man would be a hero to his valet. But any man would be a valet to his hero. But in truth both the proverb itself and Carlyle’s stricture upon it ignore the most essential matter at issue. The ultimate psychological truth is not that no man is a hero to his valet. The ultimate psychological truth, the foundation of Christianity, is that no man is a hero to himself. Cromwell, according to Carlyle, was a strong man. According to Cromwell, he was a weak one.

The weak point in the whole of Carlyle’s case for aristocracy lies, indeed, in his most celebrated phrase. Carlyle said that men were mostly fools. Christianity, with a surer and more reverent realism, says that they are all fools. This doctrine is sometimes called the doctrine of original sin. It may also be described as the doctrine of the equality of men. But the essential point of it is merely this, that whatever primary and far-reaching moral dangers affect any man, affect all men. All men can be criminals, if tempted; all men can be heroes, if inspired. And this doctrine does away altogether with Carlyle’s pathetic belief (or any one else’s pathetic belief) in “the wise few.” There are no wise few. Every aristocracy that has ever existed has behaved, in all essential points, exactly like a small mob. Every oligarchy is merely a knot of men in the street— that is to say, it is very jolly, but not infallible. And no oligarchies in the world’s history have ever come off so badly in practical affairs as the very proud oligarchies— the oligarchy of Poland, the oligarchy of Venice. And the armies that have most swiftly and suddenly broken their enemies in pieces have been the religious armies—the Moslem Armies, for instance, or the Puritan Armies. And a religious army may, by its nature, be defined as an army in which every man is taught not to exalt but to abase himself. Many modern Englishmen talk of themselves as the sturdy descendants of their sturdy Puritan fathers. As a fact, they would run away from a cow. If you asked one of their Puritan fathers, if you asked Bunyan, for instance, whether he was sturdy, he would have answered, with tears, that he was as weak as water. And because of this he would have borne tortures. And this virtue of humility, while being practical enough to win battles, will always be paradoxical enough to puzzle pedants. It is at one with the virtue of charity in this respect. Every generous person will admit that the one kind of sin which charity should cover is the sin which is inexcusable. And every generous person will equally agree that the one kind of pride which is wholly damnable is the pride of the man who has something to be proud of. The pride which, proportionally speaking, does not hurt the character, is the pride in things which reflect no credit on the person at all. Thus it does a man no harm to be proud of his country, and comparatively little harm to be proud of his remote ancestors. It does him more harm to be proud of having made money, because in that he has a little more reason for pride. It does him more harm still to be proud of what is nobler than money—intellect. And it does him most harm of all to value himself for the most valuable thing on earth—goodness. The man who is proud of what is really creditable to him is the Pharisee, the man whom Christ Himself could not forbear to strike.

My objection to Mr. Lowes Dickinson and the reassertors of the pagan ideal is, then, this. I accuse them of ignoring definite human discoveries in the moral world, discoveries as definite, though not as material, as the discovery of the circulation of the blood. We cannot go back to an ideal of reason and sanity. For mankind has discovered that reason does not lead to sanity. We cannot go back to an ideal of pride and enjoyment. For mankind has discovered that pride does not lead to enjoyment. I do not know by what extraordinary mental accident modern writers so constantly connect the idea of progress with the idea of independent thinking. Progress is obviously the antithesis of independent thinking. For under independent or individualistic thinking, every man starts at the beginning, and goes, in all probability, just as far as his father before him. But if there really be anything of the nature of progress, it must mean, above all things, the careful study and assumption of the whole of the past. I accuse Mr. Lowes Dickinson and his school of reaction in the only real sense. If he likes, let him ignore these great historic mysteries—the mystery of charity, the mystery of chivalry, the mystery of faith. If he likes, let him ignore the plough or the printing-press. But if we do revive and pursue the pagan ideal of a simple and rational self-completion we shall end—where Paganism ended. I do not mean that we shall end in destruction. I mean that we shall end in Christianity.

La grande scoperta psicologica del paganesimo, che lo tramutò in cristianesimo, può esprimersi con una certa esattezza in una sola frase. Il pagano si mise in cammino, con ammirevole buon senso, per godersi la vita. Alla fine della sua civiltà aveva scoperto che un uomo non può godere di se stesso e continuare a godere di qualsiasi altra cosa. Il signor Lowes Dickinson ha messo in luce, con parole troppo eccellenti per aver bisogno di ulteriore chiarimento, l’assurda superficialità di coloro che immaginano che il pagano godesse di se stesso soltanto in senso materialistico. Naturalmente egli godeva di se stesso, non soltanto intellettualmente perfino, godeva di se stesso moralmente, godeva di se stesso spiritualmente. Ma era di se stesso che godeva; e a prima vista una cosa del tutto naturale da fare. Ora, la scoperta psicologica è semplicemente questa, che, mentre si era supposto che il più pieno godimento possibile fosse da trovarsi estendendo il nostro io fino all’infinito, la verità è che il più pieno godimento possibile è da trovarsi riducendo il nostro io a zero.

L’umiltà è ciò che eternamente rinnova la terra e le stelle. È l’umiltà, e non il dovere, che preserva le stelle dal torto, dall’imperdonabile torto della casuale rassegnazione; è attraverso l’umiltà che i cieli più antichi sono per noi freschi e forti. La maledizione che venne prima della storia ci ha imposto a tutti una tendenza a stancarci delle meraviglie. Se vedessimo il sole per la prima volta sarebbe la più tremenda e bella delle meteore. Ora che lo vediamo per la centesima volta lo chiamiamo, con l’orrenda e blasfema espressione di Wordsworth, «la luce del giorno comune». Siamo inclini ad accrescere le nostre pretese. Siamo inclini a esigere sei soli, a esigere un sole azzurro, a esigere un sole verde. L’umiltà ci riporta perpetuamente nell’oscurità primeva. Là ogni luce è folgore, trasalente e istantanea. Finché non comprendiamo quell’oscurità originaria, in cui non abbiamo né vista né attesa, non possiamo dare alcuna lode cordiale e fanciullesca allo splendido sensazionalismo delle cose. I termini «pessimismo» e «ottimismo», come la maggior parte dei termini moderni, sono privi di senso. Ma se possono essere usati in un qualche senso vago per significare qualcosa, possiamo dire che in questo grande fatto il pessimismo è il fondamento stesso dell’ottimismo. L’uomo che distrugge se stesso crea l’universo. Per l’uomo umile, e per l’uomo umile soltanto, il sole è davvero un sole; per l’uomo umile, e per l’uomo umile soltanto, il mare è davvero un mare. Quando egli guarda tutti i volti nella strada, non solo si rende conto che gli uomini sono vivi, ma si rende conto con un drammatico piacere che essi non sono morti.

Non ho parlato di un altro aspetto della scoperta dell’umiltà come necessità psicologica, perché su di esso si insiste più comunemente, ed è in se stesso più ovvio. Ma è ugualmente chiaro che l’umiltà è una necessità permanente come condizione dello sforzo e dell’esame di . È una delle mortali fallacie della politica sciovinista che una nazione sia più forte per il fatto di disprezzare le altre nazioni. In realtà, le nazioni più forti sono quelle che, come la Prussia o il Giappone, cominciarono da inizi molto umili, ma non furono troppo orgogliose per sedersi ai piedi dello straniero e imparare ogni cosa da lui. Quasi ogni vittoria ovvia e diretta è stata la vittoria del plagiario. Questo è, in verità, soltanto un ben meschino sottoprodotto dell’umiltà, ma è un prodotto dell’umiltà e, perciò, ha successo. La Prussia non aveva alcuna umiltà cristiana nei suoi ordinamenti interni; perciò i suoi ordinamenti interni erano miserabili. Ma aveva abbastanza umiltà cristiana da copiare servilmente la Francia (perfino fin nella poesia di Federico il Grande), e ciò che ebbe l’umiltà di copiare ebbe in ultimo l’onore di conquistare. Il caso dei giapponesi è ancora più ovvio; la loro unica qualità cristiana e la loro unica bella qualità è che si sono umiliati per essere esaltati. Tutto questo aspetto dell’umiltà, tuttavia, in quanto connesso con la questione dello sforzo e del tendere verso uno standard posto al di sopra di noi, lo lascio da parte in quanto è stato sufficientemente segnalato da quasi tutti gli scrittori idealisti.

Può tuttavia valere la pena di segnalare l’interessante disparità, in fatto di umiltà, tra la nozione moderna dell’uomo forte e le testimonianze effettive degli uomini forti. Carlyle obiettò all’affermazione secondo cui nessun uomo può essere un eroe per il suo cameriere. Ogni simpatia può essergli accordata in proposito se intendeva soltanto o principalmente che quella frase era un disconoscimento del culto degli eroi. Il culto degli eroi è certamente un impulso generoso e umano; l’eroe può essere manchevole, ma il culto difficilmente può esserlo. Può darsi che nessun uomo sia un eroe per il suo cameriere. Ma qualsiasi uomo sarebbe un cameriere per il proprio eroe. Ma in verità sia il proverbio stesso sia la censura che Carlyle vi muove ignorano la questione più essenziale in gioco. L’ultima verità psicologica non è che nessun uomo è un eroe per il suo cameriere. L’ultima verità psicologica, il fondamento del cristianesimo, è che nessun uomo è un eroe per se stesso. Cromwell, secondo Carlyle, era un uomo forte. Secondo Cromwell, era un uomo debole.

Il punto debole di tutta la difesa che Carlyle fa dell’aristocrazia sta, in verità, nella sua frase più celebre. Carlyle disse che gli uomini sono per lo più sciocchi. Il cristianesimo, con un realismo più sicuro e più reverente, dice che sono tutti sciocchi. Questa dottrina viene talvolta chiamata la dottrina del peccato originale. Può anche essere descritta come la dottrina dell’uguaglianza degli uomini. Ma il suo punto essenziale è semplicemente questo, che qualunque pericolo morale primario e di vasta portata affligga un uomo, affligge tutti gli uomini. Tutti gli uomini possono essere criminali, se tentati; tutti gli uomini possono essere eroi, se ispirati. E questa dottrina liquida del tutto la patetica credenza di Carlyle (o la patetica credenza di chiunque altro) nei «pochi saggi». Non ci sono pochi saggi. Ogni aristocrazia che sia mai esistita si è comportata, in tutti i punti essenziali, esattamente come una piccola marmaglia. Ogni oligarchia non è altro che un capannello di uomini nella strada — vale a dire, è molto gioviale, ma non infallibile. E nessuna oligarchia nella storia del mondo se l’è mai cavata così male negli affari pratici quanto le oligarchie molto orgogliose: l’oligarchia della Polonia, l’oligarchia di Venezia. E gli eserciti che hanno più rapidamente e improvvisamente fatto a pezzi i loro nemici sono stati gli eserciti religiosi: gli eserciti musulmani, per esempio, o gli eserciti puritani. E un esercito religioso può, per sua natura, essere definito come un esercito in cui a ogni uomo si insegna non a esaltarsi, ma ad abbassarsi. Molti inglesi moderni parlano di se stessi come dei robusti discendenti dei loro robusti padri puritani. Di fatto, scapperebbero davanti a una mucca. Se domandaste a uno dei loro padri puritani, se domandaste a Bunyan, per esempio, se fosse robusto, egli avrebbe risposto, con le lacrime agli occhi, di essere debole come l’acqua. E proprio per questo egli avrebbe sopportato le torture. E questa virtù dell’umiltà, pur essendo abbastanza pratica da vincere le battaglie, sarà sempre abbastanza paradossale da sconcertare i pedanti. Sotto questo aspetto essa fa tutt’uno con la virtù della carità. Ogni persona generosa ammetterà che l’unica specie di peccato che la carità dovrebbe coprire è il peccato che è inescusabile. E ogni persona generosa converrà del pari che l’unica specie di orgoglio che sia interamente dannabile è l’orgoglio dell’uomo che ha qualcosa di cui essere orgoglioso. L’orgoglio che, proporzionalmente parlando, non danneggia il carattere, è l’orgoglio per cose che non recano al soggetto alcun merito. Così, non fa alcun male a un uomo essere orgoglioso del proprio paese, e relativamente poco male essere orgoglioso dei propri antenati remoti. Gli fa più male essere orgoglioso di aver fatto quattrini, perché in ciò ha un po’ più di ragione per l’orgoglio. Gli fa più male ancora essere orgoglioso di ciò che è più nobile del denaro: l’intelletto. E gli fa più male di tutto tenersi in pregio per la cosa più preziosa che vi sia sulla terra: la bontà. L’uomo che è orgoglioso di ciò che gli fa realmente onore è il fariseo, l’uomo che Cristo stesso non poté trattenersi dal colpire.

La mia obiezione al signor Lowes Dickinson e ai riproponitori dell’ideale pagano è, dunque, questa. Li accuso di ignorare determinate scoperte umane nel mondo morale, scoperte tanto precise, sebbene non tanto materiali, quanto la scoperta della circolazione del sangue. Non possiamo tornare a un ideale di ragione e di equilibrio mentale. Poiché l’umanità ha scoperto che la ragione non conduce all’equilibrio mentale. Non possiamo tornare a un ideale di orgoglio e di godimento. Poiché l’umanità ha scoperto che l’orgoglio non conduce al godimento. Non so per quale straordinario accidente mentale gli scrittori moderni colleghino così costantemente l’idea di progresso con l’idea di pensiero indipendente. Il progresso è manifestamente l’antitesi del pensiero indipendente. Poiché, sotto il pensiero indipendente o individualistico, ogni uomo comincia daccapo, e giunge, con ogni probabilità, esattamente tanto lontano quanto suo padre prima di lui. Ma se c’è davvero qualcosa che abbia la natura del progresso, esso deve significare, sopra ogni cosa, lo studio attento e l’assunzione dell’intero passato. Accuso il signor Lowes Dickinson e la sua scuola di reazione nell’unico senso reale. Se gli piace, ignori pure questi grandi misteri storici: il mistero della carità, il mistero della cavalleria, il mistero della fede. Se gli piace, ignori pure l’aratro o la stampa a caratteri mobili. Ma se davvero rianimeremo e perseguiremo l’ideale pagano di un semplice e razionale compimento di , finiremo dove finì il paganesimo. Non intendo che finiremo nella distruzione. Intendo che finiremo nel cristianesimo.

XIII. Celts and Celtophiles

Science in the modern world has many uses; its chief use, however, is to provide long words to cover the errors of the rich. The word “kleptomania” is a vulgar example of what I mean. It is on a par with that strange theory, always advanced when a wealthy or prominent person is in the dock, that exposure is more of a punishment for the rich than for the poor. Of course, the very reverse is the truth. Exposure is more of a punishment for the poor than for the rich. The richer a man is the easier it is for him to be a tramp. The richer a man is the easier it is for him to be popular and generally respected in the Cannibal Islands. But the poorer a man is the more likely it is that he will have to use his past life whenever he wants to get a bed for the night. Honour is a luxury for aristocrats, but it is a necessity for hall-porters. This is a secondary matter, but it is an example of the general proposition I offer—the proposition that an enormous amount of modern ingenuity is expended on finding defences for the indefensible conduct of the powerful. As I have said above, these defences generally exhibit themselves most emphatically in the form of appeals to physical science. And of all the forms in which science, or pseudo-science, has come to the rescue of the rich and stupid, there is none so singular as the singular invention of the theory of races.

When a wealthy nation like the English discovers the perfectly patent fact that it is making a ludicrous mess of the government of a poorer nation like the Irish, it pauses for a moment in consternation, and then begins to talk about Celts and Teutons. As far as I can understand the theory, the Irish are Celts and the English are Teutons. Of course, the Irish are not Celts any more than the English are Teutons. I have not followed the ethnological discussion with much energy, but the last scientific conclusion which I read inclined on the whole to the summary that the English were mainly Celtic and the Irish mainly Teutonic. But no man alive, with even the glimmering of a real scientific sense, would ever dream of applying the terms “Celtic” or “Teutonic” to either of them in any positive or useful sense.

That sort of thing must be left to people who talk about the Anglo-Saxon race, and extend the expression to America. How much of the blood of the Angles and Saxons (whoever they were) there remains in our mixed British, Roman, German, Dane, Norman, and Picard stock is a matter only interesting to wild antiquaries. And how much of that diluted blood can possibly remain in that roaring whirlpool of America into which a cataract of Swedes, Jews, Germans, Irishmen, and Italians is perpetually pouring, is a matter only interesting to lunatics. It would have been wiser for the English governing class to have called upon some other god. All other gods, however weak and warring, at least boast of being constant. But science boasts of being in a flux for ever; boasts of being unstable as water.

And England and the English governing class never did call on this absurd deity of race until it seemed, for an instant, that they had no other god to call on. All the most genuine Englishmen in history would have yawned or laughed in your face if you had begun to talk about Anglo-Saxons. If you had attempted to substitute the ideal of race for the ideal of nationality, I really do not like to think what they would have said. I certainly should not like to have been the officer of Nelson who suddenly discovered his French blood on the eve of Trafalgar. I should not like to have been the Norfolk or Suffolk gentleman who had to expound to Admiral Blake by what demonstrable ties of genealogy he was irrevocably bound to the Dutch. The truth of the whole matter is very simple. Nationality exists, and has nothing in the world to do with race. Nationality is a thing like a church or a secret society; it is a product of the human soul and will; it is a spiritual product. And there are men in the modern world who would think anything and do anything rather than admit that anything could be a spiritual product.

A nation, however, as it confronts the modern world, is a purely spiritual product. Sometimes it has been born in independence, like Scotland. Sometimes it has been born in dependence, in subjugation, like Ireland. Sometimes it is a large thing cohering out of many smaller things, like Italy. Sometimes it is a small thing breaking away from larger things, like Poland. But in each and every case its quality is purely spiritual, or, if you will, purely psychological. It is a moment when five men become a sixth man. Every one knows it who has ever founded a club. It is a moment when five places become one place. Every one must know it who has ever had to repel an invasion. Mr. Timothy Healy, the most serious intellect in the present House of Commons, summed up nationality to perfection when he simply called it something for which people will die. As he excellently said in reply to Lord Hugh Cecil, “No one, not even the noble lord, would die for the meridian of Greenwich.” And that is the great tribute to its purely psychological character. It is idle to ask why Greenwich should not cohere in this spiritual manner while Athens or Sparta did. It is like asking why a man falls in love with one woman and not with another.

Now, of this great spiritual coherence, independent of external circumstances, or of race, or of any obvious physical thing, Ireland is the most remarkable example. Rome conquered nations, but Ireland has conquered races. The Norman has gone there and become Irish, the Scotchman has gone there and become Irish, the Spaniard has gone there and become Irish, even the bitter soldier of Cromwell has gone there and become Irish. Ireland, which did not exist even politically, has been stronger than all the races that existed scientifically. The purest Germanic blood, the purest Norman blood, the purest blood of the passionate Scotch patriot, has not been so attractive as a nation without a flag. Ireland, unrecognized and oppressed, has easily absorbed races, as such trifles are easily absorbed. She has easily disposed of physical science, as such superstitions are easily disposed of. Nationality in its weakness has been stronger than ethnology in its strength. Five triumphant races have been absorbed, have been defeated by a defeated nationality.

This being the true and strange glory of Ireland, it is impossible to hear without impatience of the attempt so constantly made among her modern sympathizers to talk about Celts and Celticism. Who were the Celts? I defy anybody to say. Who are the Irish? I defy any one to be indifferent, or to pretend not to know. Mr. W. B. Yeats, the great Irish genius who has appeared in our time, shows his own admirable penetration in discarding altogether the argument from a Celtic race. But he does not wholly escape, and his followers hardly ever escape, the general objection to the Celtic argument. The tendency of that argument is to represent the Irish or the Celts as a strange and separate race, as a tribe of eccentrics in the modern world immersed in dim legends and fruitless dreams. Its tendency is to exhibit the Irish as odd, because they see the fairies. Its trend is to make the Irish seem weird and wild because they sing old songs and join in strange dances. But this is quite an error; indeed, it is the opposite of the truth. It is the English who are odd because they do not see the fairies. It is the inhabitants of Kensington who are weird and wild because they do not sing old songs and join in strange dances. In all this the Irish are not in the least strange and separate, are not in the least Celtic, as the word is commonly and popularly used. In all this the Irish are simply an ordinary sensible nation, living the life of any other ordinary and sensible nation which has not been either sodden with smoke or oppressed by money-lenders, or otherwise corrupted with wealth and science. There is nothing Celtic about having legends. It is merely human. The Germans, who are (I suppose) Teutonic, have hundreds of legends, wherever it happens that the Germans are human. There is nothing Celtic about loving poetry; the English loved poetry more, perhaps, than any other people before they came under the shadow of the chimney-pot and the shadow of the chimney-pot hat. It is not Ireland which is mad and mystic; it is Manchester which is mad and mystic, which is incredible, which is a wild exception among human things. Ireland has no need to play the silly game of the science of races; Ireland has no need to pretend to be a tribe of visionaries apart. In the matter of visions, Ireland is more than a nation, it is a model nation.

XIII. Celti e celtofili

La scienza, nel mondo moderno, ha molti usi; il suo uso principale, tuttavia, è quello di fornire paroloni per coprire gli errori dei ricchi. La parola «cleptomania» è un volgare esempio di ciò che intendo. Sta sullo stesso piano di quella strana teoria, sempre avanzata quando una persona facoltosa o eminente si trova sul banco degli imputati, secondo cui la pubblica esposizione sarebbe una punizione più grave per i ricchi che per i poveri. Naturalmente è vero l’esatto contrario, la pura verità. La pubblica esposizione è una punizione più grave per i poveri che per i ricchi. Più un uomo è ricco, più gli è facile fare il vagabondo. Più un uomo è ricco, più gli è facile essere popolare e generalmente rispettato nelle Isole dei Cannibali. Ma più un uomo è povero, più è probabile che debba servirsi del proprio passato ogni volta che voglia procurarsi un letto per la notte. L’onore è un lusso per gli aristocratici, ma è una necessità per i portinai. Questa è una questione secondaria, ma è un esempio della proposizione generale che avanzo: la proposizione che un’enorme quantità dell’ingegno moderno viene spesa per trovare difese all’indifendibile condotta dei potenti. Come ho detto sopra, tali difese generalmente si manifestano nella forma più enfatica come appelli alla scienza fisica. E di tutte le forme in cui la scienza, o la pseudoscienza, è accorsa in soccorso dei ricchi e degli stupidi, non ve n’è alcuna tanto singolare quanto la singolare invenzione della teoria delle razze.

Quando una nazione ricca come quella inglese scopre il fatto perfettamente palese che sta facendo un pasticcio ridicolo nel governo di una nazione più povera come quella irlandese, si arresta per un istante costernata, e poi comincia a parlare di celti e teutoni. Per quanto io possa capire questa teoria, gli irlandesi sarebbero celti e gli inglesi teutoni. Naturalmente gli irlandesi non sono celti più di quanto gli inglesi siano teutoni. Non ho seguito la discussione etnologica con molta energia, ma l’ultima conclusione scientifica che ho letto propendeva nel complesso per il riassunto secondo cui gli inglesi sarebbero in prevalenza celtici e gli irlandesi in prevalenza teutonici. Ma nessun uomo vivente, che possieda anche solo un barlume di vero senso scientifico, si sognerebbe mai di applicare i termini «celtico» o «teutonico» all’uno o all’altro in un qualsiasi senso positivo o utile.

Quel genere di cose va lasciato a chi parla della razza anglosassone, ed estende l’espressione all’America. Quanto sangue degli angli e dei sassoni (chiunque essi fossero) rimanga nel nostro miscuglio di stirpe britannica, romana, germanica, danese, normanna e piccarda, è cosa che interessa soltanto agli antiquari più stravaganti. E quanto di quel sangue diluito possa mai rimanere in quel ruggente vortice d’America entro il quale una cateratta di svedesi, ebrei, tedeschi, irlandesi e italiani si riversa perpetuamente, è cosa che interessa soltanto ai pazzi. Sarebbe stato più saggio, per la classe dirigente inglese, invocare qualche altro dio. Tutti gli altri dèi, per quanto deboli e in guerra fra loro, si vantano almeno di essere costanti. Ma la scienza si vanta di essere in perpetuo flusso; si vanta di essere instabile come l’acqua.

E l’Inghilterra e la sua classe dirigente non invocarono mai questa assurda divinità della razza finché non parve, per un istante, che non avessero altro dio da invocare. Tutti gli inglesi più autentici della storia avrebbero sbadigliato o vi avrebbero riso in faccia se aveste cominciato a parlare di anglosassoni. Se aveste tentato di sostituire l’ideale della razza all’ideale della nazionalità, davvero non mi piace pensare a ciò che avrebbero detto. Certo non mi sarebbe piaciuto essere l’ufficiale di Nelson che alla vigilia di Trafalgar avesse scoperto d’un tratto il proprio sangue francese. Non mi sarebbe piaciuto essere il gentiluomo del Norfolk o del Suffolk che dovesse spiegare all’ammiraglio Blake per quali dimostrabili vincoli di genealogia egli fosse irrevocabilmente legato agli olandesi. La verità di tutta la faccenda è molto semplice. La nazionalità esiste, e non ha nulla al mondo a che fare con la razza. La nazionalità è una cosa simile a una chiesa o a una società segreta; è un prodotto dell’anima e della volontà umana; è un prodotto spirituale. E vi sono uomini nel mondo moderno che penserebbero qualunque cosa e farebbero qualunque cosa piuttosto che ammettere che qualcosa possa essere un prodotto spirituale.

Una nazione, tuttavia, nel modo in cui si presenta al mondo moderno, è un prodotto puramente spirituale. Talvolta è nata nell’indipendenza, come la Scozia. Talvolta è nata nella dipendenza, nel soggiogamento, come l’Irlanda. Talvolta è una cosa grande che si coagula a partire da molte cose più piccole, come l’Italia. Talvolta è una cosa piccola che si stacca da cose più grandi, come la Polonia. Ma in ciascun caso, e in ogni caso, la sua qualità è puramente spirituale, o, se volete, puramente psicologica. È il momento in cui cinque uomini diventano un sesto uomo. Lo sa chiunque abbia mai fondato un club. È il momento in cui cinque luoghi diventano un solo luogo. Deve saperlo chiunque abbia mai dovuto respingere un’invasione. Il signor Timothy Healy, l’intelletto più serio dell’attuale Camera dei Comuni (House of Commons), riassunse alla perfezione la nazionalità quando la definì semplicemente qualcosa per cui la gente è disposta a morire. Come ebbe egregiamente a dire in risposta a Lord Hugh Cecil, «Nessuno, neppure il nobile lord, morirebbe per il meridiano di Greenwich». E questo è il grande tributo al suo carattere puramente psicologico. È ozioso chiedersi perché Greenwich non dovrebbe coagularsi in questa maniera spirituale, mentre Atene o Sparta lo fecero. È come chiedersi perché un uomo si innamori di una donna e non di un’altra, cadendo nell’amore per l’una e non per l’altra.

Ora, di questa grande coerenza spirituale, indipendente da circostanze esterne, o dalla razza, o da qualsiasi ovvia cosa fisica, l’Irlanda è l’esempio più notevole. Roma conquistò nazioni, ma l’Irlanda ha conquistato razze. Il normanno vi è andato ed è diventato irlandese, lo scozzese vi è andato ed è diventato irlandese, lo spagnolo vi è andato ed è diventato irlandese, perfino l’aspro soldato di Cromwell vi è andato ed è diventato irlandese. L’Irlanda, che non esisteva neppure politicamente, è stata più forte di tutte le razze che esistevano scientificamente. Il più puro sangue germanico, il più puro sangue normanno, il più puro sangue dell’appassionato patriota scozzese, non è stato tanto attraente quanto una nazione senza bandiera. L’Irlanda, misconosciuta e oppressa, ha assorbito con facilità le razze, come si assorbono con facilità simili inezie. Si è sbarazzata con facilità della scienza fisica, come ci si sbarazza con facilità di simili superstizioni. La nazionalità nella sua debolezza è stata più forte dell’etnologia nella sua forza. Cinque razze trionfanti sono state assorbite, sono state sconfitte da una nazionalità sconfitta.

Poiché questa è la vera e strana gloria dell’Irlanda, è impossibile udire senza impazienza il tentativo, così costantemente compiuto tra i suoi simpatizzanti moderni, di parlare di celti e di celticismo. Chi erano i celti? Sfido chiunque a dirlo. Chi sono gli irlandesi? Sfido chiunque a esserne indifferente, o a fingere di non saperlo. Il signor W. B. Yeats, il grande genio irlandese che è comparso ai nostri giorni, mostra la sua ammirevole penetrazione scartando del tutto l’argomento della razza celtica. Ma non sfugge completamente, e i suoi seguaci quasi mai sfuggono, all’obiezione generale contro l’argomento celtico. La tendenza di quell’argomento è di rappresentare gli irlandesi, o i celti, come una razza strana e separata, come una tribù di eccentrici nel mondo moderno immersi in oscure leggende e in infruttuosi sogni. La sua tendenza è di mostrare gli irlandesi come bizzarri, perché vedono le fate. La sua inclinazione è di far apparire gli irlandesi strani e selvaggi perché cantano vecchie canzoni e si uniscono a strane danze. Ma questo è un vero e proprio errore; anzi, è l’opposto della verità. Sono gli inglesi a essere bizzarri, perché non vedono le fate. Sono gli abitanti di Kensington a essere strani e selvaggi, perché non cantano vecchie canzoni né si uniscono a strane danze. In tutto questo gli irlandesi non sono affatto strani e separati, non sono affatto celtici, nel senso in cui la parola è comunemente e popolarmente usata. In tutto questo gli irlandesi sono semplicemente una nazione ordinaria e assennata, che vive la vita di qualsiasi altra nazione ordinaria e assennata che non sia stata né inzuppata di fumo né oppressa dagli usurai, o altrimenti corrotta dalla ricchezza e dalla scienza. Non c’è nulla di celtico nell’avere leggende. È semplicemente umano. I tedeschi, che sono (suppongo) teutonici, hanno centinaia di leggende, ovunque accada che i tedeschi siano umani. Non c’è nulla di celtico nell’amare la poesia; gli inglesi amarono la poesia più, forse, di qualsiasi altro popolo, prima che cadessero sotto l’ombra del comignolo e sotto l’ombra del cilindro. Non è l’Irlanda a essere folle e mistica; è Manchester a essere folle e mistica, il che è incredibile, il che è una selvaggia eccezione fra le cose umane. L’Irlanda non ha bisogno di giocare allo sciocco gioco della scienza delle razze; l’Irlanda non ha bisogno di fingersi una tribù di visionari a parte. In materia di visioni, l’Irlanda è più di una nazione: è una nazione modello.

XIV. On Certain Modern Writers and the Institution of the Family

The family may fairly be considered, one would think, an ultimate human institution. Every one would admit that it has been the main cell and central unit of almost all societies hitherto, except, indeed, such societies as that of Lacedaemon, which went in for “efficiency,” and has, therefore, perished, and left not a trace behind. Christianity, even enormous as was its revolution, did not alter this ancient and savage sanctity; it merely reversed it. It did not deny the trinity of father, mother, and child. It merely read it backwards, making it run child, mother, father. This it called, not the family, but the Holy Family, for many things are made holy by being turned upside down. But some sages of our own decadence have made a serious attack on the family. They have impugned it, as I think wrongly; and its defenders have defended it, and defended it wrongly. The common defence of the family is that, amid the stress and fickleness of life, it is peaceful, pleasant, and at one. But there is another defence of the family which is possible, and to me evident; this defence is that the family is not peaceful and not pleasant and not at one.

It is not fashionable to say much nowadays of the advantages of the small community. We are told that we must go in for large empires and large ideas. There is one advantage, however, in the small state, the city, or the village, which only the wilfully blind can overlook. The man who lives in a small community lives in a much larger world. He knows much more of the fierce varieties and uncompromising divergences of men. The reason is obvious. In a large community we can choose our companions. In a small community our companions are chosen for us. Thus in all extensive and highly civilized societies groups come into existence founded upon what is called sympathy, and shut out the real world more sharply than the gates of a monastery. There is nothing really narrow about the clan; the thing which is really narrow is the clique. The men of the clan live together because they all wear the same tartan or are all descended from the same sacred cow; but in their souls, by the divine luck of things, there will always be more colours than in any tartan. But the men of the clique live together because they have the same kind of soul, and their narrowness is a narrowness of spiritual coherence and contentment, like that which exists in hell. A big society exists in order to form cliques. A big society is a society for the promotion of narrowness. It is a machinery for the purpose of guarding the solitary and sensitive individual from all experience of the bitter and bracing human compromises. It is, in the most literal sense of the words, a society for the prevention of Christian knowledge.

We can see this change, for instance, in the modern transformation of the thing called a club. When London was smaller, and the parts of London more self-contained and parochial, the club was what it still is in villages, the opposite of what it is now in great cities. Then the club was valued as a place where a man could be sociable. Now the club is valued as a place where a man can be unsociable. The more the enlargement and elaboration of our civilization goes on the more the club ceases to be a place where a man can have a noisy argument, and becomes more and more a place where a man can have what is somewhat fantastically called a quiet chop. Its aim is to make a man comfortable, and to make a man comfortable is to make him the opposite of sociable. Sociability, like all good things, is full of discomforts, dangers, and renunciations. The club tends to produce the most degraded of all combinations— the luxurious anchorite, the man who combines the self-indulgence of Lucullus with the insane loneliness of St. Simeon Stylites.

If we were to-morrow morning snowed up in the street in which we live, we should step suddenly into a much larger and much wilder world than we have ever known. And it is the whole effort of the typically modern person to escape from the street in which he lives. First he invents modern hygiene and goes to Margate. Then he invents modern culture and goes to Florence. Then he invents modern imperialism and goes to Timbuctoo. He goes to the fantastic borders of the earth. He pretends to shoot tigers. He almost rides on a camel. And in all this he is still essentially fleeing from the street in which he was born; and of this flight he is always ready with his own explanation. He says he is fleeing from his street because it is dull; he is lying. He is really fleeing from his street because it is a great deal too exciting. It is exciting because it is exacting; it is exacting because it is alive. He can visit Venice because to him the Venetians are only Venetians; the people in his own street are men. He can stare at the Chinese because for him the Chinese are a passive thing to be stared at; if he stares at the old lady in the next garden, she becomes active. He is forced to flee, in short, from the too stimulating society of his equals— of free men, perverse, personal, deliberately different from himself. The street in Brixton is too glowing and overpowering. He has to soothe and quiet himself among tigers and vultures, camels and crocodiles. These creatures are indeed very different from himself. But they do not put their shape or colour or custom into a decisive intellectual competition with his own. They do not seek to destroy his principles and assert their own; the stranger monsters of the suburban street do seek to do this. The camel does not contort his features into a fine sneer because Mr. Robinson has not got a hump; the cultured gentleman at No. 5 does exhibit a sneer because Robinson has not got a dado. The vulture will not roar with laughter because a man does not fly; but the major at No. 9 will roar with laughter because a man does not smoke. The complaint we commonly have to make of our neighbours is that they will not, as we express it, mind their own business. We do not really mean that they will not mind their own business. If our neighbours did not mind their own business they would be asked abruptly for their rent, and would rapidly cease to be our neighbours. What we really mean when we say that they cannot mind their own business is something much deeper. We do not dislike them because they have so little force and fire that they cannot be interested in themselves. We dislike them because they have so much force and fire that they can be interested in us as well. What we dread about our neighbours, in short, is not the narrowness of their horizon, but their superb tendency to broaden it. And all aversions to ordinary humanity have this general character. They are not aversions to its feebleness (as is pretended), but to its energy. The misanthropes pretend that they despise humanity for its weakness. As a matter of fact, they hate it for its strength.

XIV. Su certi scrittori moderni e sull’istituzione della famiglia

La famiglia può a buon diritto essere considerata, verrebbe da pensare, un’istituzione umana ultima. Chiunque ammetterebbe che essa è stata la cellula principale e l’unità centrale di quasi tutte le società finora esistite, tranne, in verità, quelle società come quella di Lacedemone, che puntò sull’«efficienza», e che perciò è perita, senza lasciare traccia dietro di sé. Il Cristianesimo, per quanto enorme fosse la sua rivoluzione, non alterò questa antica e selvaggia santità; si limitò a rovesciarla. Non negò la trinità di padre, madre e figlio. La lesse soltanto all’incontrario, facendola scorrere come figlio, madre, padre. E la chiamò non famiglia, ma Sacra Famiglia, poiché molte cose vengono rese sacre dall’essere capovolte. Ma alcuni sapienti della nostra decadenza hanno mosso un serio attacco alla famiglia. L’hanno impugnata, a mio avviso a torto; e i suoi difensori l’hanno difesa, e l’hanno difesa a torto. La comune difesa della famiglia è che, in mezzo allo stress e alla mutevolezza della vita, essa è pacifica, piacevole e concorde. Ma vi è un’altra difesa della famiglia, che è possibile, e a me evidente; questa difesa è che la famiglia non è pacifica, né piacevole, né concorde.

Non è di moda dire molto, oggigiorno, dei vantaggi della piccola comunità. Ci vien detto che dobbiamo puntare su grandi imperi e grandi idee. Vi è un vantaggio, tuttavia, nel piccolo stato, nella città, o nel villaggio, che solo chi è volontariamente cieco può trascurare. L’uomo che vive in una piccola comunità vive in un mondo assai più grande. Egli conosce molto di più le fiere varietà e le intransigenti divergenze degli uomini. La ragione è ovvia. In una grande comunità possiamo scegliere i nostri compagni. In una piccola comunità i nostri compagni ci sono scelti. Così, in tutte le società estese e altamente civilizzate, si formano gruppi fondati su ciò che si chiama simpatia, e che escludono il mondo reale più nettamente che le porte di un monastero. Non vi è nulla di veramente angusto nel clan; ciò che è davvero angusto è la cricca. Gli uomini del clan vivono insieme perché portano tutti lo stesso tartan o discendono tutti dalla stessa vacca sacra; ma nelle loro anime, per la divina fortuna delle cose, vi saranno sempre più colori che in qualsiasi tartan. Ma gli uomini della cricca vivono insieme perché hanno lo stesso genere d’anima, e la loro angustia è un’angustia di coerenza e di compiacimento spirituale, simile a quella che esiste all’inferno. Una grande società esiste per formare cricche. Una grande società è una società per la promozione dell’angustia. È un macchinario destinato a proteggere l’individuo solitario e sensibile da ogni esperienza degli amari e tonificanti compromessi umani. È, nel senso più letterale delle parole, una società per la prevenzione della conoscenza cristiana.

Possiamo scorgere questo mutamento, per esempio, nella moderna trasformazione della cosa chiamata club. Quando Londra era più piccola, e le parti di Londra erano più autonome e parrocchiali, il club era ciò che è tuttora nei villaggi, l’opposto di ciò che è oggi nelle grandi città. Allora il club era apprezzato come luogo dove un uomo poteva essere socievole. Ora il club è apprezzato come luogo dove un uomo può essere insocievole. Quanto più procedono l’ingrandimento e l’elaborazione della nostra civiltà, tanto più il club cessa di essere un luogo dove un uomo può avere un rumoroso litigio, e diventa sempre più un luogo dove un uomo può gustare ciò che, con una certa stravaganza, viene chiamato una tranquilla braciola. Il suo scopo è rendere un uomo comodo, e rendere un uomo comodo significa renderlo l’opposto di socievole. La socievolezza, come tutte le cose buone, è piena di disagi, di pericoli e di rinunce. Il club tende a produrre la più degradata di tutte le combinazioni: l’anacoreta lussurioso, l’uomo che unisce l’autoindulgenza di Lucullo all’insensata solitudine di san Simeone Stilita.

Se domani mattina restassimo bloccati dalla neve nella strada in cui viviamo, ci ritroveremmo a un tratto in un mondo assai più grande e assai più selvaggio di quanto abbiamo mai conosciuto. Ed è tutto lo sforzo dell’uomo tipicamente moderno quello di fuggire dalla strada in cui vive. Prima inventa l’igiene moderna e va a Margate. Poi inventa la cultura moderna e va a Firenze. Poi inventa l’imperialismo moderno e va a Timbuctù. Va ai confini fantastici della terra. Finge di cacciare le tigri. Quasi cavalca un cammello. E in tutto questo egli sta pur sempre, essenzialmente, fuggendo dalla strada in cui è nato; e di questa fuga è sempre pronto a dare la propria spiegazione. Dice di fuggire dalla sua strada perché è noiosa; sta mentendo. In realtà egli fugge dalla sua strada perché è fin troppo eccitante. È eccitante perché è esigente; è esigente perché è viva. Egli può visitare Venezia perché per lui i Veneziani non sono che Veneziani; la gente della sua strada è fatta di uomini. Può fissare i Cinesi perché per lui i Cinesi sono una cosa passiva da fissare; se fissa la vecchia signora del giardino accanto, ella diventa attiva. È costretto a fuggire, insomma, dalla società troppo stimolante dei suoi pari: di uomini liberi, perversi, personali, deliberatamente diversi da lui. La strada di Brixton è troppo ardente e soverchiante. Egli deve lenirsi e acquietarsi tra tigri e avvoltoi, cammelli e coccodrilli. Queste creature sono in effetti assai diverse da lui. Ma non mettono la loro forma, il loro colore o la loro consuetudine in una decisiva competizione intellettuale con le sue. Non cercano di distruggere i suoi princìpi e di affermare i propri; gli stranieri mostri della strada suburbana invece cercano di farlo. Il cammello non contorce i lineamenti in un raffinato sogghigno perché il signor Robinson non ha la gobba; il colto gentiluomo del numero 5 sfoggia sì un sogghigno perché Robinson non ha un dado decorativo. L’avvoltoio non scoppierà in una risata perché un uomo non vola; ma il maggiore del numero 9 scoppierà in una risata perché un uomo non fuma. La lagnanza che comunemente muoviamo contro i nostri vicini è che non vogliono, come diciamo, badare ai fatti propri. In realtà non intendiamo dire che essi non vogliono badare ai fatti propri. Se i nostri vicini non badassero ai fatti propri, verrebbe loro chiesto bruscamente l’affitto, e cesserebbero rapidamente di essere nostri vicini. Ciò che davvero intendiamo, quando diciamo che non sanno badare ai fatti propri, è qualcosa di assai più profondo. Non li avversiamo perché hanno così poca forza e così poco fuoco da non potersi interessare a sé stessi. Li avversiamo perché hanno tanta forza e tanto fuoco da potersi interessare anche a noi. Ciò che paventiamo nei nostri vicini, insomma, non è l’angustia del loro orizzonte, ma la loro superba tendenza ad allargarlo. E tutte le avversioni verso l’umanità comune hanno questo carattere generale. Non sono avversioni alla sua fiacchezza (come si finge), ma alla sua energia. I misantropi fingono di disprezzare l’umanità per la sua debolezza. Di fatto, la odiano per la sua forza.

Of course, this shrinking from the brutal vivacity and brutal variety of common men is a perfectly reasonable and excusable thing as long as it does not pretend to any point of superiority. It is when it calls itself aristocracy or aestheticism or a superiority to the bourgeoisie that its inherent weakness has in justice to be pointed out. Fastidiousness is the most pardonable of vices; but it is the most unpardonable of virtues. Nietzsche, who represents most prominently this pretentious claim of the fastidious, has a description somewhere— a very powerful description in the purely literary sense— of the disgust and disdain which consume him at the sight of the common people with their common faces, their common voices, and their common minds. As I have said, this attitude is almost beautiful if we may regard it as pathetic. Nietzsche’s aristocracy has about it all the sacredness that belongs to the weak. When he makes us feel that he cannot endure the innumerable faces, the incessant voices, the overpowering omnipresence which belongs to the mob, he will have the sympathy of anybody who has ever been sick on a steamer or tired in a crowded omnibus. Every man has hated mankind when he was less than a man. Every man has had humanity in his eyes like a blinding fog, humanity in his nostrils like a suffocating smell. But when Nietzsche has the incredible lack of humour and lack of imagination to ask us to believe that his aristocracy is an aristocracy of strong muscles or an aristocracy of strong wills, it is necessary to point out the truth. It is an aristocracy of weak nerves.

We make our friends; we make our enemies; but God makes our next-door neighbour. Hence he comes to us clad in all the careless terrors of nature; he is as strange as the stars, as reckless and indifferent as the rain. He is Man, the most terrible of the beasts. That is why the old religions and the old scriptural language showed so sharp a wisdom when they spoke, not of one’s duty towards humanity, but one’s duty towards one’s neighbour. The duty towards humanity may often take the form of some choice which is personal or even pleasurable. That duty may be a hobby; it may even be a dissipation. We may work in the East End because we are peculiarly fitted to work in the East End, or because we think we are; we may fight for the cause of international peace because we are very fond of fighting. The most monstrous martyrdom, the most repulsive experience, may be the result of choice or a kind of taste. We may be so made as to be particularly fond of lunatics or specially interested in leprosy. We may love negroes because they are black or German Socialists because they are pedantic. But we have to love our neighbour because he is there— a much more alarming reason for a much more serious operation. He is the sample of humanity which is actually given us. Precisely because he may be anybody he is everybody. He is a symbol because he is an accident.

Doubtless men flee from small environments into lands that are very deadly. But this is natural enough; for they are not fleeing from death. They are fleeing from life. And this principle applies to ring within ring of the social system of humanity. It is perfectly reasonable that men should seek for some particular variety of the human type, so long as they are seeking for that variety of the human type, and not for mere human variety. It is quite proper that a British diplomatist should seek the society of Japanese generals, if what he wants is Japanese generals. But if what he wants is people different from himself, he had much better stop at home and discuss religion with the housemaid. It is quite reasonable that the village genius should come up to conquer London if what he wants is to conquer London. But if he wants to conquer something fundamentally and symbolically hostile and also very strong, he had much better remain where he is and have a row with the rector. The man in the suburban street is quite right if he goes to Ramsgate for the sake of Ramsgate—a difficult thing to imagine. But if, as he expresses it, he goes to Ramsgate “for a change,” then he would have a much more romantic and even melodramatic change if he jumped over the wall into his neighbours garden. The consequences would be bracing in a sense far beyond the possibilities of Ramsgate hygiene.

Now, exactly as this principle applies to the empire, to the nation within the empire, to the city within the nation, to the street within the city, so it applies to the home within the street. The institution of the family is to be commended for precisely the same reasons that the institution of the nation, or the institution of the city, are in this matter to be commended. It is a good thing for a man to live in a family for the same reason that it is a good thing for a man to be besieged in a city. It is a good thing for a man to live in a family in the same sense that it is a beautiful and delightful thing for a man to be snowed up in a street. They all force him to realize that life is not a thing from outside, but a thing from inside. Above all, they all insist upon the fact that life, if it be a truly stimulating and fascinating life, is a thing which, of its nature, exists in spite of ourselves. The modern writers who have suggested, in a more or less open manner, that the family is a bad institution, have generally confined themselves to suggesting, with much sharpness, bitterness, or pathos, that perhaps the family is not always very congenial. Of course the family is a good institution because it is uncongenial. It is wholesome precisely because it contains so many divergencies and varieties. It is, as the sentimentalists say, like a little kingdom, and, like most other little kingdoms, is generally in a state of something resembling anarchy. It is exactly because our brother George is not interested in our religious difficulties, but is interested in the Trocadero Restaurant, that the family has some of the bracing qualities of the commonwealth. It is precisely because our uncle Henry does not approve of the theatrical ambitions of our sister Sarah that the family is like humanity. The men and women who, for good reasons and bad, revolt against the family, are, for good reasons and bad, simply revolting against mankind. Aunt Elizabeth is unreasonable, like mankind. Papa is excitable, like mankind. Our youngest brother is mischievous, like mankind. Grandpapa is stupid, like the world; he is old, like the world.

Naturalmente, questo ritrarsi dalla brutale vivacità e dalla brutale varietà degli uomini comuni è cosa perfettamente ragionevole e scusabile, finché non pretende ad alcun titolo di superiorità. È quando si autoproclama aristocrazia o estetismo o superiorità rispetto alla borghesia, che occorre in giustizia denunciarne l’intrinseca debolezza. La schifiltosità è il più perdonabile dei vizi; ma è il più imperdonabile delle virtù. Nietzsche, che rappresenta in modo più cospicuo questa pretenziosa rivendicazione degli schifiltosi, ha da qualche parte una descrizione — una descrizione molto potente nel senso puramente letterario — del disgusto e del disdegno che lo consumano alla vista della gente comune, con le sue facce comuni, le sue voci comuni, e le sue menti comuni. Come ho detto, questo atteggiamento è quasi bello, se lo si può considerare patetico. L’aristocrazia di Nietzsche possiede tutta la sacralità che appartiene ai deboli. Quando egli ci fa sentire che non può sopportare le innumerevoli facce, le voci incessanti, la soverchiante onnipresenza che appartiene alla folla, avrà la simpatia di chiunque abbia mai avuto la nausea su un piroscafo o si sia stancato in un omnibus affollato. Ogni uomo ha odiato il genere umano quando era meno che uomo. Ogni uomo ha avuto l’umanità negli occhi come una nebbia accecante, l’umanità nelle narici come un odore soffocante. Ma quando Nietzsche ha l’incredibile mancanza di umorismo e mancanza di immaginazione di chiederci di credere che la sua aristocrazia sia un’aristocrazia di muscoli forti o un’aristocrazia di volontà forti, è necessario far notare la verità. È un’aristocrazia di nervi deboli.

Noi ci facciamo gli amici; ci facciamo i nemici; ma è Dio a farci il vicino della porta accanto. Perciò egli ci giunge ammantato di tutti gli incuranti terrori della natura; è strano come le stelle, sconsiderato e indifferente come la pioggia. Egli è l’Uomo, la più terribile delle bestie. Ecco perché le antiche religioni e l’antico linguaggio scritturale mostrarono una così acuta saggezza quando parlarono non del dovere verso l’umanità, ma del dovere verso il proprio prossimo. Il dovere verso l’umanità può assumere spesso la forma di una scelta personale o addirittura piacevole. Quel dovere può essere un passatempo; può persino essere una dissipazione. Possiamo lavorare nell’East End perché siamo particolarmente adatti a lavorare nell’East End, o perché lo crediamo; possiamo batterci per la causa della pace internazionale perché siamo molto amanti del combattere. Il più mostruoso martirio, l’esperienza più ripugnante, può essere il risultato di una scelta o di una specie di gusto. Possiamo essere fatti in modo da essere particolarmente affezionati ai pazzi o specialmente interessati alla lebbra. Possiamo amare i negri perché sono neri, o i socialisti tedeschi perché sono pedanti. Ma dobbiamo amare il nostro prossimo perché è là: una ragione assai più allarmante per un’operazione assai più seria. Egli è il campione di umanità che ci è effettivamente dato. Precisamente perché può essere chiunque, egli è ognuno. È un simbolo perché è un caso.

Senza dubbio gli uomini fuggono da piccoli ambienti verso terre assai mortifere. Ma ciò è abbastanza naturale; perché essi non fuggono dalla morte. Fuggono dalla vita. E questo principio si applica a un anello dopo l’altro del sistema sociale dell’umanità. È perfettamente ragionevole che gli uomini cerchino qualche particolare varietà del tipo umano, purché stiano cercando quella varietà del tipo umano, e non la mera varietà umana. È del tutto giusto che un diplomatico britannico cerchi la compagnia dei generali giapponesi, se ciò che vuole sono generali giapponesi. Ma se ciò che vuole è gente diversa da sé, farebbe assai meglio a restarsene a casa e a discutere di religione con la cameriera. È del tutto ragionevole che il genio del villaggio salga a conquistare Londra se ciò che vuole è conquistare Londra. Ma se vuole conquistare qualcosa di fondamentalmente e simbolicamente ostile, e anche molto forte, farebbe assai meglio a restare dov’è e a litigare con il rettore. L’uomo della strada suburbana ha perfettamente ragione se va a Ramsgate per amore di Ramsgate — cosa difficile da immaginare. Ma se, come lui dice, va a Ramsgate «per cambiare aria», allora avrebbe un cambiamento assai più romantico e persino melodrammatico se scavalcasse il muro per entrare nel giardino del vicino. Le conseguenze sarebbero tonificanti in un senso ben oltre le possibilità dell’igiene di Ramsgate.

Ora, esattamente come questo principio si applica all’impero, alla nazione entro l’impero, alla città entro la nazione, alla strada entro la città, così esso si applica alla casa entro la strada. L’istituzione della famiglia va lodata precisamente per le stesse ragioni per cui l’istituzione della nazione, o l’istituzione della città, vanno in questa materia lodate. È cosa buona per un uomo vivere in una famiglia per la stessa ragione per cui è cosa buona per un uomo essere assediato in una città. È cosa buona per un uomo vivere in una famiglia nello stesso senso in cui è cosa bella e deliziosa per un uomo restare bloccato dalla neve in una strada. Tutte queste cose lo costringono a comprendere che la vita non è una cosa dall’esterno, ma una cosa dall’interno. Soprattutto, tutte insistono sul fatto che la vita, se è una vita veramente stimolante e affascinante, è una cosa che, per sua natura, esiste a nostro dispetto. Gli scrittori moderni che hanno suggerito, in maniera più o meno aperta, che la famiglia è una cattiva istituzione, si sono in genere limitati a suggerire, con molta acutezza, amarezza o pathos, che forse la famiglia non è sempre molto congeniale. Naturalmente la famiglia è una buona istituzione proprio perché è sgradevole. È salubre precisamente perché contiene tante divergenze e varietà. È, come dicono i sentimentali, simile a un piccolo regno, e, come la maggior parte degli altri piccoli regni, si trova in genere in uno stato che assomiglia all’anarchia. È esattamente perché nostro fratello George non si interessa alle nostre difficoltà religiose, ma si interessa al Ristorante Trocadero, che la famiglia possiede alcune delle qualità tonificanti dello stato comune. È precisamente perché nostro zio Henry non approva le ambizioni teatrali di nostra sorella Sarah, che la famiglia è simile all’umanità. Gli uomini e le donne che, per buone e cattive ragioni, si ribellano alla famiglia, si stanno, per buone e cattive ragioni, semplicemente ribellando al genere umano. La zia Elizabeth è irragionevole, come il genere umano. Il papà è eccitabile, come il genere umano. Il nostro fratello più piccolo è dispettoso, come il genere umano. Il nonno è stupido, come il mondo; è vecchio, come il mondo.

Those who wish, rightly or wrongly, to step out of all this, do definitely wish to step into a narrower world. They are dismayed and terrified by the largeness and variety of the family. Sarah wishes to find a world wholly consisting of private theatricals; George wishes to think the Trocadero a cosmos. I do not say, for a moment, that the flight to this narrower life may not be the right thing for the individual, any more than I say the same thing about flight into a monastery. But I do say that anything is bad and artificial which tends to make these people succumb to the strange delusion that they are stepping into a world which is actually larger and more varied than their own. The best way that a man could test his readiness to encounter the common variety of mankind would be to climb down a chimney into any house at random, and get on as well as possible with the people inside. And that is essentially what each one of us did on the day that he was born.

This is, indeed, the sublime and special romance of the family. It is romantic because it is a toss-up. It is romantic because it is everything that its enemies call it. It is romantic because it is arbitrary. It is romantic because it is there. So long as you have groups of men chosen rationally, you have some special or sectarian atmosphere. It is when you have groups of men chosen irrationally that you have men. The element of adventure begins to exist; for an adventure is, by its nature, a thing that comes to us. It is a thing that chooses us, not a thing that we choose. Falling in love has been often regarded as the supreme adventure, the supreme romantic accident. In so much as there is in it something outside ourselves, something of a sort of merry fatalism, this is very true. Love does take us and transfigure and torture us. It does break our hearts with an unbearable beauty, like the unbearable beauty of music. But in so far as we have certainly something to do with the matter; in so far as we are in some sense prepared to fall in love and in some sense jump into it; in so far as we do to some extent choose and to some extent even judge— in all this falling in love is not truly romantic, is not truly adventurous at all. In this degree the supreme adventure is not falling in love. The supreme adventure is being born. There we do walk suddenly into a splendid and startling trap. There we do see something of which we have not dreamed before. Our father and mother do lie in wait for us and leap out on us, like brigands from a bush. Our uncle is a surprise. Our aunt is, in the beautiful common expression, a bolt from the blue. When we step into the family, by the act of being born, we do step into a world which is incalculable, into a world which has its own strange laws, into a world which could do without us, into a world that we have not made. In other words, when we step into the family we step into a fairy-tale.

This colour as of a fantastic narrative ought to cling to the family and to our relations with it throughout life. Romance is the deepest thing in life; romance is deeper even than reality. For even if reality could be proved to be misleading, it still could not be proved to be unimportant or unimpressive. Even if the facts are false, they are still very strange. And this strangeness of life, this unexpected and even perverse element of things as they fall out, remains incurably interesting. The circumstances we can regulate may become tame or pessimistic; but the “circumstances over which we have no control” remain god-like to those who, like Mr. Micawber, can call on them and renew their strength. People wonder why the novel is the most popular form of literature; people wonder why it is read more than books of science or books of metaphysics. The reason is very simple; it is merely that the novel is more true than they are. Life may sometimes legitimately appear as a book of science. Life may sometimes appear, and with a much greater legitimacy, as a book of metaphysics. But life is always a novel. Our existence may cease to be a song; it may cease even to be a beautiful lament. Our existence may not be an intelligible justice, or even a recognizable wrong. But our existence is still a story. In the fiery alphabet of every sunset is written, “to be continued in our next.” If we have sufficient intellect, we can finish a philosophical and exact deduction, and be certain that we are finishing it right. With the adequate brain-power we could finish any scientific discovery, and be certain that we were finishing it right. But not with the most gigantic intellect could we finish the simplest or silliest story, and be certain that we were finishing it right. That is because a story has behind it, not merely intellect which is partly mechanical, but will, which is in its essence divine. The narrative writer can send his hero to the gallows if he likes in the last chapter but one. He can do it by the same divine caprice whereby he, the author, can go to the gallows himself, and to hell afterwards if he chooses. And the same civilization, the chivalric European civilization which asserted freewill in the thirteenth century, produced the thing called “fiction” in the eighteenth. When Thomas Aquinas asserted the spiritual liberty of man, he created all the bad novels in the circulating libraries.

But in order that life should be a story or romance to us, it is necessary that a great part of it, at any rate, should be settled for us without our permission. If we wish life to be a system, this may be a nuisance; but if we wish it to be a drama, it is an essential. It may often happen, no doubt, that a drama may be written by somebody else which we like very little. But we should like it still less if the author came before the curtain every hour or so, and forced on us the whole trouble of inventing the next act. A man has control over many things in his life; he has control over enough things to be the hero of a novel. But if he had control over everything, there would be so much hero that there would be no novel. And the reason why the lives of the rich are at bottom so tame and uneventful is simply that they can choose the events. They are dull because they are omnipotent. They fail to feel adventures because they can make the adventures. The thing which keeps life romantic and full of fiery possibilities is the existence of these great plain limitations which force all of us to meet the things we do not like or do not expect. It is vain for the supercilious moderns to talk of being in uncongenial surroundings. To be in a romance is to be in uncongenial surroundings. To be born into this earth is to be born into uncongenial surroundings, hence to be born into a romance. Of all these great limitations and frameworks which fashion and create the poetry and variety of life, the family is the most definite and important. Hence it is misunderstood by the moderns, who imagine that romance would exist most perfectly in a complete state of what they call liberty. They think that if a man makes a gesture it would be a startling and romantic matter that the sun should fall from the sky. But the startling and romantic thing about the sun is that it does not fall from the sky. They are seeking under every shape and form a world where there are no limitations—that is, a world where there are no outlines; that is, a world where there are no shapes. There is nothing baser than that infinity. They say they wish to be as strong as the universe, but they really wish the whole universe as weak as themselves.

Coloro che desiderano, a torto o a ragione, uscire da tutto questo, desiderano definitivamente entrare in un mondo più angusto. Sono sgomenti e atterriti dalla vastità e dalla varietà della famiglia. Sarah desidera trovare un mondo interamente fatto di recite private; George desidera pensare che il Trocadero sia un cosmo. Non dico affatto che la fuga verso questa vita più angusta non possa essere la cosa giusta per l’individuo, non più di quanto lo dica riguardo alla fuga in un monastero. Ma dico che è cattivo e artificioso tutto ciò che tende a far soccombere costoro alla strana illusione di stare entrando in un mondo che sia realmente più grande e più vario del proprio. Il modo migliore in cui un uomo potrebbe mettere alla prova la propria disposizione a incontrare la comune varietà del genere umano sarebbe di calarsi da un camino in una casa qualsiasi, presa a caso, e di andare il più possibile d’accordo con la gente che vi sta dentro. Ed è essenzialmente ciò che ciascuno di noi ha fatto il giorno in cui è nato.

Questo è, in verità, il sublime e speciale romanzo della famiglia. È romantico perché è un tiro a sorte. È romantico perché è tutto ciò che i suoi nemici lo dicono. È romantico perché è arbitrario. È romantico perché è là. Finché avrete gruppi di uomini scelti razionalmente, avrete una qualche atmosfera speciale o settaria. È quando avete gruppi di uomini scelti irrazionalmente che avete uomini. L’elemento dell’avventura comincia a esistere; poiché un’avventura è, per sua natura, una cosa che ci viene incontro. È una cosa che sceglie noi, non una cosa che scegliamo noi. L’innamorarsi è stato spesso considerato la suprema avventura, il supremo incidente romantico. Nella misura in cui vi è in esso qualcosa al di fuori di noi, qualcosa come una sorta di allegro fatalismo, ciò è verissimo. L’amore ci prende davvero, e ci trasfigura e ci tortura. Ci spezza davvero il cuore con un’insopportabile bellezza, come l’insopportabile bellezza della musica. Ma nella misura in cui abbiamo certamente qualcosa a che fare con la faccenda; nella misura in cui siamo in un certo senso preparati a innamorarci e in un certo senso vi saltiamo dentro; nella misura in cui in una certa misura scegliamo e in una certa misura persino giudichiamo — in tutto questo l’innamorarsi non è veramente romantico, non è veramente avventuroso affatto. In questa misura la suprema avventura non è l’innamorarsi. La suprema avventura è il nascere. Lì sì che camminiamo a un tratto dentro una splendida e sorprendente trappola. Lì sì che vediamo qualcosa che prima non avevamo sognato. Nostro padre e nostra madre ci stanno davvero in agguato e ci saltano addosso, come briganti da un cespuglio. Nostro zio è una sorpresa. Nostra zia è, nella bella espressione comune, un fulmine a ciel sereno. Quando entriamo nella famiglia, per l’atto stesso di nascere, entriamo davvero in un mondo che è incalcolabile, in un mondo che ha le sue proprie strane leggi, in un mondo che potrebbe fare a meno di noi, in un mondo che non abbiamo fatto noi. In altre parole, quando entriamo nella famiglia entriamo in una fiaba.

Questo colore, come di un racconto fantastico, dovrebbe restare aggrappato alla famiglia e ai nostri rapporti con essa per tutta la vita. Il romanzesco è la cosa più profonda della vita; il romanzesco è più profondo persino della realtà. Perché, anche se si potesse dimostrare che la realtà è ingannevole, non si potrebbe ancora dimostrare che essa è irrilevante o priva d’effetto. Anche se i fatti fossero falsi, resterebbero pur sempre molto strani. E questa stranezza della vita, questo elemento inatteso e persino perverso delle cose come vanno a finire, resta incurabilmente interessante. Le circostanze che possiamo regolare possono diventare fiacche o pessimistiche; ma le «circostanze sulle quali non abbiamo alcun controllo» restano simili a divinità per coloro che, come il signor Micawber, possono invocarle e rinnovare la propria forza. La gente si domanda perché il romanzo sia la forma di letteratura più popolare; la gente si domanda perché sia letto più dei libri di scienza o dei libri di metafisica. La ragione è molto semplice: è semplicemente che il romanzo è più vero di quelli. La vita può talvolta legittimamente apparire come un libro di scienza. La vita può talvolta apparire, e con assai maggiore legittimità, come un libro di metafisica. Ma la vita è sempre un romanzo. La nostra esistenza può cessare di essere una canzone; può cessare persino di essere un bel lamento. La nostra esistenza può non essere una giustizia intelligibile, o nemmeno un torto riconoscibile. Ma la nostra esistenza è pur sempre una storia. Nel fiammeggiante alfabeto di ogni tramonto è scritto: «continua nel prossimo numero». Se abbiamo intelletto sufficiente, possiamo portare a termine una deduzione filosofica ed esatta, ed essere certi di portarla a termine correttamente. Con adeguata potenza cerebrale potremmo portare a termine qualsiasi scoperta scientifica, ed essere certi di portarla a termine correttamente. Ma nemmeno col più gigantesco intelletto potremmo portare a termine la più semplice o sciocca delle storie, ed essere certi di portarla a termine correttamente. E ciò perché una storia ha dietro di sé non un mero intelletto, che è in parte meccanico, ma la volontà, che è nella sua essenza divina. Lo scrittore di racconti può mandare il suo eroe alla forca, se gli va, nel penultimo capitolo. Può farlo per quello stesso divino capriccio per cui egli, l’autore, può andare lui stesso alla forca, e all’inferno poi, se lo desidera. E la stessa civiltà, la cavalleresca civiltà europea che affermò il libero arbitrio nel tredicesimo secolo, produsse la cosa chiamata «finzione narrativa» nel diciottesimo. Quando Tommaso d’Aquino affermò la libertà spirituale dell’uomo, creò tutti i cattivi romanzi delle biblioteche circolanti.

Ma affinché la vita sia per noi una storia o un romanzo, è necessario che gran parte di essa, in ogni caso, sia stabilita per noi senza il nostro permesso. Se desideriamo che la vita sia un sistema, questo può essere una seccatura; ma se desideriamo che sia un dramma, è un elemento essenziale. Può spesso accadere, senza dubbio, che un dramma sia scritto da qualcun altro e che ci piaccia assai poco. Ma ci piacerebbe ancora meno se l’autore venisse davanti al sipario ogni ora o giù di lì, e ci imponesse tutto il fastidio di inventare l’atto successivo. Un uomo ha il controllo su molte cose della sua vita; ha il controllo su cose sufficienti a essere l’eroe di un romanzo. Ma se avesse il controllo su tutto, ci sarebbe così tanto eroe che non ci sarebbe alcun romanzo. E la ragione per cui le vite dei ricchi sono in fondo così fiacche e prive di eventi è semplicemente che essi possono scegliere gli eventi. Sono noiosi perché sono onnipotenti. Non riescono a sentire le avventure perché possono fabbricare le avventure. Ciò che mantiene la vita romantica e piena di ardenti possibilità è l’esistenza di queste grandi e piane limitazioni che costringono tutti noi a incontrare le cose che non ci piacciono o che non ci aspettiamo. È vano che i sussiegosi moderni parlino del trovarsi in ambienti sgradevoli. Trovarsi in un romanzo significa trovarsi in ambienti sgradevoli. Nascere in questa terra significa nascere in ambienti sgradevoli, dunque nascere in un romanzo. Di tutte queste grandi limitazioni e cornici che foggiano e creano la poesia e la varietà della vita, la famiglia è la più definita e importante. Perciò è fraintesa dai moderni, i quali immaginano che il romanzesco esisterebbe nel modo più perfetto in un completo stato di ciò che essi chiamano libertà. Costoro pensano che, se un uomo facesse un gesto, sarebbe cosa sorprendente e romantica che il sole cadesse dal cielo. Ma la cosa sorprendente e romantica del sole è che esso non cade dal cielo. Essi vanno cercando sotto ogni forma e figura un mondo in cui non vi siano limitazioni — cioè un mondo in cui non vi siano contorni; cioè un mondo in cui non vi siano forme. Non vi è nulla di più abietto di quell’infinito. Dicono di desiderare di essere forti come l’universo, ma in realtà desiderano l’intero universo debole come loro stessi.

XV. On Smart Novelists and the Smart Set

In one sense, at any rate, it is more valuable to read bad literature than good literature. Good literature may tell us the mind of one man; but bad literature may tell us the mind of many men. A good novel tells us the truth about its hero; but a bad novel tells us the truth about its author. It does much more than that, it tells us the truth about its readers; and, oddly enough, it tells us this all the more the more cynical and immoral be the motive of its manufacture. The more dishonest a book is as a book the more honest it is as a public document. A sincere novel exhibits the simplicity of one particular man; an insincere novel exhibits the simplicity of mankind. The pedantic decisions and definable readjustments of man may be found in scrolls and statute books and scriptures; but men’s basic assumptions and everlasting energies are to be found in penny dreadfuls and halfpenny novelettes. Thus a man, like many men of real culture in our day, might learn from good literature nothing except the power to appreciate good literature. But from bad literature he might learn to govern empires and look over the map of mankind.

There is one rather interesting example of this state of things in which the weaker literature is really the stronger and the stronger the weaker. It is the case of what may be called, for the sake of an approximate description, the literature of aristocracy; or, if you prefer the description, the literature of snobbishness. Now if any one wishes to find a really effective and comprehensible and permanent case for aristocracy well and sincerely stated, let him read, not the modern philosophical conservatives, not even Nietzsche, let him read the Bow Bells Novelettes. Of the case of Nietzsche I am confessedly more doubtful. Nietzsche and the Bow Bells Novelettes have both obviously the same fundamental character; they both worship the tall man with curling moustaches and herculean bodily power, and they both worship him in a manner which is somewhat feminine and hysterical. Even here, however, the Novelette easily maintains its philosophical superiority, because it does attribute to the strong man those virtues which do commonly belong to him, such virtues as laziness and kindliness and a rather reckless benevolence, and a great dislike of hurting the weak. Nietzsche, on the other hand, attributes to the strong man that scorn against weakness which only exists among invalids. It is not, however, of the secondary merits of the great German philosopher, but of the primary merits of the Bow Bells Novelettes, that it is my present affair to speak. The picture of aristocracy in the popular sentimental novelette seems to me very satisfactory as a permanent political and philosophical guide. It may be inaccurate about details such as the title by which a baronet is addressed or the width of a mountain chasm which a baronet can conveniently leap, but it is not a bad description of the general idea and intention of aristocracy as they exist in human affairs. The essential dream of aristocracy is magnificence and valour; and if the Family Herald Supplement sometimes distorts or exaggerates these things, at least, it does not fall short in them. It never errs by making the mountain chasm too narrow or the title of the baronet insufficiently impressive. But above this sane reliable old literature of snobbishness there has arisen in our time another kind of literature of snobbishness which, with its much higher pretensions, seems to me worthy of very much less respect. Incidentally (if that matters), it is much better literature. But it is immeasurably worse philosophy, immeasurably worse ethics and politics, immeasurably worse vital rendering of aristocracy and humanity as they really are. From such books as those of which I wish now to speak we can discover what a clever man can do with the idea of aristocracy. But from the Family Herald Supplement literature we can learn what the idea of aristocracy can do with a man who is not clever. And when we know that we know English history.

This new aristocratic fiction must have caught the attention of everybody who has read the best fiction for the last fifteen years. It is that genuine or alleged literature of the Smart Set which represents that set as distinguished, not only by smart dresses, but by smart sayings. To the bad baronet, to the good baronet, to the romantic and misunderstood baronet who is supposed to be a bad baronet, but is a good baronet, this school has added a conception undreamed of in the former years— the conception of an amusing baronet. The aristocrat is not merely to be taller than mortal men and stronger and handsomer, he is also to be more witty. He is the long man with the short epigram. Many eminent, and deservedly eminent, modern novelists must accept some responsibility for having supported this worst form of snobbishness— an intellectual snobbishness. The talented author of “Dodo” is responsible for having in some sense created the fashion as a fashion. Mr. Hichens, in the “Green Carnation,” reaffirmed the strange idea that young noblemen talk well; though his case had some vague biographical foundation, and in consequence an excuse. Mrs. Craigie is considerably guilty in the matter, although, or rather because, she has combined the aristocratic note with a note of some moral and even religious sincerity. When you are saving a man’s soul, even in a novel, it is indecent to mention that he is a gentleman. Nor can blame in this matter be altogether removed from a man of much greater ability, and a man who has proved his possession of the highest of human instinct, the romantic instinct—I mean Mr. Anthony Hope. In a galloping, impossible melodrama like “The Prisoner of Zenda,” the blood of kings fanned an excellent fantastic thread or theme. But the blood of kings is not a thing that can be taken seriously. And when, for example, Mr. Hope devotes so much serious and sympathetic study to the man called Tristram of Blent, a man who throughout burning boyhood thought of nothing but a silly old estate, we feel even in Mr. Hope the hint of this excessive concern about the oligarchic idea. It is hard for any ordinary person to feel so much interest in a young man whose whole aim is to own the house of Blent at the time when every other young man is owning the stars.

XV. Sui romanzieri alla moda e sul bel mondo

In un certo senso, comunque, è più utile leggere la cattiva letteratura che la buona. La buona letteratura può rivelarci l’animo di un solo uomo; ma la cattiva letteratura può rivelarci l’animo di molti. Un buon romanzo ci dice la verità sul suo eroe; ma un cattivo romanzo ci dice la verità sul suo autore. Fa ben di più: ci dice la verità sui suoi lettori; e, per quanto strano possa parere, ce la dice tanto più quanto più cinico e immorale è il movente della sua fabbricazione. Quanto più un libro è disonesto in quanto libro, tanto più è onesto in quanto documento pubblico. Un romanzo sincero espone la semplicità di un uomo particolare; un romanzo insincero espone la semplicità del genere umano. Le decisioni pedantesche e i riassestamenti definibili dell’uomo si possono trovare in rotoli, in codici e in scritture; ma le assunzioni fondamentali dell’uomo e le sue energie eterne si trovano nei romanzacci da un penny e nei romanzetti da mezzo penny. Così un uomo, come molti uomini di vera cultura ai giorni nostri, potrebbe imparare dalla buona letteratura nient’altro che la capacità di apprezzare la buona letteratura. Ma dalla cattiva letteratura potrebbe imparare a governare imperi e a spaziare sulla carta geografica del genere umano.

Vi è un esempio piuttosto interessante di questo stato di cose, in cui la letteratura più debole è in realtà la più forte e la più forte è la più debole. È il caso di ciò che si potrebbe chiamare, a titolo di descrizione approssimativa, la letteratura dell’aristocrazia; o, se si preferisce la definizione, la letteratura dello snobismo. Ora, se qualcuno desidera trovare un argomento davvero efficace, comprensibile e duraturo a favore dell’aristocrazia ben esposto e con sincerità, non legga i moderni conservatori filosofici, e neppure Nietzsche, ma legga i romanzetti delle Bow Bells. Sul caso di Nietzsche sono, lo confesso, più incerto. Nietzsche e i romanzetti delle Bow Bells hanno entrambi, evidentemente, lo stesso carattere di fondo; entrambi adorano l’uomo alto dai baffi arricciati e dalla forza fisica erculea, e lo adorano entrambi in un modo alquanto femmineo e isterico. Anche qui, tuttavia, il romanzetto conserva agevolmente la propria superiorità filosofica, perché attribuisce sì all’uomo forte quelle virtù che comunemente gli appartengono, virtù quali la pigrizia, la benignità e una benevolenza piuttosto sventata, e una grande avversione a far male ai deboli. Nietzsche, invece, attribuisce all’uomo forte quel disprezzo per la debolezza che esiste soltanto tra gli infermi. Non è però dei meriti secondari del grande filosofo tedesco, ma dei meriti primari dei romanzetti delle Bow Bells, che mi tocca ora parlare. Il ritratto dell’aristocrazia nel romanzetto sentimentale popolare mi pare assai soddisfacente come guida politica e filosofica permanente. Sarà pure inesatto quanto ai dettagli, come il titolo con cui va apostrofato un baronetto o la larghezza di un burrone montano che un baronetto può comodamente scavalcare con un salto, ma non è una cattiva descrizione dell’idea e dell’intenzione generale dell’aristocrazia quali esistono nelle vicende umane. Il sogno essenziale dell’aristocrazia è la magnificenza e il valore; e se il Supplemento del Family Herald talora distorce o esagera queste cose, per lo meno non ne rimane al di sotto. Non sbaglia mai rendendo il burrone montano troppo stretto o il titolo del baronetto insufficientemente imponente. Ma al di sopra di questa sana e attendibile vecchia letteratura dello snobismo è sorta nel nostro tempo un’altra specie di letteratura dello snobismo che, con le sue ben più alte pretese, mi pare degna di assai minor rispetto. Per inciso (se ciò conta qualcosa), è letteratura di gran lunga migliore. Ma è filosofia incommensurabilmente peggiore, etica e politica incommensurabilmente peggiori, e una resa vitale incommensurabilmente peggiore dell’aristocrazia e dell’umanità quali realmente sono. Da libri come quelli di cui voglio ora parlare possiamo scoprire ciò che un uomo intelligente sa fare con l’idea di aristocrazia. Ma dalla letteratura del Supplemento del Family Herald possiamo imparare ciò che l’idea di aristocrazia sa fare con un uomo che intelligente non è. E quando lo sappiamo, conosciamo la storia d’Inghilterra.

Questa nuova narrativa aristocratica deve avere attirato l’attenzione di chiunque abbia letto la miglior narrativa degli ultimi quindici anni. È quella letteratura, autentica o presunta, del Bel Mondo, che dipinge quel mondo come contraddistinto non solo da abiti eleganti, ma da battute eleganti. Al baronetto malvagio, al baronetto buono, al baronetto romantico e frainteso che si suppone sia un baronetto malvagio, ma è un baronetto buono, questa scuola ha aggiunto una concezione mai sognata negli anni passati: la concezione di un baronetto spiritoso. L’aristocratico non deve essere soltanto più alto dei comuni mortali e più forte e più bello, deve essere anche più arguto. È l’uomo lungo dall’epigramma breve. Molti eminenti, e meritatamente eminenti, romanzieri moderni devono accettare una parte di responsabilità per aver dato sostegno a questa peggiore forma di snobismo: uno snobismo intellettuale. Il talentuoso autore di «Dodo» è responsabile di aver in un certo senso creato la moda come moda. Il signor Hichens, nella «Green Carnation», riaffermò la strana idea che i giovani nobili conversino bene; benché il suo caso avesse un qualche vago fondamento biografico, e perciò una scusante. La signora Craigie è colpevole in misura considerevole nella faccenda, sebbene, o piuttosto perché, ha combinato la nota aristocratica con una nota di una certa sincerità morale e persino religiosa. Quando si salva l’anima di un uomo, sia pure in un romanzo, è indecente far notare che egli è un gentiluomo. Né si può del tutto sollevare da questa colpa un uomo di ben maggiore abilità, un uomo che ha dato prova di possedere il più alto degli istinti umani, l’istinto romantico: intendo il signor Anthony Hope. In un melodramma galoppante e impossibile come «The Prisoner of Zenda», il sangue dei re alimentava un eccellente filo o motivo fantastico. Ma il sangue dei re non è cosa che si possa prendere sul serio. E quando, per esempio, il signor Hope dedica tanto studio serio e partecipe all’uomo chiamato Tristram di Blent, un uomo che per tutta la sua ardente giovinezza non pensò ad altro che a una vecchia sciocca tenuta, avvertiamo persino in Mr. Hope l’ombra di questa eccessiva preoccupazione per l’idea oligarchica. È difficile per qualsiasi persona comune provare tanto interesse per un giovane il cui unico scopo è possedere la casa di Blent nel tempo in cui ogni altro giovane possiede le stelle.

Mr. Hope, however, is a very mild case, and in him there is not only an element of romance, but also a fine element of irony which warns us against taking all this elegance too seriously. Above all, he shows his sense in not making his noblemen so incredibly equipped with impromptu repartee. This habit of insisting on the wit of the wealthier classes is the last and most servile of all the servilities. It is, as I have said, immeasurably more contemptible than the snobbishness of the novelette which describes the nobleman as smiling like an Apollo or riding a mad elephant. These may be exaggerations of beauty and courage, but beauty and courage are the unconscious ideals of aristocrats, even of stupid aristocrats.

The nobleman of the novelette may not be sketched with any very close or conscientious attention to the daily habits of noblemen. But he is something more important than a reality; he is a practical ideal. The gentleman of fiction may not copy the gentleman of real life; but the gentleman of real life is copying the gentleman of fiction. He may not be particularly good-looking, but he would rather be good-looking than anything else; he may not have ridden on a mad elephant, but he rides a pony as far as possible with an air as if he had. And, upon the whole, the upper class not only especially desire these qualities of beauty and courage, but in some degree, at any rate, especially possess them. Thus there is nothing really mean or sycophantic about the popular literature which makes all its marquises seven feet high. It is snobbish, but it is not servile. Its exaggeration is based on an exuberant and honest admiration; its honest admiration is based upon something which is in some degree, at any rate, really there. The English lower classes do not fear the English upper classes in the least; nobody could. They simply and freely and sentimentally worship them. The strength of the aristocracy is not in the aristocracy at all; it is in the slums. It is not in the House of Lords; it is not in the Civil Service; it is not in the Government offices; it is not even in the huge and disproportionate monopoly of the English land. It is in a certain spirit. It is in the fact that when a navvy wishes to praise a man, it comes readily to his tongue to say that he has behaved like a gentleman. From a democratic point of view he might as well say that he had behaved like a viscount. The oligarchic character of the modern English commonwealth does not rest, like many oligarchies, on the cruelty of the rich to the poor. It does not even rest on the kindness of the rich to the poor. It rests on the perennial and unfailing kindness of the poor to the rich.

The snobbishness of bad literature, then, is not servile; but the snobbishness of good literature is servile. The old-fashioned halfpenny romance where the duchesses sparkled with diamonds was not servile; but the new romance where they sparkle with epigrams is servile. For in thus attributing a special and startling degree of intellect and conversational or controversial power to the upper classes, we are attributing something which is not especially their virtue or even especially their aim. We are, in the words of Disraeli (who, being a genius and not a gentleman, has perhaps primarily to answer for the introduction of this method of flattering the gentry), we are performing the essential function of flattery which is flattering the people for the qualities they have not got. Praise may be gigantic and insane without having any quality of flattery so long as it is praise of something that is noticeably in existence. A man may say that a giraffe’s head strikes the stars, or that a whale fills the German Ocean, and still be only in a rather excited state about a favourite animal. But when he begins to congratulate the giraffe on his feathers, and the whale on the elegance of his legs, we find ourselves confronted with that social element which we call flattery. The middle and lower orders of London can sincerely, though not perhaps safely, admire the health and grace of the English aristocracy. And this for the very simple reason that the aristocrats are, upon the whole, more healthy and graceful than the poor. But they cannot honestly admire the wit of the aristocrats. And this for the simple reason that the aristocrats are not more witty than the poor, but a very great deal less so. A man does not hear, as in the smart novels, these gems of verbal felicity dropped between diplomatists at dinner. Where he really does hear them is between two omnibus conductors in a block in Holborn. The witty peer whose impromptus fill the books of Mrs. Craigie or Miss Fowler, would, as a matter of fact, be torn to shreds in the art of conversation by the first boot-black he had the misfortune to fall foul of. The poor are merely sentimental, and very excusably sentimental, if they praise the gentleman for having a ready hand and ready money. But they are strictly slaves and sycophants if they praise him for having a ready tongue. For that they have far more themselves.

The element of oligarchical sentiment in these novels, however, has, I think, another and subtler aspect, an aspect more difficult to understand and more worth understanding. The modern gentleman, particularly the modern English gentleman, has become so central and important in these books, and through them in the whole of our current literature and our current mode of thought, that certain qualities of his, whether original or recent, essential or accidental, have altered the quality of our English comedy. In particular, that stoical ideal, absurdly supposed to be the English ideal, has stiffened and chilled us. It is not the English ideal; but it is to some extent the aristocratic ideal; or it may be only the ideal of aristocracy in its autumn or decay. The gentleman is a Stoic because he is a sort of savage, because he is filled with a great elemental fear that some stranger will speak to him. That is why a third-class carriage is a community, while a first-class carriage is a place of wild hermits. But this matter, which is difficult, I may be permitted to approach in a more circuitous way.

Il signor Hope, tuttavia, è un caso assai lieve, e in lui vi è non soltanto un elemento di romanticismo, ma anche un fine elemento di ironia che ci mette in guardia dal prendere tutta questa eleganza troppo sul serio. Soprattutto, egli dà prova di buon senso non fornendo i suoi nobili di quell’incredibile corredo di repliche estemporanee. Questa abitudine di insistere sull’arguzia delle classi più ricche è l’ultima e la più servile di tutte le servilità. Essa è, come ho detto, incommensurabilmente più spregevole dello snobismo del romanzetto che descrive il nobiluomo mentre sorride come un Apollo o cavalca un elefante impazzito. Queste saranno esagerazioni della bellezza e del coraggio, ma la bellezza e il coraggio sono gli ideali inconsci degli aristocratici, anche degli aristocratici stupidi.

Il nobiluomo del romanzetto non sarà forse abbozzato con un’attenzione troppo scrupolosa o precisa alle abitudini quotidiane dei nobili. Ma è qualcosa di più importante di una realtà; è un ideale pratico. Il gentiluomo della narrativa non copierà forse il gentiluomo della vita reale; ma il gentiluomo della vita reale sta copiando il gentiluomo della narrativa. Non sarà forse particolarmente bello, ma preferirebbe essere bello che qualsiasi altra cosa; non avrà forse cavalcato un elefante impazzito, ma cavalca un pony per quanto gli è possibile con un’aria come se lo avesse fatto. E, nel complesso, la classe alta non solo desidera in modo speciale queste qualità di bellezza e di coraggio, ma in una certa misura, comunque, le possiede in modo speciale. Non vi è dunque nulla di veramente meschino o adulatorio nella letteratura popolare che rende tutti i suoi marchesi alti due metri. È snobistica, ma non è servile. La sua esagerazione si fonda su un’ammirazione esuberante e onesta; la sua onesta ammirazione si fonda su qualcosa che, in qualche misura, comunque, è realmente lì. Le classi inferiori inglesi non temono affatto le classi superiori inglesi; nessuno potrebbe. Le adorano semplicemente, liberamente e sentimentalmente. La forza dell’aristocrazia non sta affatto nell’aristocrazia; sta nei bassifondi. Non sta nella Camera dei Lord; non sta nel pubblico impiego; non sta negli uffici del Governo; non sta neppure nell’enorme e sproporzionato monopolio della terra inglese. Sta in un certo spirito. Sta nel fatto che quando uno sterratore vuol lodare un uomo, gli viene pronto sulla lingua di dire che si è comportato da gentiluomo. Da un punto di vista democratico, tanto varrebbe dire che si è comportato da visconte. Il carattere oligarchico della moderna repubblica inglese non poggia, come molte oligarchie, sulla crudeltà dei ricchi verso i poveri. Non poggia neppure sulla bontà dei ricchi verso i poveri. Poggia sulla perenne e infallibile bontà dei poveri verso i ricchi.

Lo snobismo della cattiva letteratura, dunque, non è servile; ma lo snobismo della buona letteratura è servile. Il vecchio romanzo rosa da mezzo penny, in cui le duchesse sfavillavano di diamanti, non era servile; ma il nuovo romanzo rosa, in cui esse sfavillano di epigrammi, è servile. Poiché nell’attribuire in tal modo un grado speciale e sorprendente di intelletto e di potenza conversativa o polemica alle classi superiori, attribuiamo qualcosa che non è specialmente la loro virtù e neppure specialmente il loro scopo. Stiamo, per usare le parole di Disraeli (il quale, essendo un genio e non un gentiluomo, ha forse in primo luogo da rispondere dell’introduzione di questo metodo di adulare la piccola nobiltà), stiamo compiendo la funzione essenziale dell’adulazione, che è quella di adulare la gente per le qualità che non possiede. La lode può essere gigantesca e folle senza avere alcuna qualità di adulazione, purché sia lode di qualcosa che notoriamente esiste. Un uomo può dire che la testa di una giraffa tocca le stelle, o che una balena riempie il Mare del Nord, e restare pur sempre soltanto in uno stato piuttosto eccitato a proposito di un animale prediletto. Ma quando comincia a congratularsi con la giraffa per le sue piume, e con la balena per l’eleganza delle sue gambe, ci troviamo di fronte a quell’elemento sociale che chiamiamo adulazione. Gli ordini medi e inferiori di Londra possono sinceramente, anche se non forse senza pericolo, ammirare la salute e la grazia dell’aristocrazia inglese. E ciò per la semplicissima ragione che gli aristocratici sono, nel complesso, più sani e aggraziati dei poveri. Ma non possono onestamente ammirare l’arguzia degli aristocratici. E ciò per la semplice ragione che gli aristocratici non sono più arguti dei poveri, ma lo sono di gran lunga meno. Un uomo non ode, come nei romanzi alla moda, queste gemme di felicità verbale cadere tra diplomatici a cena. Dove le ode davvero è tra due conducenti d’omnibus in un ingorgo di Holborn. Il pari spiritoso, i cui motti estemporanei riempiono i libri della signora Craigie o della signorina Fowler, sarebbe, in verità dei fatti, fatto a brandelli nell’arte della conversazione dal primo lustrascarpe con cui avesse la sventura di venire alle prese. I poveri sono soltanto sentimentali, e molto scusabilmente sentimentali, se lodano il gentiluomo per avere la mano lesta e il denaro pronto. Ma sono decisamente schiavi e adulatori se lo lodano per avere la lingua pronta. Poiché di quella ne hanno assai più loro.

L’elemento di sentimento oligarchico in questi romanzi ha, tuttavia, credo, un altro e più sottile aspetto, un aspetto più difficile da intendere e più degno d’essere inteso. Il gentiluomo moderno, in particolare il gentiluomo inglese moderno, è divenuto così centrale e importante in questi libri, e per loro tramite in tutta la nostra letteratura corrente e nel nostro corrente modo di pensare, che certe sue qualità, originarie o recenti, essenziali o accidentali, hanno alterato la qualità della nostra commedia inglese. In particolare, quell’ideale stoico, assurdamente ritenuto l’ideale inglese, ci ha irrigiditi e raggelati. Non è l’ideale inglese; ma è in qualche misura l’ideale aristocratico; o forse è soltanto l’ideale dell’aristocrazia nel suo autunno o nella sua decadenza. Il gentiluomo è uno stoico perché è una sorta di selvaggio, perché è pervaso da un grande e primordiale timore che un estraneo gli rivolga la parola. Ecco perché uno scompartimento di terza classe è una comunità, mentre uno scompartimento di prima classe è un luogo di eremiti selvatici. Ma questo argomento, che è difficile, mi sia consentito di affrontarlo per una via più tortuosa.

The haunting element of ineffectualness which runs through so much of the witty and epigrammatic fiction fashionable during the last eight or ten years, which runs through such works of a real though varying ingenuity as “Dodo,” or “Concerning Isabel Carnaby,” or even “Some Emotions and a Moral,” may be expressed in various ways, but to most of us I think it will ultimately amount to the same thing. This new frivolity is inadequate because there is in it no strong sense of an unuttered joy. The men and women who exchange the repartees may not only be hating each other, but hating even themselves. Any one of them might be bankrupt that day, or sentenced to be shot the next. They are joking, not because they are merry, but because they are not; out of the emptiness of the heart the mouth speaketh. Even when they talk pure nonsense it is a careful nonsense—a nonsense of which they are economical, or, to use the perfect expression of Mr. W. S. Gilbert in “Patience,” it is such “precious nonsense.” Even when they become light-headed they do not become light-hearted. All those who have read anything of the rationalism of the moderns know that their Reason is a sad thing. But even their unreason is sad.

The causes of this incapacity are also not very difficult to indicate. The chief of all, of course, is that miserable fear of being sentimental, which is the meanest of all the modern terrors—meaner even than the terror which produces hygiene. Everywhere the robust and uproarious humour has come from the men who were capable not merely of sentimentalism, but a very silly sentimentalism. There has been no humour so robust or uproarious as that of the sentimentalist Steele or the sentimentalist Sterne or the sentimentalist Dickens. These creatures who wept like women were the creatures who laughed like men. It is true that the humour of Micawber is good literature and that the pathos of little Nell is bad. But the kind of man who had the courage to write so badly in the one case is the kind of man who would have the courage to write so well in the other. The same unconsciousness, the same violent innocence, the same gigantesque scale of action which brought the Napoleon of Comedy his Jena brought him also his Moscow. And herein is especially shown the frigid and feeble limitations of our modern wits. They make violent efforts, they make heroic and almost pathetic efforts, but they cannot really write badly. There are moments when we almost think that they are achieving the effect, but our hope shrivels to nothing the moment we compare their little failures with the enormous imbecilities of Byron or Shakespeare.

For a hearty laugh it is necessary to have touched the heart. I do not know why touching the heart should always be connected only with the idea of touching it to compassion or a sense of distress. The heart can be touched to joy and triumph; the heart can be touched to amusement. But all our comedians are tragic comedians. These later fashionable writers are so pessimistic in bone and marrow that they never seem able to imagine the heart having any concern with mirth. When they speak of the heart, they always mean the pangs and disappointments of the emotional life. When they say that a man’s heart is in the right place, they mean, apparently, that it is in his boots. Our ethical societies understand fellowship, but they do not understand good fellowship. Similarly, our wits understand talk, but not what Dr. Johnson called a good talk. In order to have, like Dr. Johnson, a good talk, it is emphatically necessary to be, like Dr. Johnson, a good man— to have friendship and honour and an abysmal tenderness. Above all, it is necessary to be openly and indecently humane, to confess with fulness all the primary pities and fears of Adam. Johnson was a clear-headed humorous man, and therefore he did not mind talking seriously about religion. Johnson was a brave man, one of the bravest that ever walked, and therefore he did not mind avowing to any one his consuming fear of death.

The idea that there is something English in the repression of one’s feelings is one of those ideas which no Englishman ever heard of until England began to be governed exclusively by Scotchmen, Americans, and Jews. At the best, the idea is a generalization from the Duke of Wellington—who was an Irishman. At the worst, it is a part of that silly Teutonism which knows as little about England as it does about anthropology, but which is always talking about Vikings. As a matter of fact, the Vikings did not repress their feelings in the least. They cried like babies and kissed each other like girls; in short, they acted in that respect like Achilles and all strong heroes the children of the gods. And though the English nationality has probably not much more to do with the Vikings than the French nationality or the Irish nationality, the English have certainly been the children of the Vikings in the matter of tears and kisses. It is not merely true that all the most typically English men of letters, like Shakespeare and Dickens, Richardson and Thackeray, were sentimentalists. It is also true that all the most typically English men of action were sentimentalists, if possible, more sentimental. In the great Elizabethan age, when the English nation was finally hammered out, in the great eighteenth century when the British Empire was being built up everywhere, where in all these times, where was this symbolic stoical Englishman who dresses in drab and black and represses his feelings? Were all the Elizabethan palladins and pirates like that? Were any of them like that? Was Grenville concealing his emotions when he broke wine-glasses to pieces with his teeth and bit them till the blood poured down? Was Essex restraining his excitement when he threw his hat into the sea? Did Raleigh think it sensible to answer the Spanish guns only, as Stevenson says, with a flourish of insulting trumpets? Did Sydney ever miss an opportunity of making a theatrical remark in the whole course of his life and death? Were even the Puritans Stoics? The English Puritans repressed a good deal, but even they were too English to repress their feelings. It was by a great miracle of genius assuredly that Carlyle contrived to admire simultaneously two things so irreconcilably opposed as silence and Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell was the very reverse of a strong, silent man. Cromwell was always talking, when he was not crying. Nobody, I suppose, will accuse the author of “Grace Abounding” of being ashamed of his feelings. Milton, indeed, it might be possible to represent as a Stoic; in some sense he was a Stoic, just as he was a prig and a polygamist and several other unpleasant and heathen things. But when we have passed that great and desolate name, which may really be counted an exception, we find the tradition of English emotionalism immediately resumed and unbrokenly continuous. Whatever may have been the moral beauty of the passions of Etheridge and Dorset, Sedley and Buckingham, they cannot be accused of the fault of fastidiously concealing them. Charles the Second was very popular with the English because, like all the jolly English kings, he displayed his passions. William the Dutchman was very unpopular with the English because, not being an Englishman, he did hide his emotions. He was, in fact, precisely the ideal Englishman of our modern theory; and precisely for that reason all the real Englishmen loathed him like leprosy. With the rise of the great England of the eighteenth century, we find this open and emotional tone still maintained in letters and politics, in arts and in arms. Perhaps the only quality which was possessed in common by the great Fielding and the great Richardson was that neither of them hid their feelings. Swift, indeed, was hard and logical, because Swift was Irish. And when we pass to the soldiers and the rulers, the patriots and the empire-builders of the eighteenth century, we find, as I have said, that they were, if possible, more romantic than the romancers, more poetical than the poets. Chatham, who showed the world all his strength, showed the House of Commons all his weakness. Wolfe walked about the room with a drawn sword calling himself Caesar and Hannibal, and went to death with poetry in his mouth. Clive was a man of the same type as Cromwell or Bunyan, or, for the matter of that, Johnson—that is, he was a strong, sensible man with a kind of running spring of hysteria and melancholy in him. Like Johnson, he was all the more healthy because he was morbid. The tales of all the admirals and adventurers of that England are full of braggadocio, of sentimentality, of splendid affectation. But it is scarcely necessary to multiply examples of the essentially romantic Englishman when one example towers above them all. Mr. Rudyard Kipling has said complacently of the English, “We do not fall on the neck and kiss when we come together.” It is true that this ancient and universal custom has vanished with the modern weakening of England. Sydney would have thought nothing of kissing Spenser. But I willingly concede that Mr. Broderick would not be likely to kiss Mr. Arnold-Foster, if that be any proof of the increased manliness and military greatness of England. But the Englishman who does not show his feelings has not altogether given up the power of seeing something English in the great sea-hero of the Napoleonic war. You cannot break the legend of Nelson. And across the sunset of that glory is written in flaming letters for ever the great English sentiment, “Kiss me, Hardy.”

This ideal of self-repression, then, is, whatever else it is, not English. It is, perhaps, somewhat Oriental, it is slightly Prussian, but in the main it does not come, I think, from any racial or national source. It is, as I have said, in some sense aristocratic; it comes not from a people, but from a class. Even aristocracy, I think, was not quite so stoical in the days when it was really strong. But whether this unemotional ideal be the genuine tradition of the gentleman, or only one of the inventions of the modern gentleman (who may be called the decayed gentleman), it certainly has something to do with the unemotional quality in these society novels. From representing aristocrats as people who suppressed their feelings, it has been an easy step to representing aristocrats as people who had no feelings to suppress. Thus the modern oligarchist has made a virtue for the oligarchy of the hardness as well as the brightness of the diamond. Like a sonneteer addressing his lady in the seventeenth century, he seems to use the word “cold” almost as a eulogium, and the word “heartless” as a kind of compliment. Of course, in people so incurably kind-hearted and babyish as are the English gentry, it would be impossible to create anything that can be called positive cruelty; so in these books they exhibit a sort of negative cruelty. They cannot be cruel in acts, but they can be so in words. All this means one thing, and one thing only. It means that the living and invigorating ideal of England must be looked for in the masses; it must be looked for where Dickens found it— Dickens among whose glories it was to be a humorist, to be a sentimentalist, to be an optimist, to be a poor man, to be an Englishman, but the greatest of whose glories was that he saw all mankind in its amazing and tropical luxuriance, and did not even notice the aristocracy; Dickens, the greatest of whose glories was that he could not describe a gentleman.

L’elemento ossessivo di inefficacia che percorre tanta parte della narrativa arguta ed epigrammatica di moda negli ultimi otto o dieci anni, che percorre opere di un ingegno reale seppure variabile come «Dodo», o «Concerning Isabel Carnaby», o persino «Some Emotions and a Moral», si può esprimere in vari modi, ma per la maggior parte di noi credo che si ridurrà infine alla stessa cosa. Questa nuova frivolezza è inadeguata perché non vi è in essa alcun forte senso di una gioia inespressa. Gli uomini e le donne che si scambiano le battute non solo potrebbero odiarsi a vicenda, ma potrebbero persino odiare se stessi. Ciascuno di loro potrebbe essere andato in bancarotta quel giorno, o essere condannato ad essere fucilato l’indomani. Scherzano non perché siano allegri, ma perché non lo sono; dalla vacuità del cuore parla la bocca. Anche quando dicono puro nonsenso è un nonsenso accurato: un nonsenso di cui sono parsimoniosi, o, per usare la perfetta espressione del signor W. S. Gilbert in «Patience», è un «nonsenso così prezioso». Anche quando diventano leggeri di testa non diventano leggeri di cuore. Tutti coloro che hanno letto qualcosa del razionalismo dei moderni sanno che la loro Ragione è una cosa triste. Ma anche la loro irragionevolezza è triste.

Anche le cause di questa incapacità non sono molto difficili da additare. La principale di tutte, naturalmente, è quel misero timore di essere sentimentali, che è il più meschino di tutti i terrori moderni: più meschino persino del terrore che produce l’igiene. Ovunque l’umorismo robusto e fragoroso è venuto da uomini capaci non soltanto di sentimentalismo, ma di un sentimentalismo assai sciocco. Non vi è mai stato umorismo tanto robusto o fragoroso quanto quello del sentimentale Steele o del sentimentale Sterne o del sentimentale Dickens. Queste creature che piangevano come donne erano le creature che ridevano come uomini. È vero che l’umorismo di Micawber è buona letteratura e che il patetico della piccola Nell è cattiva. Ma il tipo d’uomo che ebbe il coraggio di scrivere così male nell’un caso è il tipo d’uomo che avrebbe il coraggio di scrivere così bene nell’altro. La stessa inconsapevolezza, la stessa violenta innocenza, la stessa scala gigantesca d’azione che portò al Napoleone della commedia la sua Jena gli portò anche la sua Mosca. E in ciò si mostra specialmente il freddo e fiacco limite dei nostri arguti moderni. Fanno sforzi violenti, fanno sforzi eroici e quasi patetici, ma non riescono davvero a scrivere male. Vi sono momenti in cui quasi pensiamo che stiano raggiungendo l’effetto, ma la nostra speranza si riduce a nulla nell’istante in cui confrontiamo i loro piccoli fallimenti con le enormi imbecillità di Byron o di Shakespeare.

Per una sonora risata è necessario aver toccato il cuore. Non so perché il toccare il cuore debba sempre essere connesso soltanto con l’idea di toccarlo alla compassione o a un senso di angoscia. Il cuore può essere toccato alla gioia e al trionfo; il cuore può essere toccato al divertimento. Ma tutti i nostri commediografi sono commediografi tragici. Questi più recenti scrittori alla moda sono tanto pessimisti nelle ossa e nel midollo che non paiono mai capaci di immaginare che il cuore abbia qualcosa a che fare con l’allegria. Quando parlano del cuore, intendono sempre gli spasimi e le delusioni della vita affettiva. Quando dicono che il cuore di un uomo è al posto giusto, intendono, a quanto pare, che è nelle sue scarpe. Le nostre società etiche comprendono la comunanza, ma non comprendono la buona compagnia. Similmente, i nostri arguti comprendono la conversazione, ma non ciò che il dottor Johnson chiamava una buona conversazione. Per avere, come il dottor Johnson, una buona conversazione, è categoricamente necessario essere, come il dottor Johnson, un buon uomo: avere amicizia e onore e un’abissale tenerezza. Soprattutto, è necessario essere apertamente e indecentemente umani, confessare con pienezza tutte le pietà e le paure primordiali di Adamo. Johnson era un uomo lucido e faceto, e perciò non aveva ritegno a parlare seriamente di religione. Johnson era un uomo coraggioso, uno dei più coraggiosi che mai camminassero, e perciò non aveva ritegno a confessare a chiunque il suo divorante timore della morte.

L’idea che vi sia qualcosa di inglese nella repressione dei propri sentimenti è una di quelle idee di cui nessun inglese udì mai parlare finché l’Inghilterra non cominciò a essere governata esclusivamente da scozzesi, americani ed ebrei. Nel migliore dei casi, l’idea è una generalizzazione tratta dal duca di Wellington, il quale era irlandese. Nel peggiore, è una parte di quello sciocco teutonismo che sa dell’Inghilterra tanto poco quanto sa di antropologia, ma che parla sempre di vichinghi. In verità dei fatti, i vichinghi non reprimevano affatto i loro sentimenti. Piangevano come bambini e si baciavano l’un l’altro come fanciulle; in breve, si comportavano al riguardo come Achille e tutti i forti eroi figli degli dèi. E benché la nazionalità inglese abbia probabilmente non molto più a che fare con i vichinghi di quanto ne abbia la nazionalità francese o la nazionalità irlandese, gli inglesi sono stati certamente i figli dei vichinghi in fatto di lacrime e di baci. Non è solo vero che tutti i più tipicamente inglesi uomini di lettere, come Shakespeare e Dickens, Richardson e Thackeray, furono sentimentali. È anche vero che tutti i più tipicamente inglesi uomini d’azione furono sentimentali, e semmai più sentimentali ancora. Nella grande età elisabettiana, quando la nazione inglese fu definitivamente forgiata a martellate, nel grande Settecento in cui l’Impero britannico veniva edificato ovunque, dove, in tutti questi tempi, dov’era questo simbolico e stoico inglese che si veste di grigiastro e di nero e reprime i suoi sentimenti? Erano forse così tutti i paladini e i pirati elisabettiani? Ne era così anche uno soltanto? Nascondeva forse Grenville le sue emozioni quando frantumava i calici di vino coi propri denti e li mordeva finché il sangue non gli colava giù? Reprimeva forse Essex la sua eccitazione quando scagliava il cappello in mare? Riteneva forse Raleigh sensato rispondere ai cannoni spagnoli soltanto, come dice Stevenson, con uno squillo di trombe insultanti? Sydney lasciò forse mai sfuggire un’occasione per fare un’osservazione teatrale nell’intero corso della sua vita e della sua morte? Erano forse persino i Puritani degli stoici? I Puritani inglesi repressero un bel po’, ma persino loro erano troppo inglesi per reprimere i propri sentimenti. Fu certamente per un gran miracolo di genio che Carlyle riuscì ad ammirare simultaneamente due cose così irriconciliabilmente opposte come il silenzio e Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell era l’esatto contrario di un uomo forte e silenzioso. Cromwell parlava sempre, quando non piangeva. Nessuno, suppongo, accuserà l’autore di «Grace Abounding» di vergognarsi dei propri sentimenti. Milton, in verità, potrebbe forse essere rappresentato come uno stoico; in un certo senso fu uno stoico, così come fu un saccente e un poligamo e parecchie altre cose sgradevoli e pagane. Ma quando abbiamo oltrepassato quel grande e desolato nome, che può davvero essere considerato un’eccezione, troviamo la tradizione dell’emotività inglese immediatamente ripresa e continua senza interruzioni. Qualunque sia stata la bellezza morale delle passioni di Etheridge e Dorset, Sedley e Buckingham, non li si può accusare della colpa di averle schizzinosamente occultate. Carlo II fu molto amato dagli inglesi perché, come tutti gli allegri re inglesi, ostentava le sue passioni. Guglielmo l’olandese fu assai malvisto dagli inglesi perché, non essendo inglese, nascondeva davvero le sue emozioni. Egli era, di fatto, esattamente l’inglese ideale della nostra moderna teoria; e proprio per questa ragione tutti gli inglesi veri lo aborrivano come la lebbra. Con il sorgere della grande Inghilterra del Settecento, troviamo questo tono aperto ed emotivo ancora mantenuto nelle lettere e nella politica, nelle arti e nelle armi. Forse l’unica qualità che il grande Fielding e il grande Richardson possedevano in comune era che nessuno dei due nascondeva i propri sentimenti. Swift, in verità, era duro e logico, perché Swift era irlandese. E quando passiamo ai soldati e ai governanti, ai patrioti e ai costruttori d’impero del Settecento, troviamo, come ho detto, che erano, semmai, più romantici dei romanzieri, più poetici dei poeti. Chatham, che mostrò al mondo tutta la sua forza, mostrò alla Camera dei Comuni tutta la sua debolezza. Wolfe passeggiava per la stanza con la spada sguainata chiamando se stesso Cesare e Annibale, e andò incontro alla morte con la poesia sulle labbra. Clive era un uomo dello stesso tipo di Cromwell o di Bunyan, o, se è per questo, di Johnson: cioè era un uomo forte e assennato, con una specie di zampillante sorgente di isteria e di malinconia dentro di sé. Come Johnson, era tanto più sano quanto più era morboso. I racconti di tutti gli ammiragli e gli avventurieri di quell’Inghilterra sono pieni di spacconate, di sentimentalismo, di splendida affettazione. Ma è appena necessario moltiplicare gli esempi dell’inglese essenzialmente romantico quando un solo esempio li sovrasta tutti. Il signor Rudyard Kipling ha detto compiaciuto degli inglesi: «Non ci gettiamo al collo l’un l’altro e non ci baciamo quando ci ritroviamo». È vero che quest’antica e universale usanza è svanita con il moderno indebolimento dell’Inghilterra. Sydney non avrebbe pensato nulla di male a baciare Spenser. Ma concedo volentieri che il signor Broderick non sarebbe verosimilmente incline a baciare il signor Arnold-Foster, se questo sia mai una prova dell’accresciuta virilità e della grandezza militare dell’Inghilterra. Ma l’inglese che non mostra i propri sentimenti non ha del tutto rinunciato alla capacità di vedere qualcosa di inglese nel grande eroe marino della guerra napoleonica. Non si può infrangere la leggenda di Nelson. E attraverso il tramonto di quella gloria è scritto a lettere di fuoco per sempre il grande sentimento inglese: «Baciami, Hardy».

Questo ideale di repressione di , dunque, è, qualunque altra cosa sia, non inglese. È, forse, alquanto orientale, è lievemente prussiano, ma nel complesso non proviene, credo, da alcuna fonte razziale o nazionale. È, come ho detto, in un certo senso aristocratico; proviene non da un popolo, ma da una classe. Persino l’aristocrazia, credo, non era del tutto così stoica nei giorni in cui era davvero forte. Ma sia che questo ideale privo di emozioni sia la genuina tradizione del gentiluomo, sia che sia soltanto una delle invenzioni del gentiluomo moderno (che si potrebbe chiamare il gentiluomo decaduto), esso ha certamente qualcosa a che fare con la qualità priva di emozioni di questi romanzi mondani. Dal rappresentare gli aristocratici come persone che sopprimevano i propri sentimenti, il passo è stato facile fino a rappresentare gli aristocratici come persone che non avevano sentimenti da sopprimere. Così il moderno oligarchista ha fatto una virtù per l’oligarchia tanto della durezza come pure dello splendore del diamante. Come un poeta di sonetti che nel Seicento si rivolge alla sua dama, egli pare usare la parola «freddo» quasi come un elogio, e la parola «senza cuore» come una sorta di complimento. Naturalmente, in persone così inguaribilmente buone di cuore e infantili come la piccola nobiltà inglese, sarebbe impossibile creare qualcosa che si possa dire crudeltà positiva; sicché in questi libri essi mostrano una sorta di crudeltà negativa. Non possono essere crudeli nei fatti, ma possono esserlo nelle parole. Tutto ciò significa una sola cosa, e una sola. Significa che l’ideale vivo e vivificante dell’Inghilterra va cercato nelle masse; va cercato là dove Dickens lo trovò: Dickens, tra le cui glorie vi era l’essere umorista, l’essere sentimentale, l’essere ottimista, l’essere un pover’uomo, l’essere inglese, ma la più grande delle cui glorie fu che vide tutta l’umanità nella sua stupefacente e tropicale lussureggianza, e non si accorse nemmeno dell’aristocrazia; Dickens, la più grande delle cui glorie fu che non seppe descrivere un gentiluomo.

XVI. On Mr. McCabe and a Divine Frivolity

A critic once remonstrated with me saying, with an air of indignant reasonableness, “If you must make jokes, at least you need not make them on such serious subjects.” I replied with a natural simplicity and wonder, “About what other subjects can one make jokes except serious subjects?” It is quite useless to talk about profane jesting. All jesting is in its nature profane, in the sense that it must be the sudden realization that something which thinks itself solemn is not so very solemn after all. If a joke is not a joke about religion or morals, it is a joke about police-magistrates or scientific professors or undergraduates dressed up as Queen Victoria. And people joke about the police-magistrate more than they joke about the Pope, not because the police-magistrate is a more frivolous subject, but, on the contrary, because the police-magistrate is a more serious subject than the Pope. The Bishop of Rome has no jurisdiction in this realm of England; whereas the police-magistrate may bring his solemnity to bear quite suddenly upon us. Men make jokes about old scientific professors, even more than they make them about bishops—not because science is lighter than religion, but because science is always by its nature more solemn and austere than religion. It is not I; it is not even a particular class of journalists or jesters who make jokes about the matters which are of most awful import; it is the whole human race. If there is one thing more than another which any one will admit who has the smallest knowledge of the world, it is that men are always speaking gravely and earnestly and with the utmost possible care about the things that are not important, but always talking frivolously about the things that are. Men talk for hours with the faces of a college of cardinals about things like golf, or tobacco, or waistcoats, or party politics. But all the most grave and dreadful things in the world are the oldest jokes in the world—being married; being hanged.

One gentleman, however, Mr. McCabe, has in this matter made to me something that almost amounts to a personal appeal; and as he happens to be a man for whose sincerity and intellectual virtue I have a high respect, I do not feel inclined to let it pass without some attempt to satisfy my critic in the matter. Mr. McCabe devotes a considerable part of the last essay in the collection called “Christianity and Rationalism on Trial” to an objection, not to my thesis, but to my method, and a very friendly and dignified appeal to me to alter it. I am much inclined to defend myself in this matter out of mere respect for Mr. McCabe, and still more so out of mere respect for the truth which is, I think, in danger by his error, not only in this question, but in others. In order that there may be no injustice done in the matter, I will quote Mr. McCabe himself. “But before I follow Mr. Chesterton in some detail I would make a general observation on his method. He is as serious as I am in his ultimate purpose, and I respect him for that. He knows, as I do, that humanity stands at a solemn parting of the ways. Towards some unknown goal it presses through the ages, impelled by an overmastering desire of happiness. To-day it hesitates, lightheartedly enough, but every serious thinker knows how momentous the decision may be. It is, apparently, deserting the path of religion and entering upon the path of secularism. Will it lose itself in quagmires of sensuality down this new path, and pant and toil through years of civic and industrial anarchy, only to learn it had lost the road, and must return to religion? Or will it find that at last it is leaving the mists and the quagmires behind it; that it is ascending the slope of the hill so long dimly discerned ahead, and making straight for the long-sought Utopia? This is the drama of our time, and every man and every woman should understand it.

“Mr. Chesterton understands it. Further, he gives us credit for understanding it. He has nothing of that paltry meanness or strange density of so many of his colleagues, who put us down as aimless iconoclasts or moral anarchists. He admits that we are waging a thankless war for what we take to be Truth and Progress. He is doing the same. But why, in the name of all that is reasonable, should we, when we are agreed on the momentousness of the issue either way, forthwith desert serious methods of conducting the controversy? Why, when the vital need of our time is to induce men and women to collect their thoughts occasionally, and be men and women—nay, to remember that they are really gods that hold the destinies of humanity on their knees—why should we think that this kaleidoscopic play of phrases is inopportune? The ballets of the Alhambra, and the fireworks of the Crystal Palace, and Mr. Chesterton’s Daily News articles, have their place in life. But how a serious social student can think of curing the thoughtlessness of our generation by strained paradoxes; of giving people a sane grasp of social problems by literary sleight-of-hand; of settling important questions by a reckless shower of rocket-metaphors and inaccurate ‘facts,’ and the substitution of imagination for judgment, I cannot see.”

I quote this passage with a particular pleasure, because Mr. McCabe certainly cannot put too strongly the degree to which I give him and his school credit for their complete sincerity and responsibility of philosophical attitude. I am quite certain that they mean every word they say. I also mean every word I say. But why is it that Mr. McCabe has some sort of mysterious hesitation about admitting that I mean every word I say; why is it that he is not quite as certain of my mental responsibility as I am of his mental responsibility? If we attempt to answer the question directly and well, we shall, I think, have come to the root of the matter by the shortest cut.

XVI. Sul signor McCabe e una divina frivolezza

Un critico un giorno mi rimproverò dicendomi, con un’aria di indignata ragionevolezza: «Se proprio dovete fare delle battute, potreste almeno non farle su argomenti tanto seri». Risposi con naturale candore e stupore: «Ma su quali altri argomenti si possono fare battute, se non su argomenti seri?». È del tutto inutile parlare di scherzo profano. Ogni scherzo è per sua natura profano, nel senso che deve consistere nell’improvvisa consapevolezza che qualcosa il quale si crede solenne non è poi così solenne. Se una battuta non riguarda la religione o la morale, allora riguarda i giudici di polizia, o i professori di scienze, o gli studentelli travestiti da regina Vittoria. E la gente scherza sul giudice di polizia più di quanto scherzi sul Papa, non perché il giudice di polizia sia un soggetto più frivolo, ma, al contrario, perché il giudice di polizia è un soggetto più serio del Papa. Il Vescovo di Roma non ha giurisdizione in questo regno d’Inghilterra, mentre il giudice di polizia può abbattere all’improvviso su di noi la sua solennità. Gli uomini scherzano sui vecchi professori di scienze anche più di quanto scherzino sui vescovi: non perché la scienza sia più leggera della religione, ma perché la scienza è sempre per sua natura più solenne e austera della religione. Non sono io; non è nemmeno una particolare categoria di giornalisti o di burloni a fare battute sulle questioni di più tremenda importanza: è l’intera razza umana. Se c’è una cosa che chiunque abbia la benché minima conoscenza del mondo ammetterà, è che gli uomini parlano sempre con gravità e serietà e con la massima cura possibile delle cose che non contano, ma parlano sempre con frivolezza delle cose che contano. Gli uomini discorrono per ore, con la faccia di un collegio di cardinali, di cose come il golf, o il tabacco, o i panciotti, o la politica di partito. Ma tutte le cose più gravi e terribili del mondo sono le battute più antiche del mondo: sposarsi; essere impiccati.

Un signore, tuttavia, il signor McCabe, mi ha rivolto in questa faccenda qualcosa che equivale quasi a un appello personale; e poiché egli si dà il caso che sia un uomo per la cui sincerità e virtù intellettuale nutro grande rispetto, non me la sento di lasciarlo cadere senza qualche tentativo di soddisfare il mio critico in proposito. Il signor McCabe dedica una parte considerevole dell’ultimo saggio della raccolta intitolata «Christianity and Rationalism on Trial» a un’obiezione, non alla mia tesi, ma al mio metodo, e a un appello molto amichevole e dignitoso affinché io lo muti. Sono assai propenso a difendermi in questa faccenda per puro rispetto verso il signor McCabe, e ancor più per puro rispetto verso la verità che, a mio giudizio, è messa in pericolo dal suo errore, non solo in questa questione, ma in altre. Affinché non si commetta ingiustizia in materia, citerò le parole stesse del signor McCabe. «Ma prima di seguire il signor Chesterton in qualche dettaglio, vorrei fare un’osservazione generale sul suo metodo. Egli è tanto serio quanto lo sono io nel suo scopo ultimo, e per questo lo rispetto. Egli sa, come lo so io, che l’umanità si trova a un solenne bivio delle vie. Verso una meta ignota essa preme attraverso le epoche, sospinta da un desiderio irresistibile di felicità. Oggi essa esita, abbastanza spensieratamente, ma ogni pensatore serio sa quanto possa essere gravida di conseguenze la decisione. Essa, a quanto pare, sta abbandonando il sentiero della religione ed entrando nel sentiero del secolarismo. Si perderà nei pantani della sensualità lungo questo nuovo sentiero, e ansimerà e faticherà attraverso anni di anarchia civile e industriale, solo per apprendere di aver smarrito la strada e di dover tornare alla religione? Oppure scoprirà che finalmente si sta lasciando alle spalle le nebbie e i pantani; che sta salendo il pendio della collina così a lungo intravista in lontananza, dirigendosi diritta verso la tanto agognata Utopia? Questo è il dramma del nostro tempo, e ogni uomo e ogni donna dovrebbe comprenderlo.

«Il signor Chesterton lo comprende. Di più: ci fa il credito di comprenderlo. Egli non ha nulla di quella meschina grettezza o strana ottusità di tanti suoi colleghi, che ci bollano come iconoclasti senza scopo o anarchici morali. Egli ammette che stiamo conducendo una guerra senza gratitudine per ciò che riteniamo essere Verità e Progresso. Egli fa lo stesso. Ma perché, in nome di tutto ciò che è ragionevole, dovremmo, quando siamo d’accordo sulla gravità della posta in gioco in un senso o nell’altro, abbandonare senz’altro i metodi seri di condurre la controversia? Perché, quando il bisogno vitale del nostro tempo è indurre uomini e donne a raccogliere di tanto in tanto i propri pensieri, e a essere uomini e donne — anzi, a ricordare che sono davvero dèi che tengono sulle ginocchia i destini dell’umanità — perché dovremmo pensare che questo caleidoscopico gioco di frasi sia inopportuno? I balletti dell’Alhambra, e i fuochi d’artificio del Crystal Palace, e gli articoli del signor Chesterton sul Daily News, hanno il loro posto nella vita. Ma come uno studioso serio delle cose sociali possa pensare di curare la sventatezza della nostra generazione con paradossi forzati; di dare alla gente una sana presa sui problemi sociali con giochi di prestigio letterari; di risolvere questioni importanti con una sconsiderata pioggia di metafore-razzo e di “fatti” inesatti, e con la sostituzione dell’immaginazione al giudizio, questo non riesco a capirlo».

Cito questo passo con particolare piacere, perché il signor McCabe non può certo esprimere con troppa forza la misura in cui io riconosco a lui e alla sua scuola il merito della loro completa sincerità e responsabilità di atteggiamento filosofico. Sono del tutto certo che essi credano in ogni parola che dicono. Anch’io credo in ogni parola che dico. Ma perché mai il signor McCabe ha una sorta di misteriosa esitazione ad ammettere che io credo in ogni parola che dico; perché mai egli non è altrettanto certo della mia responsabilità mentale quanto io lo sono della sua responsabilità mentale? Se tentiamo di rispondere alla domanda in modo diretto e giusto, saremo giunti, credo, alla radice della questione per la via più breve.

Mr. McCabe thinks that I am not serious but only funny, because Mr. McCabe thinks that funny is the opposite of serious. Funny is the opposite of not funny, and of nothing else. The question of whether a man expresses himself in a grotesque or laughable phraseology, or in a stately and restrained phraseology, is not a question of motive or of moral state, it is a question of instinctive language and self-expression. Whether a man chooses to tell the truth in long sentences or short jokes is a problem analogous to whether he chooses to tell the truth in French or German. Whether a man preaches his gospel grotesquely or gravely is merely like the question of whether he preaches it in prose or verse. The question of whether Swift was funny in his irony is quite another sort of question to the question of whether Swift was serious in his pessimism. Surely even Mr. McCabe would not maintain that the more funny “Gulliver” is in its method the less it can be sincere in its object. The truth is, as I have said, that in this sense the two qualities of fun and seriousness have nothing whatever to do with each other, they are no more comparable than black and triangular. Mr. Bernard Shaw is funny and sincere. Mr. George Robey is funny and not sincere. Mr. McCabe is sincere and not funny. The average Cabinet Minister is not sincere and not funny.

In short, Mr. McCabe is under the influence of a primary fallacy which I have found very common in men of the clerical type. Numbers of clergymen have from time to time reproached me for making jokes about religion; and they have almost always invoked the authority of that very sensible commandment which says, “Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.” Of course, I pointed out that I was not in any conceivable sense taking the name in vain. To take a thing and make a joke out of it is not to take it in vain. It is, on the contrary, to take it and use it for an uncommonly good object. To use a thing in vain means to use it without use. But a joke may be exceedingly useful; it may contain the whole earthly sense, not to mention the whole heavenly sense, of a situation. And those who find in the Bible the commandment can find in the Bible any number of the jokes. In the same book in which God’s name is fenced from being taken in vain, God himself overwhelms Job with a torrent of terrible levities. The same book which says that God’s name must not be taken vainly, talks easily and carelessly about God laughing and God winking. Evidently it is not here that we have to look for genuine examples of what is meant by a vain use of the name. And it is not very difficult to see where we have really to look for it. The people (as I tactfully pointed out to them) who really take the name of the Lord in vain are the clergymen themselves. The thing which is fundamentally and really frivolous is not a careless joke. The thing which is fundamentally and really frivolous is a careless solemnity. If Mr. McCabe really wishes to know what sort of guarantee of reality and solidity is afforded by the mere act of what is called talking seriously, let him spend a happy Sunday in going the round of the pulpits. Or, better still, let him drop in at the House of Commons or the House of Lords. Even Mr. McCabe would admit that these men are solemn—more solemn than I am. And even Mr. McCabe, I think, would admit that these men are frivolous— more frivolous than I am. Why should Mr. McCabe be so eloquent about the danger arising from fantastic and paradoxical writers? Why should he be so ardent in desiring grave and verbose writers? There are not so very many fantastic and paradoxical writers. But there are a gigantic number of grave and verbose writers; and it is by the efforts of the grave and verbose writers that everything that Mr. McCabe detests (and everything that I detest, for that matter) is kept in existence and energy. How can it have come about that a man as intelligent as Mr. McCabe can think that paradox and jesting stop the way? It is solemnity that is stopping the way in every department of modern effort. It is his own favourite “serious methods;” it is his own favourite “momentousness;” it is his own favourite “judgment” which stops the way everywhere. Every man who has ever headed a deputation to a minister knows this. Every man who has ever written a letter to the Times knows it. Every rich man who wishes to stop the mouths of the poor talks about “momentousness.” Every Cabinet minister who has not got an answer suddenly develops a “judgment.” Every sweater who uses vile methods recommends “serious methods.” I said a moment ago that sincerity had nothing to do with solemnity, but I confess that I am not so certain that I was right. In the modern world, at any rate, I am not so sure that I was right. In the modern world solemnity is the direct enemy of sincerity. In the modern world sincerity is almost always on one side, and solemnity almost always on the other. The only answer possible to the fierce and glad attack of sincerity is the miserable answer of solemnity. Let Mr. McCabe, or any one else who is much concerned that we should be grave in order to be sincere, simply imagine the scene in some government office in which Mr. Bernard Shaw should head a Socialist deputation to Mr. Austen Chamberlain. On which side would be the solemnity? And on which the sincerity?

I am, indeed, delighted to discover that Mr. McCabe reckons Mr. Shaw along with me in his system of condemnation of frivolity. He said once, I believe, that he always wanted Mr. Shaw to label his paragraphs serious or comic. I do not know which paragraphs of Mr. Shaw are paragraphs to be labelled serious; but surely there can be no doubt that this paragraph of Mr. McCabe’s is one to be labelled comic. He also says, in the article I am now discussing, that Mr. Shaw has the reputation of deliberately saying everything which his hearers do not expect him to say. I need not labour the inconclusiveness and weakness of this, because it has already been dealt with in my remarks on Mr. Bernard Shaw. Suffice it to say here that the only serious reason which I can imagine inducing any one person to listen to any other is, that the first person looks to the second person with an ardent faith and a fixed attention, expecting him to say what he does not expect him to say. It may be a paradox, but that is because paradoxes are true. It may not be rational, but that is because rationalism is wrong. But clearly it is quite true that whenever we go to hear a prophet or teacher we may or may not expect wit, we may or may not expect eloquence, but we do expect what we do not expect. We may not expect the true, we may not even expect the wise, but we do expect the unexpected. If we do not expect the unexpected, why do we go there at all? If we expect the expected, why do we not sit at home and expect it by ourselves? If Mr. McCabe means merely this about Mr. Shaw, that he always has some unexpected application of his doctrine to give to those who listen to him, what he says is quite true, and to say it is only to say that Mr. Shaw is an original man. But if he means that Mr. Shaw has ever professed or preached any doctrine but one, and that his own, then what he says is not true. It is not my business to defend Mr. Shaw; as has been seen already, I disagree with him altogether. But I do not mind, on his behalf offering in this matter a flat defiance to all his ordinary opponents, such as Mr. McCabe. I defy Mr. McCabe, or anybody else, to mention one single instance in which Mr. Shaw has, for the sake of wit or novelty, taken up any position which was not directly deducible from the body of his doctrine as elsewhere expressed. I have been, I am happy to say, a tolerably close student of Mr. Shaw’s utterances, and I request Mr. McCabe, if he will not believe that I mean anything else, to believe that I mean this challenge.

Il signor McCabe pensa che io non sia serio ma soltanto buffo, perché il signor McCabe pensa che buffo sia il contrario di serio. Buffo è il contrario di non buffo, e di nient’altro. La questione se un uomo si esprima in una fraseologia grottesca e ridicola, oppure in una fraseologia solenne e misurata, non è una questione di movente o di stato morale, è una questione di linguaggio istintivo e di espressione di sé. Se un uomo scelga di dire la verità in lunghe frasi o in brevi battute è un problema analogo a quello se scelga di dire la verità in francese o in tedesco. Se un uomo predichi il proprio vangelo grottescamente o gravemente è soltanto come la questione se lo predichi in prosa o in versi. La questione se Swift fosse buffo nella sua ironia è tutt’altro genere di questione rispetto a quella se Swift fosse serio nel suo pessimismo. Certo, neppure il signor McCabe sosterrebbe che, quanto più «Gulliver» è buffo nel suo metodo, tanto meno possa essere sincero nel suo intento. La verità è, come ho detto, che in questo senso le due qualità del buffo e del serio non hanno assolutamente nulla a che vedere l’una con l’altra: non sono più paragonabili di quanto lo siano il nero e il triangolare. Il signor Bernard Shaw è buffo e sincero. Il signor George Robey è buffo e non sincero. Il signor McCabe è sincero e non buffo. Il tipico ministro di Gabinetto non è sincero e non è buffo.

In breve, il signor McCabe è sotto l’influsso di un errore fondamentale che ho trovato molto comune negli uomini di tipo clericale. Numerosi ecclesiastici mi hanno di tanto in tanto rimproverato di fare battute sulla religione; e hanno quasi sempre invocato l’autorità di quel comandamento molto sensato che dice: «Non nominare il nome del Signore Dio tuo invano». Naturalmente feci osservare che in nessun senso concepibile stavo nominando quel nome invano. Prendere una cosa e ricavarne una battuta non è prenderla invano. È, al contrario, prenderla e usarla per uno scopo straordinariamente buono. Usare invano una cosa significa usarla senza uso. Ma una battuta può essere estremamente utile; può contenere l’intero senso terreno, per non dire l’intero senso celeste, di una situazione. E coloro che trovano nella Bibbia quel comandamento possono trovare nella Bibbia un numero qualsiasi di battute. Nello stesso libro in cui il nome di Dio è protetto dall’essere nominato invano, Dio stesso travolge Giobbe con un torrente di terribili leggerezze. Lo stesso libro che dice che il nome di Dio non deve essere nominato invano parla con disinvoltura e noncuranza di un Dio che ride e di un Dio che ammicca. Evidentemente non è qui che dobbiamo cercare esempi genuini di ciò che si intende per uso vano del nome. E non è molto difficile vedere dove dobbiamo cercarlo davvero. Le persone (come feci loro tattosamente notare) che davvero nominano invano il nome del Signore sono gli ecclesiastici stessi. La cosa fondamentalmente e realmente frivola non è una battuta spensierata. La cosa fondamentalmente e realmente frivola è una spensierata solennità. Se il signor McCabe desidera davvero sapere quale garanzia di realtà e di solidità sia offerta dal semplice atto di ciò che si chiama parlare seriamente, spenda pure una felice domenica facendo il giro dei pulpiti. Oppure, meglio ancora, faccia una capatina alla Camera dei Comuni o alla Camera dei Lord. Persino il signor McCabe ammetterebbe che quegli uomini sono solenni — più solenni di me. E persino il signor McCabe, credo, ammetterebbe che quegli uomini sono frivoli — più frivoli di me. Perché il signor McCabe dovrebbe essere così eloquente sul pericolo che deriva dagli scrittori fantasiosi e paradossali? Perché dovrebbe essere così ardente nel desiderare scrittori gravi e verbosi? Non ci sono poi tanti scrittori fantasiosi e paradossali. Ma c’è un numero gigantesco di scrittori gravi e verbosi; ed è per opera degli scrittori gravi e verbosi che tutto ciò che il signor McCabe detesta (e tutto ciò che, del resto, detesto io) è tenuto in vita e in attività. Come mai è potuto accadere che un uomo intelligente come il signor McCabe possa credere che siano il paradosso e lo scherzo a sbarrare la strada? È la solennità a sbarrare la strada in ogni campo dell’impresa moderna. Sono i suoi cari «metodi seri»; è la sua cara «gravità della posta»; è il suo caro «giudizio» a sbarrare la strada dappertutto. Ogni uomo che abbia mai guidato una delegazione presso un ministro lo sa. Ogni uomo che abbia mai scritto una lettera al Times lo sa. Ogni ricco che voglia chiudere la bocca ai poveri parla di «gravità della posta». Ogni ministro di Gabinetto che non abbia una risposta sviluppa d’un tratto un «giudizio». Ogni sfruttatore che usi metodi vili raccomanda «metodi seri». Ho detto poco fa che la sincerità non aveva nulla a che fare con la solennità, ma confesso di non essere così certo di aver avuto ragione. Nel mondo moderno, quantomeno, non sono così sicuro di aver avuto ragione. Nel mondo moderno la solennità è la nemica diretta della sincerità. Nel mondo moderno la sincerità sta quasi sempre da una parte, e la solennità quasi sempre dall’altra. L’unica risposta possibile al fiero e gioioso assalto della sincerità è la miserabile risposta della solennità. Il signor McCabe, o chiunque altro si preoccupi tanto che si debba essere gravi per essere sinceri, immagini semplicemente la scena in un qualche ufficio governativo in cui il signor Bernard Shaw guidasse una delegazione socialista presso il signor Austen Chamberlain. Da quale parte starebbe la solennità? E da quale la sincerità?

Sono, in verità, lieto di scoprire che il signor McCabe annovera il signor Shaw insieme a me nel suo sistema di condanna della frivolezza. Disse una volta, mi pare, che avrebbe sempre voluto che il signor Shaw etichettasse i propri paragrafi come seri o comici. Non so quali paragrafi del signor Shaw siano da etichettare come seri; ma di certo non può esservi dubbio che questo paragrafo del signor McCabe sia da etichettare come comico. Egli dice inoltre, nell’articolo che sto ora discutendo, che il signor Shaw ha la reputazione di dire deliberatamente tutto ciò che i suoi ascoltatori non si aspettano che dica. Non ho bisogno di insistere sull’inconcludenza e sulla debolezza di questa affermazione, perché me ne sono già occupato nelle mie osservazioni sul signor Bernard Shaw. Basti qui dire che l’unica ragione seria che io possa immaginare capace di indurre una persona ad ascoltarne un’altra è che la prima persona guardi alla seconda con ardente fede e attenzione fissa, aspettandosi che dica ciò che non si aspetta che dica. Sarà un paradosso, ma è perché i paradossi sono veri. Non sarà razionale, ma è perché il razionalismo è sbagliato. Ma è chiaramente verissimo che ogni volta che andiamo ad ascoltare un profeta o un maestro possiamo aspettarci o no lo spirito, possiamo aspettarci o no l’eloquenza, ma ci aspettiamo davvero ciò che non ci aspettiamo. Possiamo non aspettarci il vero, possiamo non aspettarci neppure il saggio, ma ci aspettiamo davvero l’inatteso. Se non ci aspettiamo l’inatteso, perché mai andiamo là? Se ci aspettiamo l’atteso, perché non ce ne stiamo a casa ad aspettarlo da soli? Se il signor McCabe intende semplicemente dire questo del signor Shaw, cioè che egli ha sempre qualche inattesa applicazione della propria dottrina da offrire a chi lo ascolta, allora ciò che dice è verissimo, e dirlo equivale soltanto a dire che il signor Shaw è un uomo originale. Ma se intende dire che il signor Shaw abbia mai professato o predicato una dottrina qualsiasi diversa da una sola, cioè la propria, allora ciò che dice non è vero. Non è compito mio difendere il signor Shaw; come si è già visto, sono in totale disaccordo con lui. Ma non mi dispiace, per suo conto, lanciare in questa faccenda una netta sfida a tutti i suoi consueti avversari, come il signor McCabe. Sfido il signor McCabe, o chiunque altro, a citare un solo caso in cui il signor Shaw abbia, per amor di spirito o di novità, assunto una posizione che non fosse direttamente deducibile dal corpo della sua dottrina quale è espressa altrove. Sono stato, sono lieto di dirlo, uno studioso abbastanza attento delle affermazioni del signor Shaw, e prego il signor McCabe, se proprio non vuol credere che io intenda qualcos’altro, di credere che questa sfida la intendo sul serio.

All this, however, is a parenthesis. The thing with which I am here immediately concerned is Mr. McCabe’s appeal to me not to be so frivolous. Let me return to the actual text of that appeal. There are, of course, a great many things that I might say about it in detail. But I may start with saying that Mr. McCabe is in error in supposing that the danger which I anticipate from the disappearance of religion is the increase of sensuality. On the contrary, I should be inclined to anticipate a decrease in sensuality, because I anticipate a decrease in life. I do not think that under modern Western materialism we should have anarchy. I doubt whether we should have enough individual valour and spirit even to have liberty. It is quite an old-fashioned fallacy to suppose that our objection to scepticism is that it removes the discipline from life. Our objection to scepticism is that it removes the motive power. Materialism is not a thing which destroys mere restraint. Materialism itself is the great restraint. The McCabe school advocates a political liberty, but it denies spiritual liberty. That is, it abolishes the laws which could be broken, and substitutes laws that cannot. And that is the real slavery.

The truth is that the scientific civilization in which Mr. McCabe believes has one rather particular defect; it is perpetually tending to destroy that democracy or power of the ordinary man in which Mr. McCabe also believes. Science means specialism, and specialism means oligarchy. If you once establish the habit of trusting particular men to produce particular results in physics or astronomy, you leave the door open for the equally natural demand that you should trust particular men to do particular things in government and the coercing of men. If, you feel it to be reasonable that one beetle should be the only study of one man, and that one man the only student of that one beetle, it is surely a very harmless consequence to go on to say that politics should be the only study of one man, and that one man the only student of politics. As I have pointed out elsewhere in this book, the expert is more aristocratic than the aristocrat, because the aristocrat is only the man who lives well, while the expert is the man who knows better. But if we look at the progress of our scientific civilization we see a gradual increase everywhere of the specialist over the popular function. Once men sang together round a table in chorus; now one man sings alone, for the absurd reason that he can sing better. If scientific civilization goes on (which is most improbable) only one man will laugh, because he can laugh better than the rest.

I do not know that I can express this more shortly than by taking as a text the single sentence of Mr. McCabe, which runs as follows: “The ballets of the Alhambra and the fireworks of the Crystal Palace and Mr. Chesterton’s Daily News articles have their places in life.” I wish that my articles had as noble a place as either of the other two things mentioned. But let us ask ourselves (in a spirit of love, as Mr. Chadband would say), what are the ballets of the Alhambra? The ballets of the Alhambra are institutions in which a particular selected row of persons in pink go through an operation known as dancing. Now, in all commonwealths dominated by a religion— in the Christian commonwealths of the Middle Ages and in many rude societies—this habit of dancing was a common habit with everybody, and was not necessarily confined to a professional class. A person could dance without being a dancer; a person could dance without being a specialist; a person could dance without being pink. And, in proportion as Mr. McCabe’s scientific civilization advances— that is, in proportion as religious civilization (or real civilization) decays—the more and more “well trained,” the more and more pink, become the people who do dance, and the more and more numerous become the people who don’t. Mr. McCabe may recognize an example of what I mean in the gradual discrediting in society of the ancient European waltz or dance with partners, and the substitution of that horrible and degrading oriental interlude which is known as skirt-dancing. That is the whole essence of decadence, the effacement of five people who do a thing for fun by one person who does it for money. Now it follows, therefore, that when Mr. McCabe says that the ballets of the Alhambra and my articles “have their place in life,” it ought to be pointed out to him that he is doing his best to create a world in which dancing, properly speaking, will have no place in life at all. He is, indeed, trying to create a world in which there will be no life for dancing to have a place in. The very fact that Mr. McCabe thinks of dancing as a thing belonging to some hired women at the Alhambra is an illustration of the same principle by which he is able to think of religion as a thing belonging to some hired men in white neckties. Both these things are things which should not be done for us, but by us. If Mr. McCabe were really religious he would be happy. If he were really happy he would dance.

Briefly, we may put the matter in this way. The main point of modern life is not that the Alhambra ballet has its place in life. The main point, the main enormous tragedy of modern life, is that Mr. McCabe has not his place in the Alhambra ballet. The joy of changing and graceful posture, the joy of suiting the swing of music to the swing of limbs, the joy of whirling drapery, the joy of standing on one leg,—all these should belong by rights to Mr. McCabe and to me; in short, to the ordinary healthy citizen. Probably we should not consent to go through these evolutions. But that is because we are miserable moderns and rationalists. We do not merely love ourselves more than we love duty; we actually love ourselves more than we love joy.

When, therefore, Mr. McCabe says that he gives the Alhambra dances (and my articles) their place in life, I think we are justified in pointing out that by the very nature of the case of his philosophy and of his favourite civilization he gives them a very inadequate place. For (if I may pursue the too flattering parallel) Mr. McCabe thinks of the Alhambra and of my articles as two very odd and absurd things, which some special people do (probably for money) in order to amuse him. But if he had ever felt himself the ancient, sublime, elemental, human instinct to dance, he would have discovered that dancing is not a frivolous thing at all, but a very serious thing. He would have discovered that it is the one grave and chaste and decent method of expressing a certain class of emotions. And similarly, if he had ever had, as Mr. Shaw and I have had, the impulse to what he calls paradox, he would have discovered that paradox again is not a frivolous thing, but a very serious thing. He would have found that paradox simply means a certain defiant joy which belongs to belief. I should regard any civilization which was without a universal habit of uproarious dancing as being, from the full human point of view, a defective civilization. And I should regard any mind which had not got the habit in one form or another of uproarious thinking as being, from the full human point of view, a defective mind. It is vain for Mr. McCabe to say that a ballet is a part of him. He should be part of a ballet, or else he is only part of a man. It is in vain for him to say that he is “not quarrelling with the importation of humour into the controversy.” He ought himself to be importing humour into every controversy; for unless a man is in part a humorist, he is only in part a man. To sum up the whole matter very simply, if Mr. McCabe asks me why I import frivolity into a discussion of the nature of man, I answer, because frivolity is a part of the nature of man. If he asks me why I introduce what he calls paradoxes into a philosophical problem, I answer, because all philosophical problems tend to become paradoxical. If he objects to my treating of life riotously, I reply that life is a riot. And I say that the Universe as I see it, at any rate, is very much more like the fireworks at the Crystal Palace than it is like his own philosophy. About the whole cosmos there is a tense and secret festivity—like preparations for Guy Fawkes’ day. Eternity is the eve of something. I never look up at the stars without feeling that they are the fires of a schoolboy’s rocket, fixed in their everlasting fall.

Tutto questo, però, è una parentesi. La cosa di cui mi occupo qui immediatamente è l’appello del signor McCabe affinché io non sia così frivolo. Torniamo al testo effettivo di quell’appello. Ci sono, naturalmente, moltissime cose che potrei dire al riguardo nel dettaglio. Ma posso cominciare col dire che il signor McCabe è in errore nel supporre che il pericolo che io prevedo dalla scomparsa della religione sia l’aumento della sensualità. Al contrario, sarei propenso a prevedere una diminuzione della sensualità, perché prevedo una diminuzione della vita. Non credo che sotto il moderno materialismo occidentale avremmo l’anarchia. Dubito che avremmo abbastanza valore e spirito individuale persino per avere la libertà. È un errore proprio all’antica supporre che la nostra obiezione allo scetticismo sia che esso toglie la disciplina alla vita. La nostra obiezione allo scetticismo è che esso toglie la forza motrice. Il materialismo non è una cosa che distrugge il semplice freno. Il materialismo stesso è il gran freno. La scuola di McCabe si fa paladina di una libertà politica, ma nega la libertà spirituale. Cioè, abolisce le leggi che potrebbero essere infrante e vi sostituisce leggi che non possono esserlo. E questa è la vera schiavitù.

La verità è che la civiltà scientifica in cui il signor McCabe crede ha un difetto piuttosto particolare: essa tende perpetuamente a distruggere quella democrazia, ossia quel potere dell’uomo comune, in cui pure il signor McCabe crede. Scienza significa specializzazione, e specializzazione significa oligarchia. Se una volta stabilite l’abitudine di affidare a uomini particolari il compito di produrre risultati particolari in fisica o in astronomia, lasciate la porta aperta all’ugualmente naturale pretesa che si debbano affidare a uomini particolari cose particolari nel governo e nella coercizione degli uomini. Se ritenete ragionevole che un solo coleottero sia l’unico studio di un solo uomo, e quell’unico uomo l’unico studioso di quell’unico coleottero, è di certo una conseguenza assai innocua passare a dire che la politica dovrebbe essere l’unico studio di un solo uomo, e quell’unico uomo l’unico studioso della politica. Come ho fatto notare altrove in questo libro, l’esperto è più aristocratico dell’aristocratico, perché l’aristocratico è soltanto l’uomo che vive bene, mentre l’esperto è l’uomo che sa meglio. Ma se guardiamo al progresso della nostra civiltà scientifica, vediamo dappertutto un graduale prevalere dello specialista sulla funzione popolare. Un tempo gli uomini cantavano insieme in coro attorno a una tavola; ora un solo uomo canta da solo, per l’assurda ragione che sa cantare meglio. Se la civiltà scientifica va avanti (il che è del tutto improbabile), un solo uomo riderà, perché sa ridere meglio degli altri.

Non so se posso esprimere ciò più brevemente che prendendo come testo l’unica frase del signor McCabe, che suona così: «I balletti dell’Alhambra, e i fuochi d’artificio del Crystal Palace, e gli articoli del signor Chesterton sul Daily News hanno il loro posto nella vita». Vorrei che i miei articoli avessero un posto tanto nobile quanto ciascuna delle altre due cose menzionate. Ma domandiamoci (in spirito d’amore, come direbbe il signor Chadband) che cosa sono i balletti dell’Alhambra. I balletti dell’Alhambra sono istituzioni in cui una particolare fila selezionata di persone vestite di rosa esegue un’operazione nota come danza. Ora, in tutte le comunità dominate da una religione — nelle comunità cristiane del Medioevo e in molte società rozze — questa abitudine di danzare era un’abitudine comune a tutti, e non era necessariamente confinata a una classe di professionisti. Una persona poteva danzare senza essere una ballerina; una persona poteva danzare senza essere una specialista; una persona poteva danzare senza essere vestita di rosa. E, nella misura in cui avanza la civiltà scientifica del signor McCabe — cioè nella misura in cui decade la civiltà religiosa (o civiltà vera) — tanto più «ben addestrate», tanto più rosa diventano le persone che danzano, e tanto più numerose diventano le persone che non danzano. Il signor McCabe può riconoscere un esempio di ciò che intendo nel graduale discredito, in società, dell’antico valzer europeo, o danza in coppia, e nella sostituzione con quell’orribile e degradante intermezzo orientale noto come danza delle gonne. Questa è tutta l’essenza della decadenza: la cancellazione di cinque persone che fanno una cosa per divertimento a opera di una sola persona che la fa per denaro. Ora ne consegue, dunque, che quando il signor McCabe dice che i balletti dell’Alhambra e i miei articoli «hanno il loro posto nella vita», gli si dovrebbe far notare che egli sta facendo del suo meglio per creare un mondo in cui la danza, propriamente parlando, non avrà alcun posto nella vita. Egli sta, anzi, cercando di creare un mondo in cui non ci sarà vita in cui la danza possa avere un posto. Il fatto stesso che il signor McCabe pensi alla danza come a una cosa che appartiene a certe donne prezzolate dell’Alhambra è un’illustrazione dello stesso principio per cui egli è capace di pensare alla religione come a una cosa che appartiene a certi uomini prezzolati in cravatta bianca. Entrambe queste cose sono cose che non dovrebbero essere fatte per noi, ma da noi. Se il signor McCabe fosse davvero religioso, sarebbe felice. Se fosse davvero felice, danzerebbe.

Brevemente, possiamo porre la questione in questo modo. Il punto principale della vita moderna non è che il balletto dell’Alhambra abbia il suo posto nella vita. Il punto principale, l’enorme tragedia principale della vita moderna, è che il signor McCabe non ha il suo posto nel balletto dell’Alhambra. La gioia del mutare e aggraziato atteggiamento, la gioia di accordare il ritmo della musica al ritmo delle membra, la gioia dei drappeggi vorticanti, la gioia di stare in equilibrio su una gamba sola — tutto questo dovrebbe appartenere di diritto al signor McCabe e a me; in breve, al comune cittadino sano. Probabilmente non acconsentiremmo a compiere queste evoluzioni. Ma è perché siamo dei miseri moderni e razionalisti. Non solo amiamo noi stessi più di quanto amiamo il dovere; amiamo addirittura noi stessi più di quanto amiamo la gioia.

Quando, dunque, il signor McCabe dice di dare alle danze dell’Alhambra (e ai miei articoli) il loro posto nella vita, credo che siamo autorizzati a fargli notare che, per la natura stessa della sua filosofia e della sua cara civiltà, egli assegna loro un posto assai inadeguato. Poiché (se posso proseguire il troppo lusinghiero parallelo) il signor McCabe pensa all’Alhambra e ai miei articoli come a due cose molto strane e assurde, che certe persone speciali fanno (probabilmente per denaro) allo scopo di divertirlo. Ma se avesse mai sentito in sé quell’antico, sublime, elementare, umano istinto di danzare, avrebbe scoperto che la danza non è affatto una cosa frivola, bensì una cosa molto seria. Avrebbe scoperto che essa è l’unico metodo grave e casto e decoroso di esprimere una certa classe di emozioni. E similmente, se avesse mai avuto, come il signor Shaw e io abbiamo avuto, l’impulso a ciò che egli chiama paradosso, avrebbe scoperto che anche il paradosso non è una cosa frivola, bensì una cosa molto seria. Avrebbe scoperto che il paradosso significa semplicemente una certa gioia sfidante che appartiene alla fede. Considererei qualsiasi civiltà priva di un’universale abitudine alla danza fragorosa come, dal pieno punto di vista umano, una civiltà difettosa. E considererei qualsiasi mente che non abbia acquisito l’abitudine, in una forma o nell’altra, del pensare fragoroso come, dal pieno punto di vista umano, una mente difettosa. È vano che il signor McCabe dica che un balletto è una parte di lui. Dovrebbe essere lui parte di un balletto, altrimenti è soltanto parte di un uomo. È vano che egli dica di «non aver nulla in contrario all’importazione dell’umorismo nella controversia». Dovrebbe egli stesso importare l’umorismo in ogni controversia; perché, a meno che un uomo non sia in parte umorista, egli è soltanto in parte un uomo. Per riassumere l’intera faccenda in modo molto semplice: se il signor McCabe mi chiede perché importo la frivolezza in una discussione sulla natura dell’uomo, rispondo, perché la frivolezza è una parte della natura dell’uomo. Se mi chiede perché introduco ciò che egli chiama paradossi in un problema filosofico, rispondo, perché tutti i problemi filosofici tendono a diventare paradossali. Se obietta al mio trattare la vita in modo turbolento, replico che la vita è un tumulto. E dico che l’Universo quale io lo vedo, in ogni caso, assomiglia molto più ai fuochi d’artificio del Crystal Palace di quanto assomigli alla sua stessa filosofia. Attorno all’intero cosmo c’è una festosità tesa e segreta — come i preparativi per il giorno di Guy Fawkes. L’eternità è la vigilia di qualcosa. Non alzo mai lo sguardo alle stelle senza sentire che esse sono i fuochi del razzo di uno scolaretto, fissati nella loro eterna caduta.

XVII. On the Wit of Whistler

That capable and ingenious writer, Mr. Arthur Symons, has included in a book of essays recently published, I believe, an apologia for “London Nights,” in which he says that morality should be wholly subordinated to art in criticism, and he uses the somewhat singular argument that art or the worship of beauty is the same in all ages, while morality differs in every period and in every respect. He appears to defy his critics or his readers to mention any permanent feature or quality in ethics. This is surely a very curious example of that extravagant bias against morality which makes so many ultra-modern aesthetes as morbid and fanatical as any Eastern hermit. Unquestionably it is a very common phrase of modern intellectualism to say that the morality of one age can be entirely different to the morality of another. And like a great many other phrases of modern intellectualism, it means literally nothing at all. If the two moralities are entirely different, why do you call them both moralities? It is as if a man said, “Camels in various places are totally diverse; some have six legs, some have none, some have scales, some have feathers, some have horns, some have wings, some are green, some are triangular. There is no point which they have in common.” The ordinary man of sense would reply, “Then what makes you call them all camels? What do you mean by a camel? How do you know a camel when you see one?” Of course, there is a permanent substance of morality, as much as there is a permanent substance of art; to say that is only to say that morality is morality, and that art is art. An ideal art critic would, no doubt, see the enduring beauty under every school; equally an ideal moralist would see the enduring ethic under every code. But practically some of the best Englishmen that ever lived could see nothing but filth and idolatry in the starry piety of the Brahmin. And it is equally true that practically the greatest group of artists that the world has ever seen, the giants of the Renaissance, could see nothing but barbarism in the ethereal energy of Gothic.

This bias against morality among the modern aesthetes is nothing very much paraded. And yet it is not really a bias against morality; it is a bias against other people’s morality. It is generally founded on a very definite moral preference for a certain sort of life, pagan, plausible, humane. The modern aesthete, wishing us to believe that he values beauty more than conduct, reads Mallarme, and drinks absinthe in a tavern. But this is not only his favourite kind of beauty; it is also his favourite kind of conduct. If he really wished us to believe that he cared for beauty only, he ought to go to nothing but Wesleyan school treats, and paint the sunlight in the hair of the Wesleyan babies. He ought to read nothing but very eloquent theological sermons by old-fashioned Presbyterian divines. Here the lack of all possible moral sympathy would prove that his interest was purely verbal or pictorial, as it is; in all the books he reads and writes he clings to the skirts of his own morality and his own immorality. The champion of l’art pour l’art is always denouncing Ruskin for his moralizing. If he were really a champion of l’art pour l’art, he would be always insisting on Ruskin for his style.

The doctrine of the distinction between art and morality owes a great part of its success to art and morality being hopelessly mixed up in the persons and performances of its greatest exponents. Of this lucky contradiction the very incarnation was Whistler. No man ever preached the impersonality of art so well; no man ever preached the impersonality of art so personally. For him pictures had nothing to do with the problems of character; but for all his fiercest admirers his character was, as a matter of fact, far more interesting than his pictures. He gloried in standing as an artist apart from right and wrong. But he succeeded by talking from morning till night about his rights and about his wrongs. His talents were many, his virtues, it must be confessed, not many, beyond that kindness to tried friends, on which many of his biographers insist, but which surely is a quality of all sane men, of pirates and pickpockets; beyond this, his outstanding virtues limit themselves chiefly to two admirable ones— courage and an abstract love of good work. Yet I fancy he won at last more by those two virtues than by all his talents. A man must be something of a moralist if he is to preach, even if he is to preach unmorality. Professor Walter Raleigh, in his “In Memoriam: James McNeill Whistler,” insists, truly enough, on the strong streak of an eccentric honesty in matters strictly pictorial, which ran through his complex and slightly confused character. “He would destroy any of his works rather than leave a careless or inexpressive touch within the limits of the frame. He would begin again a hundred times over rather than attempt by patching to make his work seem better than it was.”

No one will blame Professor Raleigh, who had to read a sort of funeral oration over Whistler at the opening of the Memorial Exhibition, if, finding himself in that position, he confined himself mostly to the merits and the stronger qualities of his subject. We should naturally go to some other type of composition for a proper consideration of the weaknesses of Whistler. But these must never be omitted from our view of him. Indeed, the truth is that it was not so much a question of the weaknesses of Whistler as of the intrinsic and primary weakness of Whistler. He was one of those people who live up to their emotional incomes, who are always taut and tingling with vanity. Hence he had no strength to spare; hence he had no kindness, no geniality; for geniality is almost definable as strength to spare. He had no god-like carelessness; he never forgot himself; his whole life was, to use his own expression, an arrangement. He went in for “the art of living”—a miserable trick. In a word, he was a great artist; but emphatically not a great man. In this connection I must differ strongly with Professor Raleigh upon what is, from a superficial literary point of view, one of his most effective points. He compares Whistler’s laughter to the laughter of another man who was a great man as well as a great artist. “His attitude to the public was exactly the attitude taken up by Robert Browning, who suffered as long a period of neglect and mistake, in those lines of ‘The Ring and the Book’—

XVII. Sull’arguzia di Whistler

Quel capace e ingegnoso scrittore che è il signor Arthur Symons ha incluso, in un volume di saggi pubblicato di recente, se non erro, un’apologia di «London Nights», nella quale sostiene che, in fatto di critica, la morale dovrebbe essere interamente subordinata all’arte; e si serve dell’argomento alquanto singolare secondo cui l’arte, ossia il culto della bellezza, è la medesima in ogni epoca, mentre la morale differisce in ogni periodo e sotto ogni rispetto. Sembra sfidare i suoi critici o i suoi lettori a indicare un qualche tratto o una qualche qualità permanente nell’etica. Ecco di certo un esempio assai curioso di quel bias stravagante contro la morale che rende tanti esteti ultramoderni morbosi e fanatici quanto un qualsiasi eremita d’Oriente. È indubbiamente una frase assai comune dell’intellettualismo moderno dire che la morale di un’epoca può essere interamente diversa dalla morale di un’altra. E, come tante altre frasi dell’intellettualismo moderno, essa non significa letteralmente nulla. Se le due morali sono interamente diverse, perché le chiami entrambe morali? È come se un uomo dicesse: «I cammelli, nei vari luoghi, sono totalmente diversi: alcuni hanno sei zampe, altri nessuna, alcuni hanno squame, altri piume, alcuni hanno corna, altri ali, alcuni sono verdi, altri triangolari. Non c’è alcun punto che abbiano in comune». L’uomo di buon senso risponderebbe: «E allora che cosa ti spinge a chiamarli tutti cammelli? Che cosa intendi per cammello? Come riconosci un cammello quando lo vedi?» Naturalmente esiste una sostanza permanente della morale, così come esiste una sostanza permanente dell’arte; e dire ciò equivale soltanto a dire che la morale è morale, e che l’arte è arte. Un critico d’arte ideale, senza dubbio, scorgerebbe la bellezza duratura sotto ogni scuola; e allo stesso modo un moralista ideale scorgerebbe l’etica duratura sotto ogni codice. Ma di fatto alcuni dei migliori inglesi che siano mai vissuti non riuscivano a vedere altro che sozzura e idolatria nella stellata pietà del bramino. Ed è altrettanto vero che, di fatto, il più grande gruppo di artisti che il mondo abbia mai veduto, i giganti del Rinascimento, non riuscivano a scorgere altro che barbarie nell’eterea energia del Gotico.

Questo bias contro la morale, tra gli esteti moderni, non viene troppo ostentato. Eppure non è realmente un bias contro la morale; è un bias contro la morale altrui. Di solito si fonda su una ben precisa preferenza morale per un certo genere di vita: pagana, plausibile, umana. L’esteta moderno, volendoci far credere che stima la bellezza più della condotta, legge Mallarmé e beve assenzio in una taverna. Ma questa non è soltanto la sua specie prediletta di bellezza; è anche la sua specie prediletta di condotta. Se davvero volesse farci credere di curarsi soltanto della bellezza, dovrebbe frequentare unicamente le festicciole delle scuole wesleyane, e dipingere la luce del sole tra i capelli dei pargoli wesleyani. Non dovrebbe leggere altro che eloquentissime prediche teologiche di antiquati pastori presbiteriani. Qui la mancanza di ogni possibile simpatia morale proverebbe che il suo interesse è puramente verbale o pittorico, come infatti è; in tutti i libri che legge e che scrive egli si aggrappa alle falde della propria morale e della propria immoralità. Il campione dell’art pour l’art è sempre lì a denunciare Ruskin per il suo moralismo. Se fosse davvero un campione dell’art pour l’art, dovrebbe insistere di continuo su Ruskin per il suo stile.

La dottrina della distinzione tra arte e morale deve gran parte del proprio successo al fatto che arte e morale sono irrimediabilmente mescolate nelle persone e nelle opere dei suoi massimi esponenti. Di questa fortunata contraddizione l’incarnazione stessa fu Whistler. Nessuno predicò mai così bene l’impersonalità dell’arte; nessuno predicò mai così personalmente l’impersonalità dell’arte. Per lui i quadri non avevano nulla a che fare con i problemi del carattere; eppure, per tutti i suoi più accesi ammiratori, il suo carattere era, in verità, assai più interessante dei suoi quadri. Si gloriava di ergersi come artista al di là del bene e del male. Ma vi riuscì parlando da mattina a sera dei suoi diritti e dei suoi torti. I suoi talenti erano molti; le sue virtù, bisogna confessarlo, non molte, oltre a quella gentilezza verso gli amici provati su cui tanti dei suoi biografi insistono, ma che è certamente una qualità di tutti gli uomini sani di mente, dei pirati e dei borsaioli; oltre a questa, le sue virtù salienti si riducono soprattutto a due, per la verità ammirevoli: il coraggio e un astratto amore del buon lavoro. Eppure ho l’impressione che egli abbia vinto alla fine più grazie a quelle due virtù che a tutti i suoi talenti. Un uomo deve essere in qualche misura un moralista, se vuol predicare, foss’anche predicare l’amoralità. Il professor Walter Raleigh, nel suo «In Memoriam: James McNeill Whistler», insiste, e a buon diritto, sulla forte vena di un’onestà eccentrica in fatto strettamente pittorico, che percorreva il suo carattere complesso e un po’ confuso. «Avrebbe distrutto qualsiasi sua opera piuttosto che lasciare un tocco negligente o inespressivo entro i limiti della cornice. Avrebbe ricominciato cento volte piuttosto che tentare di far sembrare, con dei rappezzi, il proprio lavoro migliore di quanto fosse».

Nessuno biasimerà il professor Raleigh, che dovette pronunciare una sorta di orazione funebre su Whistler all’inaugurazione della Mostra commemorativa, se, trovandosi in quella posizione, si limitò per lo più ai meriti e alle qualità più forti del suo soggetto. Per una debita considerazione delle debolezze di Whistler ci rivolgeremmo naturalmente a qualche altro tipo di componimento. Ma esse non devono mai essere omesse dalla nostra visione di lui. Anzi, la verità è che non si trattava tanto di una questione delle debolezze di Whistler quanto dell’intrinseca e primaria debolezza di Whistler. Egli era una di quelle persone che vivono al limite delle proprie rendite emotive, sempre tese e vibranti di vanità. Perciò non aveva forza da spendere; perciò non aveva gentilezza, non aveva geniale calore; poiché il geniale calore è quasi definibile come forza da spendere. Non aveva quella noncuranza degna d’un dio; non si dimenticava mai di sé; la sua vita intera fu, per usare la sua stessa espressione, un arrangement. Coltivava «l’arte di vivere», un misero trucco. In una parola, era un grande artista; ma decisamente non un grande uomo. A questo proposito devo dissentire fortemente dal professor Raleigh su quello che è, da un superficiale punto di vista letterario, uno dei suoi tratti più efficaci. Egli paragona il riso di Whistler al riso di un altro uomo che fu un grande uomo oltre che un grande artista. «Il suo atteggiamento verso il pubblico era esattamente l’atteggiamento assunto da Robert Browning, che patì un periodo altrettanto lungo di misconoscimento e di equivoco, in quei versi di ‘The Ring and the Book‘—

“‘Well, British Public, ye who like me not, (God love you!) and will have your proper laugh At the dark question; laugh it! I’d laugh first.’

“Mr. Whistler,” adds Professor Raleigh, “always laughed first.” The truth is, I believe, that Whistler never laughed at all. There was no laughter in his nature; because there was no thoughtlessness and self-abandonment, no humility. I cannot understand anybody reading “The Gentle Art of Making Enemies” and thinking that there is any laughter in the wit. His wit is a torture to him. He twists himself into arabesques of verbal felicity; he is full of a fierce carefulness; he is inspired with the complete seriousness of sincere malice. He hurts himself to hurt his opponent. Browning did laugh, because Browning did not care; Browning did not care, because Browning was a great man. And when Browning said in brackets to the simple, sensible people who did not like his books, “God love you!” he was not sneering in the least. He was laughing—that is to say, he meant exactly what he said.

There are three distinct classes of great satirists who are also great men—that is to say, three classes of men who can laugh at something without losing their souls. The satirist of the first type is the man who, first of all enjoys himself, and then enjoys his enemies. In this sense he loves his enemy, and by a kind of exaggeration of Christianity he loves his enemy the more the more he becomes an enemy. He has a sort of overwhelming and aggressive happiness in his assertion of anger; his curse is as human as a benediction. Of this type of satire the great example is Rabelais. This is the first typical example of satire, the satire which is voluble, which is violent, which is indecent, but which is not malicious. The satire of Whistler was not this. He was never in any of his controversies simply happy; the proof of it is that he never talked absolute nonsense. There is a second type of mind which produces satire with the quality of greatness. That is embodied in the satirist whose passions are released and let go by some intolerable sense of wrong. He is maddened by the sense of men being maddened; his tongue becomes an unruly member, and testifies against all mankind. Such a man was Swift, in whom the saeva indignatio was a bitterness to others, because it was a bitterness to himself. Such a satirist Whistler was not. He did not laugh because he was happy, like Rabelais. But neither did he laugh because he was unhappy, like Swift.

The third type of great satire is that in which the satirist is enabled to rise superior to his victim in the only serious sense which superiority can bear, in that of pitying the sinner and respecting the man even while he satirises both. Such an achievement can be found in a thing like Pope’s “Atticus,” a poem in which the satirist feels that he is satirising the weaknesses which belong specially to literary genius. Consequently he takes a pleasure in pointing out his enemy’s strength before he points out his weakness. That is, perhaps, the highest and most honourable form of satire. That is not the satire of Whistler. He is not full of a great sorrow for the wrong done to human nature; for him the wrong is altogether done to himself.

He was not a great personality, because he thought so much about himself. And the case is stronger even than that. He was sometimes not even a great artist, because he thought so much about art. Any man with a vital knowledge of the human psychology ought to have the most profound suspicion of anybody who claims to be an artist, and talks a great deal about art. Art is a right and human thing, like walking or saying one’s prayers; but the moment it begins to be talked about very solemnly, a man may be fairly certain that the thing has come into a congestion and a kind of difficulty.

The artistic temperament is a disease that afflicts amateurs. It is a disease which arises from men not having sufficient power of expression to utter and get rid of the element of art in their being. It is healthful to every sane man to utter the art within him; it is essential to every sane man to get rid of the art within him at all costs. Artists of a large and wholesome vitality get rid of their art easily, as they breathe easily, or perspire easily. But in artists of less force, the thing becomes a pressure, and produces a definite pain, which is called the artistic temperament. Thus, very great artists are able to be ordinary men— men like Shakespeare or Browning. There are many real tragedies of the artistic temperament, tragedies of vanity or violence or fear. But the great tragedy of the artistic temperament is that it cannot produce any art.

Whistler could produce art; and in so far he was a great man. But he could not forget art; and in so far he was only a man with the artistic temperament. There can be no stronger manifestation of the man who is a really great artist than the fact that he can dismiss the subject of art; that he can, upon due occasion, wish art at the bottom of the sea. Similarly, we should always be much more inclined to trust a solicitor who did not talk about conveyancing over the nuts and wine. What we really desire of any man conducting any business is that the full force of an ordinary man should be put into that particular study. We do not desire that the full force of that study should be put into an ordinary man. We do not in the least wish that our particular law-suit should pour its energy into our barrister’s games with his children, or rides on his bicycle, or meditations on the morning star. But we do, as a matter of fact, desire that his games with his children, and his rides on his bicycle, and his meditations on the morning star should pour something of their energy into our law-suit. We do desire that if he has gained any especial lung development from the bicycle, or any bright and pleasing metaphors from the morning star, that they should be placed at our disposal in that particular forensic controversy. In a word, we are very glad that he is an ordinary man, since that may help him to be an exceptional lawyer.

“‘Ebbene, pubblico britannico, tu che non mi ami, (Iddio ti ami!) e vuoi farti la tua bella risata sull’oscura questione; ridine pure! Io riderei per primo.’

«Il signor Whistler», aggiunge il professor Raleigh, «rideva sempre per primo». La verità, io credo, è che Whistler non rise mai affatto. Non c’era riso nella sua natura; perché non c’era sconsideratezza né abbandono di , non c’era umiltà. Non riesco a capire che qualcuno legga «The Gentle Art of Making Enemies» e pensi che ci sia del riso in quell’arguzia. La sua arguzia è per lui una tortura. Egli si contorce in arabeschi di felicità verbale; è colmo di una feroce accuratezza; è ispirato dalla completa serietà di una sincera malizia. Ferisce se stesso per ferire l’avversario. Browning rideva davvero, perché a Browning non importava; a Browning non importava, perché Browning era un grande uomo. E quando Browning disse tra parentesi alla gente semplice e assennata a cui non piacevano i suoi libri: «Iddio vi ami!», non stava affatto sogghignando. Stava ridendo, vale a dire: intendeva esattamente quel che diceva.

Vi sono tre classi distinte di grandi satirici che sono anche grandi uomini, ossia tre classi di uomini capaci di ridere di qualcosa senza perdere l’anima. Il satirico del primo tipo è colui che, prima di tutto, gode di se stesso, e poi gode dei propri nemici. In questo senso egli ama il proprio nemico e, per una sorta di esagerazione del Cristianesimo, lo ama tanto più quanto più costui diventa nemico. Ha una specie di felicità travolgente e aggressiva nella sua affermazione di collera; la sua maledizione è umana quanto una benedizione. Di questo tipo di satira il grande esempio è Rabelais. È questo il primo esempio tipico di satira, la satira che è loquace, che è violenta, che è indecente, ma che non è maliziosa. La satira di Whistler non era questa. In nessuna delle sue controversie egli fu mai semplicemente felice; lo prova il fatto che non disse mai un’assoluta sciocchezza. C’è un secondo tipo di mente che produce satira con la qualità della grandezza. Esso s’incarna nel satirico le cui passioni sono liberate e sciolte da un intollerabile senso del torto. È reso folle dal senso degli uomini resi folli; la sua lingua diventa un membro indocile e testimonia contro tutto il genere umano. Tale fu Swift, in cui la saeva indignatio era un’amarezza per gli altri, perché era un’amarezza per lui stesso. Un tale satirico Whistler non fu. Non rideva perché era felice, come Rabelais. Ma neppure rideva perché era infelice, come Swift.

Il terzo tipo di grande satira è quello in cui il satirico riesce a innalzarsi al di sopra della propria vittima nell’unico senso serio che la superiorità possa avere, quello del compatire il peccatore e rispettare l’uomo pur mentre satireggia entrambi. Un simile risultato si può trovare in una cosa come l’«Atticus» di Pope, poema in cui il satirico sente di satireggiare le debolezze che appartengono in modo particolare al genio letterario. Di conseguenza egli si compiace di additare la forza del proprio nemico prima di additarne la debolezza. Questa è, forse, la forma più alta e più onorevole di satira. Non è la satira di Whistler. Egli non è colmo di un grande dolore per il torto arrecato alla natura umana; per lui il torto è arrecato tutto quanto a se stesso.

Non fu una grande personalità, perché pensava troppo a se stesso. E la questione è ancor più grave di così. A volte non fu neppure un grande artista, perché pensava troppo all’arte. Chiunque abbia una vitale conoscenza della psicologia umana dovrebbe nutrire il più profondo sospetto verso chi si proclama artista e parla moltissimo d’arte. L’arte è una cosa giusta e umana, come camminare o recitare le proprie preghiere; ma nel momento in cui se ne comincia a parlare con molta solennità, un uomo può essere abbastanza certo che la cosa è entrata in una congestione e in una sorta di difficoltà.

Il temperamento artistico è una malattia che affligge i dilettanti. È una malattia che nasce dal fatto che gli uomini non hanno sufficiente potere espressivo per esprimere e liberarsi dell’elemento d’arte che è nel loro essere. È salubre, per ogni uomo sano, esprimere l’arte che ha dentro; è essenziale, per ogni uomo sano, liberarsi a ogni costo dell’arte che ha dentro. Gli artisti dotati di una vitalità ampia e sana si liberano della propria arte con facilità, come respirano con facilità, o sudano con facilità. Ma negli artisti di minor forza la cosa diventa una pressione, e produce un ben preciso dolore, che si chiama temperamento artistico. Così, i grandissimi artisti sono capaci di essere uomini comuni, uomini come Shakespeare o Browning. Vi sono molte vere tragedie del temperamento artistico, tragedie di vanità o di violenza o di paura. Ma la grande tragedia del temperamento artistico è che esso non riesce a produrre alcuna arte.

Whistler poteva produrre arte; e in ciò era un grande uomo. Ma non poteva dimenticare l’arte; e in ciò era soltanto un uomo con il temperamento artistico. Non vi può essere manifestazione più forte dell’uomo che è un artista davvero grande del fatto che egli sa congedare l’argomento dell’arte; che sa, all’occorrenza, augurare all’arte di finire in fondo al mare. Allo stesso modo, saremmo sempre molto più inclini a fidarci di un procuratore legale che non parlasse di compravendite immobiliari davanti a noci e vino. Ciò che realmente desideriamo da chiunque conduca un qualsiasi affare è che l’intera forza di un uomo comune sia riversata in quel particolare studio. Non desideriamo che l’intera forza di quello studio sia riversata in un uomo comune. Non desideriamo minimamente che la nostra particolare causa riversi la propria energia nei giochi del nostro avvocato con i suoi figli, o nelle sue passeggiate in bicicletta, o nelle sue meditazioni sulla stella del mattino. Ma sì, in verità, desideriamo che i suoi giochi con i figli, e le sue passeggiate in bicicletta, e le sue meditazioni sulla stella del mattino riversino qualcosa della loro energia nella nostra causa. Desideriamo che, se dalla bicicletta ha tratto un qualche particolare sviluppo dei polmoni, o dalla stella del mattino qualche brillante e gradevole metafora, questi siano posti a nostra disposizione in quella particolare controversia forense. In una parola, siamo lietissimi che egli sia un uomo comune, poiché ciò può aiutarlo a essere un avvocato eccezionale.

Whistler never ceased to be an artist. As Mr. Max Beerbohm pointed out in one of his extraordinarily sensible and sincere critiques, Whistler really regarded Whistler as his greatest work of art. The white lock, the single eyeglass, the remarkable hat— these were much dearer to him than any nocturnes or arrangements that he ever threw off. He could throw off the nocturnes; for some mysterious reason he could not throw off the hat. He never threw off from himself that disproportionate accumulation of aestheticism which is the burden of the amateur.

It need hardly be said that this is the real explanation of the thing which has puzzled so many dilettante critics, the problem of the extreme ordinariness of the behaviour of so many great geniuses in history. Their behaviour was so ordinary that it was not recorded; hence it was so ordinary that it seemed mysterious. Hence people say that Bacon wrote Shakespeare. The modern artistic temperament cannot understand how a man who could write such lyrics as Shakespeare wrote, could be as keen as Shakespeare was on business transactions in a little town in Warwickshire. The explanation is simple enough; it is that Shakespeare had a real lyrical impulse, wrote a real lyric, and so got rid of the impulse and went about his business. Being an artist did not prevent him from being an ordinary man, any more than being a sleeper at night or being a diner at dinner prevented him from being an ordinary man.

All very great teachers and leaders have had this habit of assuming their point of view to be one which was human and casual, one which would readily appeal to every passing man. If a man is genuinely superior to his fellows the first thing that he believes in is the equality of man. We can see this, for instance, in that strange and innocent rationality with which Christ addressed any motley crowd that happened to stand about Him. “What man of you having a hundred sheep, and losing one, would not leave the ninety and nine in the wilderness, and go after that which was lost?” Or, again, “What man of you if his son ask for bread will he give him a stone, or if he ask for a fish will he give him a serpent?” This plainness, this almost prosaic camaraderie, is the note of all very great minds.

To very great minds the things on which men agree are so immeasurably more important than the things on which they differ, that the latter, for all practical purposes, disappear. They have too much in them of an ancient laughter even to endure to discuss the difference between the hats of two men who were both born of a woman, or between the subtly varied cultures of two men who have both to die. The first-rate great man is equal with other men, like Shakespeare. The second-rate great man is on his knees to other men, like Whitman. The third-rate great man is superior to other men, like Whistler.

Whistler non cessò mai di essere un artista. Come osservò il signor Max Beerbohm in una delle sue critiche straordinariamente assennate e sincere, Whistler considerava davvero Whistler la sua più grande opera d’arte. La ciocca bianca, il monocolo, il notevole cappello: questi gli erano assai più cari di qualsiasi notturno o arrangement che avesse mai buttato giù. I notturni poteva buttarli giù; per qualche misteriosa ragione non riusciva a buttar giù il cappello. Non buttò mai giù da sé quell’accumulo sproporzionato di estetismo che è il fardello del dilettante.

Non occorre certo dire che questa è la vera spiegazione della cosa che ha tanto sconcertato i critici dilettanti: il problema dell’estrema ordinarietà della condotta di tanti grandi geni nella storia. La loro condotta era così ordinaria che non venne registrata; sicché era così ordinaria da sembrare misteriosa. Sicché la gente dice che fu Bacone a scrivere Shakespeare. Il temperamento artistico moderno non riesce a capire come un uomo che seppe scrivere le liriche che Shakespeare scrisse potesse essere accorto quanto lo era Shakespeare in fatto di transazioni d’affari in una cittadina del Warwickshire. La spiegazione è abbastanza semplice: è che Shakespeare aveva un vero impulso lirico, scriveva una vera lirica, e così si liberava dell’impulso e attendeva ai propri affari. L’essere un artista non gli impediva di essere un uomo comune, non più di quanto l’essere un dormiente di notte o un commensale a cena gli impedisse di essere un uomo comune.

Tutti i grandissimi maestri e condottieri hanno avuto questa abitudine di presumere che il proprio punto di vista fosse uno umano e casuale, tale da fare presa facilmente su ogni uomo di passaggio. Se un uomo è genuinamente superiore ai propri simili, la prima cosa in cui crede è l’uguaglianza degli uomini. Lo possiamo vedere, per esempio, in quella strana e innocente razionalità con cui Cristo si rivolgeva a qualsiasi variopinta folla si trovasse a stargli intorno. «Chi è tra voi l’uomo che, avendo cento pecore e perdutane una, non lascerebbe le novanta- nove nel deserto per andare in cerca di quella smarrita?» Oppure, ancora: «Chi è tra voi l’uomo che, se il figlio gli chiede pane, gli darà una pietra, o se gli chiede un pesce gli darà una serpe?» Questa semplicità, questo cameratismo quasi prosaico, è la nota di tutte le grandissime menti.

Per le grandissime menti le cose su cui gli uomini concordano sono così incommensurabilmente più importanti delle cose su cui divergono, che queste ultime, a ogni fine pratico, scompaiono. Esse hanno in sé troppo di un riso antico anche solo per sopportare di discutere la differenza tra i cappelli di due uomini nati entrambi da donna, o tra le culture sottilmente diverse di due uomini che devono entrambi morire. Il grande uomo di prim’ordine è pari agli altri uomini, come Shakespeare. Il grande uomo di second’ordine è in ginocchio davanti agli altri uomini, come Whitman. Il grande uomo di terz’ordine è superiore agli altri uomini, come Whistler.

XVIII. The Fallacy of the Young Nation

To say that a man is an idealist is merely to say that he is a man; but, nevertheless, it might be possible to effect some valid distinction between one kind of idealist and another. One possible distinction, for instance, could be effected by saying that humanity is divided into conscious idealists and unconscious idealists. In a similar way, humanity is divided into conscious ritualists and unconscious ritualists. The curious thing is, in that example as in others, that it is the conscious ritualism which is comparatively simple, the unconscious ritual which is really heavy and complicated. The ritual which is comparatively rude and straightforward is the ritual which people call “ritualistic.” It consists of plain things like bread and wine and fire, and men falling on their faces. But the ritual which is really complex, and many coloured, and elaborate, and needlessly formal, is the ritual which people enact without knowing it. It consists not of plain things like wine and fire, but of really peculiar, and local, and exceptional, and ingenious things— things like door-mats, and door-knockers, and electric bells, and silk hats, and white ties, and shiny cards, and confetti. The truth is that the modern man scarcely ever gets back to very old and simple things except when he is performing some religious mummery. The modern man can hardly get away from ritual except by entering a ritualistic church. In the case of these old and mystical formalities we can at least say that the ritual is not mere ritual; that the symbols employed are in most cases symbols which belong to a primary human poetry. The most ferocious opponent of the Christian ceremonials must admit that if Catholicism had not instituted the bread and wine, somebody else would most probably have done so. Any one with a poetical instinct will admit that to the ordinary human instinct bread symbolizes something which cannot very easily be symbolized otherwise; that wine, to the ordinary human instinct, symbolizes something which cannot very easily be symbolized otherwise. But white ties in the evening are ritual, and nothing else but ritual. No one would pretend that white ties in the evening are primary and poetical. Nobody would maintain that the ordinary human instinct would in any age or country tend to symbolize the idea of evening by a white necktie. Rather, the ordinary human instinct would, I imagine, tend to symbolize evening by cravats with some of the colours of the sunset, not white neckties, but tawny or crimson neckties—neckties of purple or olive, or some darkened gold. Mr. J. A. Kensit, for example, is under the impression that he is not a ritualist. But the daily life of Mr. J. A. Kensit, like that of any ordinary modern man, is, as a matter of fact, one continual and compressed catalogue of mystical mummery and flummery. To take one instance out of an inevitable hundred: I imagine that Mr. Kensit takes off his hat to a lady; and what can be more solemn and absurd, considered in the abstract, than, symbolizing the existence of the other sex by taking off a portion of your clothing and waving it in the air? This, I repeat, is not a natural and primitive symbol, like fire or food. A man might just as well have to take off his waistcoat to a lady; and if a man, by the social ritual of his civilization, had to take off his waistcoat to a lady, every chivalrous and sensible man would take off his waistcoat to a lady. In short, Mr. Kensit, and those who agree with him, may think, and quite sincerely think, that men give too much incense and ceremonial to their adoration of the other world. But nobody thinks that he can give too much incense and ceremonial to the adoration of this world. All men, then, are ritualists, but are either conscious or unconscious ritualists. The conscious ritualists are generally satisfied with a few very simple and elementary signs; the unconscious ritualists are not satisfied with anything short of the whole of human life, being almost insanely ritualistic. The first is called a ritualist because he invents and remembers one rite; the other is called an anti-ritualist because he obeys and forgets a thousand. And a somewhat similar distinction to this which I have drawn with some unavoidable length, between the conscious ritualist and the unconscious ritualist, exists between the conscious idealist and the unconscious idealist. It is idle to inveigh against cynics and materialists—there are no cynics, there are no materialists. Every man is idealistic; only it so often happens that he has the wrong ideal. Every man is incurably sentimental; but, unfortunately, it is so often a false sentiment. When we talk, for instance, of some unscrupulous commercial figure, and say that he would do anything for money, we use quite an inaccurate expression, and we slander him very much. He would not do anything for money. He would do some things for money; he would sell his soul for money, for instance; and, as Mirabeau humorously said, he would be quite wise “to take money for muck.” He would oppress humanity for money; but then it happens that humanity and the soul are not things that he believes in; they are not his ideals. But he has his own dim and delicate ideals; and he would not violate these for money. He would not drink out of the soup-tureen, for money. He would not wear his coat-tails in front, for money. He would not spread a report that he had softening of the brain, for money. In the actual practice of life we find, in the matter of ideals, exactly what we have already found in the matter of ritual. We find that while there is a perfectly genuine danger of fanaticism from the men who have unworldly ideals, the permanent and urgent danger of fanaticism is from the men who have worldly ideals.

People who say that an ideal is a dangerous thing, that it deludes and intoxicates, are perfectly right. But the ideal which intoxicates most is the least idealistic kind of ideal. The ideal which intoxicates least is the very ideal ideal; that sobers us suddenly, as all heights and precipices and great distances do. Granted that it is a great evil to mistake a cloud for a cape; still, the cloud, which can be most easily mistaken for a cape, is the cloud that is nearest the earth. Similarly, we may grant that it may be dangerous to mistake an ideal for something practical. But we shall still point out that, in this respect, the most dangerous ideal of all is the ideal which looks a little practical. It is difficult to attain a high ideal; consequently, it is almost impossible to persuade ourselves that we have attained it. But it is easy to attain a low ideal; consequently, it is easier still to persuade ourselves that we have attained it when we have done nothing of the kind. To take a random example. It might be called a high ambition to wish to be an archangel; the man who entertained such an ideal would very possibly exhibit asceticism, or even frenzy, but not, I think, delusion. He would not think he was an archangel, and go about flapping his hands under the impression that they were wings. But suppose that a sane man had a low ideal; suppose he wished to be a gentleman. Any one who knows the world knows that in nine weeks he would have persuaded himself that he was a gentleman; and this being manifestly not the case, the result will be very real and practical dislocations and calamities in social life. It is not the wild ideals which wreck the practical world; it is the tame ideals.

XVIII. La fallacia della nazione giovane

Dire che un uomo è un idealista equivale semplicemente a dire che è un uomo; e tuttavia potrebbe essere possibile tracciare qualche distinzione valida tra un genere di idealista e un altro. Una distinzione possibile, per esempio, si potrebbe operare dicendo che l’umanità si divide in idealisti consapevoli e idealisti inconsapevoli. Allo stesso modo, l’umanità si divide in ritualisti consapevoli e ritualisti inconsapevoli. La cosa curiosa è, in quell’esempio come in altri, che è il ritualismo consapevole a essere relativamente semplice, mentre il rito inconsapevole è quello davvero pesante e complicato. Il rito relativamente rozzo e schietto è quello che la gente chiama «ritualistico». Consiste di cose semplici come il pane e il vino e il fuoco, e uomini che si prostrano con la faccia a terra. Ma il rito che è davvero complesso, e variopinto, ed elaborato, e inutilmente formale, è quello che la gente mette in scena senza saperlo. Non consiste di cose semplici come il vino e il fuoco, ma di cose davvero peculiari, e locali, ed eccezionali, e ingegnose: cose come gli zerbini, e i battenti delle porte, e i campanelli elettrici, e i cilindri di seta, e le cravatte bianche, e i biglietti lucidi, e i coriandoli. La verità è che l’uomo moderno non torna quasi mai a cose molto antiche e semplici se non quando sta compiendo qualche pantomima religiosa. L’uomo moderno riesce a stento a sfuggire al rito, se non entrando in una chiesa ritualistica. Nel caso di queste antiche e mistiche formalità possiamo almeno dire che il rito non è mero rito; che i simboli impiegati sono, nella maggior parte dei casi, simboli che appartengono a una poesia umana primaria. Il più feroce avversario delle cerimonie cristiane deve ammettere che, se il cattolicesimo non avesse istituito il pane e il vino, con ogni probabilità l’avrebbe fatto qualcun altro. Chiunque abbia un istinto poetico ammetterà che, per l’istinto umano ordinario, il pane simboleggia qualcosa che non può molto facilmente essere simboleggiato altrimenti; che il vino, per l’istinto umano ordinario, simboleggia qualcosa che non può molto facilmente essere simboleggiato altrimenti. Ma le cravatte bianche della sera sono rito, e niente altro che rito. Nessuno pretenderebbe che le cravatte bianche della sera siano primarie e poetiche. Nessuno sosterrebbe che l’istinto umano ordinario tenderebbe, in una qualsiasi epoca o paese, a simboleggiare l’idea della sera con una cravatta bianca. Piuttosto, l’istinto umano ordinario tenderebbe, immagino, a simboleggiare la sera con cravatte recanti alcuni dei colori del tramonto, non cravatte bianche, ma cravatte fulve o cremisi: cravatte di porpora o d’oliva, o di qualche oro incupito. Il signor J. A. Kensit, per esempio, è convinto di non essere un ritualista. Ma la vita quotidiana del signor J. A. Kensit, come quella di qualsiasi comune uomo moderno, è, in realtà, un continuo e compresso catalogo di pantomima e ciarpame mistici. Per prendere un caso su un inevitabile centinaio: immagino che il signor Kensit si tolga il cappello davanti a una signora; e che cosa può esservi di più solenne e assurdo, considerato in astratto, che simboleggiare l’esistenza dell’altro sesso togliendosi una parte del vestiario e agitandola nell’aria? Questo, lo ripeto, non è un simbolo naturale e primitivo, come il fuoco o il cibo. Un uomo potrebbe altrettanto bene doversi togliere il panciotto davanti a una signora; e se un uomo, per il rito sociale della sua civiltà, dovesse togliersi il panciotto davanti a una signora, ogni uomo cavalleresco e assennato si toglierebbe il panciotto davanti a una signora. Insomma, il signor Kensit, e coloro che concordano con lui, possono pensare, e pensarlo assai sinceramente, che gli uomini tributino troppo incenso e troppa cerimonia alla loro adorazione dell’altro mondo. Ma nessuno pensa di poter tributare troppo incenso e troppa cerimonia all’adorazione di questo mondo. Tutti gli uomini, dunque, sono ritualisti, ma sono ritualisti o consapevoli o inconsapevoli. I ritualisti consapevoli sono generalmente paghi di pochi segni molto semplici ed elementari; i ritualisti inconsapevoli non si accontentano di niente meno che dell’intera vita umana, essendo ritualisti fino quasi alla follia. Il primo è chiamato ritualista perché inventa e ricorda un solo rito; l’altro è chiamato antiritualista perché ne obbedisce e ne dimentica mille. E una distinzione in qualche modo simile a questa che ho tracciato con una lunghezza inevitabile, tra il ritualista consapevole e il ritualista inconsapevole, esiste tra l’idealista consapevole e l’idealista inconsapevole. È vano inveire contro i cinici e i materialisti: non ci sono cinici, non ci sono materialisti. Ogni uomo è idealista; solo che accade così spesso che egli abbia l’ideale sbagliato. Ogni uomo è inguaribilmente sentimentale; ma, purtroppo, si tratta così spesso di un sentimento falso. Quando parliamo, per esempio, di qualche losca figura del commercio, e diciamo che farebbe qualsiasi cosa per denaro, usiamo un’espressione del tutto inesatta, e lo calunniamo molto. Non farebbe qualsiasi cosa per denaro. Farebbe alcune cose per denaro; venderebbe la sua anima per denaro, per esempio; e, come disse spiritosamente Mirabeau, farebbe benissimo «a prendere denaro in cambio di letame». Opprimerebbe l’umanità per denaro; ma accade che l’umanità e l’anima non siano cose in cui egli crede; non sono i suoi ideali. Ma egli ha i suoi ideali oscuri e delicati; e questi non li violerebbe per denaro. Non berrebbe dalla zuppiera, per denaro. Non porterebbe le falde della giacca sul davanti, per denaro. Non metterebbe in giro la voce di avere un rammollimento cerebrale, per denaro. Nella pratica effettiva della vita troviamo, in materia di ideali, esattamente ciò che abbiamo già trovato in materia di rito. Troviamo che, mentre esiste un pericolo perfettamente reale di fanatismo da parte degli uomini che hanno ideali ultraterreni, il pericolo permanente e incalzante di fanatismo viene dagli uomini che hanno ideali mondani.

Coloro che dicono che un ideale è una cosa pericolosa, che illude e inebria, hanno perfettamente ragione. Ma l’ideale che più inebria è il genere di ideale meno idealistico. L’ideale che meno inebria è l’ideale davvero ideale; quello ci disincanta d’un tratto, come fanno tutte le altezze e i precipizi e le grandi distanze. Ammesso che sia un grande male scambiare una nuvola per un promontorio, tuttavia la nuvola che più facilmente può essere scambiata per un promontorio è quella che sta più vicina alla terra. Similmente, possiamo ammettere che possa essere pericoloso scambiare un ideale per qualcosa di pratico. Ma continueremo a far osservare che, sotto questo riguardo, l’ideale più pericoloso di tutti è quello che ha un’aria un po’ pratica. È difficile raggiungere un alto ideale; di conseguenza, è quasi impossibile persuaderci di averlo raggiunto. Ma è facile raggiungere un basso ideale; di conseguenza, è ancora più facile persuaderci di averlo raggiunto quando non abbiamo fatto nulla del genere. Per prendere un esempio a caso. Si potrebbe dire alta ambizione quella di desiderare di essere un arcangelo; l’uomo che nutrisse un simile ideale mostrerebbe con ogni probabilità ascetismo, o persino frenesia, ma non, credo, delirio. Non penserebbe di essere un arcangelo, e non se ne andrebbe in giro sbattendo le mani nella convinzione che siano ali. Ma supponiamo che un uomo sano di mente avesse un basso ideale; supponiamo che desiderasse essere un gentiluomo. Chiunque conosca il mondo sa che in nove settimane si sarebbe persuaso di essere un gentiluomo; e non essendolo manifestamente, il risultato saranno dislocazioni e calamità assai reali e concrete nella vita sociale. Non sono gli ideali sfrenati a mandare in rovina il mondo pratico; sono gli ideali mansueti.

The matter may, perhaps, be illustrated by a parallel from our modern politics. When men tell us that the old Liberal politicians of the type of Gladstone cared only for ideals, of course, they are talking nonsense—they cared for a great many other things, including votes. And when men tell us that modern politicians of the type of Mr. Chamberlain or, in another way, Lord Rosebery, care only for votes or for material interest, then again they are talking nonsense—these men care for ideals like all other men. But the real distinction which may be drawn is this, that to the older politician the ideal was an ideal, and nothing else. To the new politician his dream is not only a good dream, it is a reality. The old politician would have said, “It would be a good thing if there were a Republican Federation dominating the world.” But the modern politician does not say, “It would be a good thing if there were a British Imperialism dominating the world.” He says, “It is a good thing that there is a British Imperialism dominating the world;” whereas clearly there is nothing of the kind. The old Liberal would say “There ought to be a good Irish government in Ireland.” But the ordinary modern Unionist does not say, “There ought to be a good English government in Ireland.” He says, “There is a good English government in Ireland;” which is absurd. In short, the modern politicians seem to think that a man becomes practical merely by making assertions entirely about practical things. Apparently, a delusion does not matter as long as it is a materialistic delusion. Instinctively most of us feel that, as a practical matter, even the contrary is true. I certainly would much rather share my apartments with a gentleman who thought he was God than with a gentleman who thought he was a grasshopper. To be continually haunted by practical images and practical problems, to be constantly thinking of things as actual, as urgent, as in process of completion—these things do not prove a man to be practical; these things, indeed, are among the most ordinary signs of a lunatic. That our modern statesmen are materialistic is nothing against their being also morbid. Seeing angels in a vision may make a man a supernaturalist to excess. But merely seeing snakes in delirium tremens does not make him a naturalist.

And when we come actually to examine the main stock notions of our modern practical politicians, we find that those main stock notions are mainly delusions. A great many instances might be given of the fact. We might take, for example, the case of that strange class of notions which underlie the word “union,” and all the eulogies heaped upon it. Of course, union is no more a good thing in itself than separation is a good thing in itself. To have a party in favour of union and a party in favour of separation is as absurd as to have a party in favour of going upstairs and a party in favour of going downstairs. The question is not whether we go up or down stairs, but where we are going to, and what we are going for? Union is strength; union is also weakness. It is a good thing to harness two horses to a cart; but it is not a good thing to try and turn two hansom cabs into one four-wheeler. Turning ten nations into one empire may happen to be as feasible as turning ten shillings into one half-sovereign. Also it may happen to be as preposterous as turning ten terriers into one mastiff. The question in all cases is not a question of union or absence of union, but of identity or absence of identity. Owing to certain historical and moral causes, two nations may be so united as upon the whole to help each other. Thus England and Scotland pass their time in paying each other compliments; but their energies and atmospheres run distinct and parallel, and consequently do not clash. Scotland continues to be educated and Calvinistic; England continues to be uneducated and happy. But owing to certain other Moral and certain other political causes, two nations may be so united as only to hamper each other; their lines do clash and do not run parallel. Thus, for instance, England and Ireland are so united that the Irish can sometimes rule England, but can never rule Ireland. The educational systems, including the last Education Act, are here, as in the case of Scotland, a very good test of the matter. The overwhelming majority of Irishmen believe in a strict Catholicism; the overwhelming majority of Englishmen believe in a vague Protestantism. The Irish party in the Parliament of Union is just large enough to prevent the English education being indefinitely Protestant, and just small enough to prevent the Irish education being definitely Catholic. Here we have a state of things which no man in his senses would ever dream of wishing to continue if he had not been bewitched by the sentimentalism of the mere word “union.”

This example of union, however, is not the example which I propose to take of the ingrained futility and deception underlying all the assumptions of the modern practical politician. I wish to speak especially of another and much more general delusion. It pervades the minds and speeches of all the practical men of all parties; and it is a childish blunder built upon a single false metaphor. I refer to the universal modern talk about young nations and new nations; about America being young, about New Zealand being new. The whole thing is a trick of words. America is not young, New Zealand is not new. It is a very discussable question whether they are not both much older than England or Ireland.

Of course we may use the metaphor of youth about America or the colonies, if we use it strictly as implying only a recent origin. But if we use it (as we do use it) as implying vigour, or vivacity, or crudity, or inexperience, or hope, or a long life before them or any of the romantic attributes of youth, then it is surely as clear as daylight that we are duped by a stale figure of speech. We can easily see the matter clearly by applying it to any other institution parallel to the institution of an independent nationality. If a club called “The Milk and Soda League” (let us say) was set up yesterday, as I have no doubt it was, then, of course, “The Milk and Soda League” is a young club in the sense that it was set up yesterday, but in no other sense. It may consist entirely of moribund old gentlemen. It may be moribund itself. We may call it a young club, in the light of the fact that it was founded yesterday. We may also call it a very old club in the light of the fact that it will most probably go bankrupt to-morrow. All this appears very obvious when we put it in this form. Any one who adopted the young-community delusion with regard to a bank or a butcher’s shop would be sent to an asylum. But the whole modern political notion that America and the colonies must be very vigorous because they are very new, rests upon no better foundation. That America was founded long after England does not make it even in the faintest degree more probable that America will not perish a long time before England. That England existed before her colonies does not make it any the less likely that she will exist after her colonies. And when we look at the actual history of the world, we find that great European nations almost invariably have survived the vitality of their colonies. When we look at the actual history of the world, we find, that if there is a thing that is born old and dies young, it is a colony. The Greek colonies went to pieces long before the Greek civilization. The Spanish colonies have gone to pieces long before the nation of Spain— nor does there seem to be any reason to doubt the possibility or even the probability of the conclusion that the colonial civilization, which owes its origin to England, will be much briefer and much less vigorous than the civilization of England itself. The English nation will still be going the way of all European nations when the Anglo-Saxon race has gone the way of all fads. Now, of course, the interesting question is, have we, in the case of America and the colonies, any real evidence of a moral and intellectual youth as opposed to the indisputable triviality of a merely chronological youth? Consciously or unconsciously, we know that we have no such evidence, and consciously or unconsciously, therefore, we proceed to make it up. Of this pure and placid invention, a good example, for instance, can be found in a recent poem of Mr. Rudyard Kipling’s. Speaking of the English people and the South African War Mr. Kipling says that “we fawned on the younger nations for the men that could shoot and ride.” Some people considered this sentence insulting. All that I am concerned with at present is the evident fact that it is not true. The colonies provided very useful volunteer troops, but they did not provide the best troops, nor achieve the most successful exploits. The best work in the war on the English side was done, as might have been expected, by the best English regiments. The men who could shoot and ride were not the enthusiastic corn merchants from Melbourne, any more than they were the enthusiastic clerks from Cheapside. The men who could shoot and ride were the men who had been taught to shoot and ride in the discipline of the standing army of a great European power. Of course, the colonials are as brave and athletic as any other average white men. Of course, they acquitted themselves with reasonable credit. All I have here to indicate is that, for the purposes of this theory of the new nation, it is necessary to maintain that the colonial forces were more useful or more heroic than the gunners at Colenso or the Fighting Fifth. And of this contention there is not, and never has been, one stick or straw of evidence.

La questione può, forse, essere illustrata da un parallelo tratto dalla nostra politica moderna. Quando ci si dice che i vecchi politici liberali del tipo di Gladstone si curavano solo di ideali, si dicono naturalmente sciocchezze: si curavano di moltissime altre cose, i voti compresi. E quando ci si dice che i politici moderni del tipo del signor Chamberlain o, in altro modo, di Lord Rosebery, si curano soltanto dei voti o dell’interesse materiale, si dicono di nuovo sciocchezze: questi uomini si curano di ideali come tutti gli altri uomini. Ma la vera distinzione che si può tracciare è questa, che per il politico più anziano l’ideale era un ideale, e nient’altro. Per il nuovo politico il suo sogno non è soltanto un buon sogno, è una realtà. Il vecchio politico avrebbe detto: «Sarebbe una buona cosa se ci fosse una Federazione Repubblicana a dominare il mondo». Ma il politico moderno non dice: «Sarebbe una buona cosa se ci fosse un Imperialismo Britannico a dominare il mondo». Dice: «È una buona cosa che ci sia un Imperialismo Britannico a dominare il mondo»; mentre chiaramente non c’è nulla del genere. Il vecchio liberale avrebbe detto: «Ci dovrebbe essere un buon governo irlandese in Irlanda». Ma il comune unionista moderno non dice: «Ci dovrebbe essere un buon governo inglese in Irlanda». Dice: «C’è un buon governo inglese in Irlanda»; il che è assurdo. Insomma, i politici moderni sembrano credere che un uomo diventi pratico semplicemente facendo affermazioni interamente su cose pratiche. A quanto pare, un delirio non conta nulla purché sia un delirio materialistico. D’istinto la maggior parte di noi sente che, sul piano pratico, è vero perfino il contrario. Certo, preferirei di gran lunga dividere il mio appartamento con un gentiluomo che credesse di essere Dio piuttosto che con un gentiluomo che credesse di essere una cavalletta. Essere continuamente ossessionato da immagini pratiche e problemi pratici, pensare costantemente alle cose come attuali, come urgenti, come in procinto di compiersi: queste cose non provano che un uomo sia pratico; queste cose, anzi, sono tra i più comuni segni del pazzo. Che i nostri statisti moderni siano materialisti non toglie nulla al fatto che siano anche morbosi. Vedere angeli in una visione può rendere un uomo un sovrannaturalista fino all’eccesso. Ma il semplice vedere serpenti nel delirium tremens non fa di lui un naturalista.

E quando veniamo a esaminare davvero le principali idee di scorta dei nostri moderni politici pratici, troviamo che quelle principali idee di scorta sono principalmente deliri. Se ne potrebbero addurre moltissimi esempi. Potremmo prendere, per esempio, il caso di quella strana categoria di nozioni che stanno sotto la parola «unione», e a tutti gli elogi ammucchiati su di essa. Naturalmente, l’unione non è una cosa buona in sé più di quanto lo sia la separazione. Avere un partito a favore dell’unione e un partito a favore della separazione è assurdo quanto avere un partito a favore del salire le scale e un partito a favore dello scenderle. La questione non è se saliamo o scendiamo le scale, ma dove stiamo andando, e per che cosa ci andiamo. L’unione è forza; l’unione è anche debolezza. È una buona cosa aggiogare due cavalli a un carro; ma non è una buona cosa cercare di trasformare due calessi in una carrozza a quattro ruote. Trasformare dieci nazioni in un impero può darsi che sia fattibile quanto trasformare dieci scellini in mezza sovrana. Ma può anche darsi che sia assurdo quanto trasformare dieci terrier in un mastino. La questione, in tutti i casi, non è questione di unione o di assenza di unione, ma di identità o di assenza di identità. A causa di certe cause storiche e morali, due nazioni possono essere talmente unite da aiutarsi, nel complesso, a vicenda. Così l’Inghilterra e la Scozia trascorrono il loro tempo a scambiarsi complimenti; ma le loro energie e le loro atmosfere corrono distinte e parallele, e di conseguenza non collidono. La Scozia continua a essere istruita e calvinista; l’Inghilterra continua a essere ignorante e felice. Ma a causa di certe altre cause morali e di certe altre cause politiche, due nazioni possono essere talmente unite da non fare che ostacolarsi a vicenda; le loro linee collidono e non corrono parallele. Così, per esempio, l’Inghilterra e l’Irlanda sono talmente unite che gli irlandesi possono talvolta governare l’Inghilterra, ma non possono mai governare l’Irlanda. I sistemi educativi, compreso l’ultimo Atto sull’istruzione, sono qui, come nel caso della Scozia, un ottimo banco di prova della cosa. La schiacciante maggioranza degli irlandesi crede in un cattolicesimo rigoroso; la schiacciante maggioranza degli inglesi crede in un vago protestantesimo. Il partito irlandese nel Parlamento dell’Unione è giusto abbastanza grande da impedire che l’istruzione inglese sia indefinitamente protestante, e giusto abbastanza piccolo da impedire che l’istruzione irlandese sia definitamente cattolica. Abbiamo qui uno stato di cose che nessun uomo sano di mente sognerebbe mai di voler continuare, se non fosse stato stregato dal sentimentalismo della semplice parola «unione».

Questo esempio dell’unione, tuttavia, non è l’esempio che mi propongo di prendere della futilità radicata e dell’inganno che stanno sotto tutte le premesse del moderno politico pratico. Desidero parlare in particolare di un altro e ben più generale delirio. Esso pervade le menti e i discorsi di tutti gli uomini pratici di tutti i partiti; ed è uno svarione puerile costruito su un’unica falsa metafora. Mi riferisco al parlare, universale e moderno, di nazioni giovani e di nazioni nuove; del fatto che l’America sia giovane, che la Nuova Zelanda sia nuova. L’intera faccenda è un gioco di parole. L’America non è giovane, la Nuova Zelanda non è nuova. È una questione assai discutibile se entrambe non siano molto più vecchie dell’Inghilterra o dell’Irlanda.

Naturalmente possiamo usare la metafora della giovinezza a proposito dell’America o delle colonie, se la usiamo rigorosamente per implicare soltanto un’origine recente. Ma se la usiamo (come di fatto la usiamo) per implicare vigore, o vivacità, o crudezza, o inesperienza, o speranza, o una lunga vita davanti a sé, o uno qualsiasi degli attributi romantici della giovinezza, allora è certo chiaro come la luce del giorno che siamo gabbati da una trita figura retorica. Possiamo vedere la cosa con chiarezza applicandola a una qualsiasi altra istituzione parallela all’istituzione di una nazionalità indipendente. Se un club chiamato «La Lega del Latte e Soda» (poniamo) fosse stato fondato ieri, come non ho alcun dubbio che sia stato, allora, naturalmente, «La Lega del Latte e Soda» è un club giovane nel senso che è stato fondato ieri, ma in nessun altro senso. Può essere composto interamente di vecchi signori moribondi. Può essere esso stesso moribondo. Possiamo chiamarlo un club giovane, alla luce del fatto che è stato fondato ieri. Possiamo anche chiamarlo un club vecchissimo, alla luce del fatto che con ogni probabilità andrà in bancarotta domani. Tutto ciò appare assai ovvio quando lo poniamo in questa forma. Chiunque adottasse il delirio della comunità-giovane a proposito di una banca o di una macelleria verrebbe spedito in manicomio. Ma l’intera moderna nozione politica che l’America e le colonie debbano essere molto vigorose perché sono molto nuove non poggia su fondamento migliore. Che l’America sia stata fondata molto dopo l’Inghilterra non rende neppure minimamente più probabile che l’America non perisca molto tempo prima dell’Inghilterra. Che l’Inghilterra sia esistita prima delle sue colonie non rende meno probabile che essa esisterà dopo le sue colonie. E quando guardiamo alla storia effettiva del mondo, troviamo che le grandi nazioni europee hanno quasi invariabilmente sopravvissuto alla vitalità delle loro colonie. Quando guardiamo alla storia effettiva del mondo, troviamo che, se c’è una cosa che nasce vecchia e muore giovane, è una colonia. Le colonie greche andarono in pezzi molto prima della civiltà greca. Le colonie spagnole sono andate in pezzi molto prima della nazione di Spagna; né sembra esservi alcuna ragione di dubitare della possibilità o persino della probabilità della conclusione che la civiltà coloniale, che deve la propria origine all’Inghilterra, sarà assai più breve e assai meno vigorosa della civiltà dell’Inghilterra stessa. La nazione inglese starà ancora percorrendo la via di tutte le nazioni europee quando la razza anglosassone avrà percorso la via di tutte le mode. Ora, naturalmente, la domanda interessante è: abbiamo, nel caso dell’America e delle colonie, una qualche prova reale di una giovinezza morale e intellettuale, in opposizione all’indiscutibile trivialità di una giovinezza meramente cronologica? Consapevolmente o inconsapevolmente, sappiamo di non avere una tale prova, e consapevolmente o inconsapevolmente, perciò, procediamo a inventarla. Di questa pura e placida invenzione, un buon esempio, per esempio, si può trovare in una recente poesia del signor Rudyard Kipling. Parlando del popolo inglese e della guerra sudafricana, il signor Kipling dice che «adulammo le nazioni più giovani per gli uomini che sapevano sparare e cavalcare». Alcuni ritennero questa frase offensiva. Tutto ciò di cui mi occupo al momento è il fatto evidente che essa non è vera. Le colonie fornirono truppe volontarie assai utili, ma non fornirono le truppe migliori, né compirono le imprese di maggior successo. Il miglior lavoro nella guerra, dal lato inglese, fu compiuto, come c’era da aspettarsi, dai migliori reggimenti inglesi. Gli uomini che sapevano sparare e cavalcare non erano gli entusiasti mercanti di grano di Melbourne, non più di quanto fossero gli entusiasti impiegati di Cheapside. Gli uomini che sapevano sparare e cavalcare erano gli uomini a cui era stato insegnato a sparare e cavalcare nella disciplina dell’esercito permanente di una grande potenza europea. Naturalmente, i coloniali sono coraggiosi e atletici quanto qualsiasi altro uomo bianco medio. Naturalmente, si comportarono con ragionevole onore. Tutto ciò che qui debbo indicare è che, ai fini di questa teoria della nazione nuova, è necessario sostenere che le forze coloniali fossero più utili o più eroiche degli artiglieri di Colenso o del Combattivo Quinto. E di questa tesi non c’è, e non c’è mai stato, un solo fuscello o filo di paglia di prova.

A similar attempt is made, and with even less success, to represent the literature of the colonies as something fresh and vigorous and important. The imperialist magazines are constantly springing upon us some genius from Queensland or Canada, through whom we are expected to smell the odours of the bush or the prairie. As a matter of fact, any one who is even slightly interested in literature as such (and I, for one, confess that I am only slightly interested in literature as such), will freely admit that the stories of these geniuses smell of nothing but printer’s ink, and that not of first-rate quality. By a great effort of Imperial imagination the generous English people reads into these works a force and a novelty. But the force and the novelty are not in the new writers; the force and the novelty are in the ancient heart of the English. Anybody who studies them impartially will know that the first-rate writers of the colonies are not even particularly novel in their note and atmosphere, are not only not producing a new kind of good literature, but are not even in any particular sense producing a new kind of bad literature. The first-rate writers of the new countries are really almost exactly like the second-rate writers of the old countries. Of course they do feel the mystery of the wilderness, the mystery of the bush, for all simple and honest men feel this in Melbourne, or Margate, or South St. Pancras. But when they write most sincerely and most successfully, it is not with a background of the mystery of the bush, but with a background, expressed or assumed, of our own romantic cockney civilization. What really moves their souls with a kindly terror is not the mystery of the wilderness, but the Mystery of a Hansom Cab.

Of course there are some exceptions to this generalization. The one really arresting exception is Olive Schreiner, and she is quite as certainly an exception that proves the rule. Olive Schreiner is a fierce, brilliant, and realistic novelist; but she is all this precisely because she is not English at all. Her tribal kinship is with the country of Teniers and Maarten Maartens—that is, with a country of realists. Her literary kinship is with the pessimistic fiction of the continent; with the novelists whose very pity is cruel. Olive Schreiner is the one English colonial who is not conventional, for the simple reason that South Africa is the one English colony which is not English, and probably never will be. And, of course, there are individual exceptions in a minor way. I remember in particular some Australian tales by Mr. McIlwain which were really able and effective, and which, for that reason, I suppose, are not presented to the public with blasts of a trumpet. But my general contention if put before any one with a love of letters, will not be disputed if it is understood. It is not the truth that the colonial civilization as a whole is giving us, or shows any signs of giving us, a literature which will startle and renovate our own. It may be a very good thing for us to have an affectionate illusion in the matter; that is quite another affair. The colonies may have given England a new emotion; I only say that they have not given the world a new book.

Touching these English colonies, I do not wish to be misunderstood. I do not say of them or of America that they have not a future, or that they will not be great nations. I merely deny the whole established modern expression about them. I deny that they are “destined” to a future. I deny that they are “destined” to be great nations. I deny (of course) that any human thing is destined to be anything. All the absurd physical metaphors, such as youth and age, living and dying, are, when applied to nations, but pseudo-scientific attempts to conceal from men the awful liberty of their lonely souls.

In the case of America, indeed, a warning to this effect is instant and essential. America, of course, like every other human thing, can in spiritual sense live or die as much as it chooses. But at the present moment the matter which America has very seriously to consider is not how near it is to its birth and beginning, but how near it may be to its end. It is only a verbal question whether the American civilization is young; it may become a very practical and urgent question whether it is dying. When once we have cast aside, as we inevitably have after a moment’s thought, the fanciful physical metaphor involved in the word “youth,” what serious evidence have we that America is a fresh force and not a stale one? It has a great many people, like China; it has a great deal of money, like defeated Carthage or dying Venice. It is full of bustle and excitability, like Athens after its ruin, and all the Greek cities in their decline. It is fond of new things; but the old are always fond of new things. Young men read chronicles, but old men read newspapers. It admires strength and good looks; it admires a big and barbaric beauty in its women, for instance; but so did Rome when the Goth was at the gates. All these are things quite compatible with fundamental tedium and decay. There are three main shapes or symbols in which a nation can show itself essentially glad and great—by the heroic in government, by the heroic in arms, and by the heroic in art. Beyond government, which is, as it were, the very shape and body of a nation, the most significant thing about any citizen is his artistic attitude towards a holiday and his moral attitude towards a fight—that is, his way of accepting life and his way of accepting death.

Subjected to these eternal tests, America does not appear by any means as particularly fresh or untouched. She appears with all the weakness and weariness of modern England or of any other Western power. In her politics she has broken up exactly as England has broken up, into a bewildering opportunism and insincerity. In the matter of war and the national attitude towards war, her resemblance to England is even more manifest and melancholy. It may be said with rough accuracy that there are three stages in the life of a strong people. First, it is a small power, and fights small powers. Then it is a great power, and fights great powers. Then it is a great power, and fights small powers, but pretends that they are great powers, in order to rekindle the ashes of its ancient emotion and vanity. After that, the next step is to become a small power itself. England exhibited this symptom of decadence very badly in the war with the Transvaal; but America exhibited it worse in the war with Spain. There was exhibited more sharply and absurdly than anywhere else the ironic contrast between the very careless choice of a strong line and the very careful choice of a weak enemy. America added to all her other late Roman or Byzantine elements the element of the Caracallan triumph, the triumph over nobody.

But when we come to the last test of nationality, the test of art and letters, the case is almost terrible. The English colonies have produced no great artists; and that fact may prove that they are still full of silent possibilities and reserve force. But America has produced great artists. And that fact most certainly proves that she is full of a fine futility and the end of all things. Whatever the American men of genius are, they are not young gods making a young world. Is the art of Whistler a brave, barbaric art, happy and headlong? Does Mr. Henry James infect us with the spirit of a schoolboy? No; the colonies have not spoken, and they are safe. Their silence may be the silence of the unborn. But out of America has come a sweet and startling cry, as unmistakable as the cry of a dying man.

Un tentativo simile viene fatto, e con successo ancora minore, per rappresentare la letteratura delle colonie come qualcosa di fresco e vigoroso e importante. Le riviste imperialiste ci scagliano continuamente addosso qualche genio del Queensland o del Canada, attraverso il quale ci si aspetta che fiutiamo gli odori della boscaglia o della prateria. In realtà, chiunque sia anche solo lievemente interessato alla letteratura in quanto tale (e io, per parte mia, confesso di essere solo lievemente interessato alla letteratura in quanto tale) ammetterà senza difficoltà che i racconti di questi geni non odorano d’altro che d’inchiostro da stampa, e nemmeno di prima qualità. Con un grande sforzo di immaginazione imperiale, il generoso popolo inglese legge in queste opere una forza e una novità. Ma la forza e la novità non sono nei nuovi scrittori; la forza e la novità sono nell’antico cuore degli inglesi. Chiunque li studi con imparzialità saprà che gli scrittori di prim’ordine delle colonie non sono neppure particolarmente nuovi nella loro nota e nella loro atmosfera, non solo non producono un nuovo genere di buona letteratura, ma non producono neppure, in alcun senso particolare, un nuovo genere di cattiva letteratura. Gli scrittori di prim’ordine dei paesi nuovi sono in realtà quasi esattamente come gli scrittori di second’ordine dei paesi vecchi. Naturalmente sentono davvero il mistero della landa selvaggia, il mistero della boscaglia, poiché tutti gli uomini semplici e onesti lo sentono, a Melbourne, o a Margate, o a South St. Pancras. Ma quando scrivono nel modo più sincero e più efficace, non è con uno sfondo del mistero della boscaglia, ma con uno sfondo, espresso o sottinteso, della nostra romantica civiltà da cockney londinese. Ciò che davvero commuove le loro anime con un affettuoso terrore non è il mistero della landa selvaggia, ma il Mistero di una Carrozza da Nolo.

Naturalmente vi sono alcune eccezioni a questa generalizzazione. L’unica eccezione davvero notevole è Olive Schreiner, ed ella è, altrettanto certamente, un’eccezione che conferma la regola. Olive Schreiner è una romanziera fiera, brillante e realista; ma è tutto questo precisamente perché non è affatto inglese. La sua affinità tribale è con il paese di Teniers e di Maarten Maartens, cioè con un paese di realisti. La sua affinità letteraria è con la narrativa pessimista del continente; con i romanzieri la cui stessa pietà è crudele. Olive Schreiner è l’unica coloniale inglese che non sia convenzionale, per la semplice ragione che il Sudafrica è l’unica colonia inglese che non è inglese, e probabilmente non lo sarà mai. E, naturalmente, vi sono eccezioni individuali in tono minore. Ricordo in particolare alcuni racconti australiani del signor McIlwain che erano davvero validi ed efficaci, e che, per questa ragione, suppongo, non vengono presentati al pubblico con squilli di tromba. Ma la mia tesi generale, posta davanti a chiunque abbia amore per le lettere, non sarà contestata, se viene compresa. Non è vero che la civiltà coloniale nel suo complesso ci stia dando, o dia alcun segno di volerci dare, una letteratura che sconvolgerà e rinnoverà la nostra. Può essere per noi una cosa assai buona coltivare un’affettuosa illusione in proposito; ma questo è tutt’altra faccenda. Le colonie possono aver dato all’Inghilterra una nuova emozione; io dico soltanto che non hanno dato al mondo un nuovo libro.

A proposito di queste colonie inglesi, non desidero essere frainteso. Non dico di esse né dell’America che non abbiano un futuro, o che non diventeranno grandi nazioni. Nego semplicemente l’intera consacrata espressione moderna che le riguarda. Nego che siano «destinate» a un futuro. Nego che siano «destinate» a essere grandi nazioni. Nego (naturalmente) che una qualsiasi cosa umana sia destinata a essere alcunché. Tutte le assurde metafore fisiche, come giovinezza e vecchiaia, vivere e morire, non sono, quando applicate alle nazioni, che pseudoscientifici tentativi di celare agli uomini la terribile libertà delle loro anime solitarie.

Nel caso dell’America, invero, un avvertimento in tal senso è immediato ed essenziale. L’America, naturalmente, come ogni altra cosa umana, può in senso spirituale vivere o morire quanto sceglie. Ma al momento presente la questione che l’America deve molto seriamente considerare non è quanto sia vicina alla sua nascita e al suo principio, ma quanto possa essere vicina alla sua fine. È solo una questione verbale se la civiltà americana sia giovane; può diventare una questione assai pratica e incalzante se stia morendo. Una volta gettata da parte, come inevitabilmente facciamo dopo un momento di riflessione, la fantasiosa metafora fisica insita nella parola «giovinezza», quale seria prova abbiamo che l’America sia una forza fresca e non una stantia? Ha moltissima gente, come la Cina; ha moltissimo denaro, come Cartagine sconfitta o Venezia morente. È piena di trambusto ed eccitabilità, come Atene dopo la sua rovina, e tutte le città greche nel loro declino. È amante delle cose nuove; ma i vecchi sono sempre amanti delle cose nuove. I giovani leggono le cronache, ma i vecchi leggono i giornali. Ammira la forza e la bella presenza; ammira una grande e barbara bellezza nelle sue donne, per esempio; ma così faceva Roma quando il Goto era alle porte. Tutte queste sono cose del tutto compatibili con un tedio e un decadimento di fondo. Vi sono tre forme o simboli principali in cui una nazione può mostrarsi essenzialmente lieta e grande: con l’eroico nel governo, con l’eroico nelle armi, e con l’eroico nell’arte. Oltre al governo, che è, per così dire, la forma e il corpo stessi di una nazione, la cosa più significativa in un qualsiasi cittadino è il suo atteggiamento artistico verso una festa e il suo atteggiamento morale verso una battaglia: cioè, il suo modo di accettare la vita e il suo modo di accettare la morte.

Sottoposta a queste prove eterne, l’America non appare in alcun modo particolarmente fresca o intatta. Appare con tutta la debolezza e la stanchezza dell’Inghilterra moderna o di qualsiasi altra potenza occidentale. Nella sua politica si è disgregata esattamente come si è disgregata l’Inghilterra, in uno sconcertante opportunismo e in una sconcertante insincerità. In materia di guerra e di atteggiamento nazionale verso la guerra, la sua somiglianza con l’Inghilterra è ancor più manifesta e malinconica. Si può dire con rozza approssimazione che vi sono tre stadi nella vita di un popolo forte. Dapprima è una piccola potenza, e combatte piccole potenze. Poi è una grande potenza, e combatte grandi potenze. Poi è una grande potenza, e combatte piccole potenze, ma finge che siano grandi potenze, per ravvivare le ceneri della sua antica emozione e vanità. Dopo di ciò, il passo successivo è diventare essa stessa una piccola potenza. L’Inghilterra manifestò questo sintomo di decadenza in modo molto grave nella guerra con il Transvaal; ma l’America lo manifestò in modo peggiore nella guerra con la Spagna. Là fu manifestato, più nettamente e assurdamente che altrove, l’ironico contrasto tra la scelta assai sconsiderata di una linea forte e la scelta assai accurata di un nemico debole. L’America aggiunse a tutti gli altri suoi elementi tardo-romani o bizantini l’elemento del trionfo caracalliano, il trionfo su nessuno.

Ma quando veniamo all’ultima prova della nazionalità, la prova dell’arte e delle lettere, il caso è quasi terribile. Le colonie inglesi non hanno prodotto grandi artisti; e questo fatto può provare che sono ancora piene di silenziose possibilità e di forza in riserva. Ma l’America ha prodotto grandi artisti. E questo fatto prova con la massima certezza che è piena di una sottile futilità e della fine di tutte le cose. Qualunque cosa siano gli uomini di genio americani, essi non sono giovani dèi che plasmano un giovane mondo. È forse l’arte di Whistler un’arte ardita, barbarica, felice e impetuosa? Il signor Henry James ci contagia forse con lo spirito di uno scolaretto? No; le colonie non hanno parlato, e sono al sicuro. Il loro silenzio può essere il silenzio del non ancora nato. Ma dall’America è venuto un grido dolce e sconvolgente, inconfondibile come il grido di un uomo che muore.

XIX. Slum Novelists and the Slums

Odd ideas are entertained in our time about the real nature of the doctrine of human fraternity. The real doctrine is something which we do not, with all our modern humanitarianism, very clearly understand, much less very closely practise. There is nothing, for instance, particularly undemocratic about kicking your butler downstairs. It may be wrong, but it is not unfraternal. In a certain sense, the blow or kick may be considered as a confession of equality: you are meeting your butler body to body; you are almost according him the privilege of the duel. There is nothing undemocratic, though there may be something unreasonable, in expecting a great deal from the butler, and being filled with a kind of frenzy of surprise when he falls short of the divine stature. The thing which is really undemocratic and unfraternal is not to expect the butler to be more or less divine. The thing which is really undemocratic and unfraternal is to say, as so many modern humanitarians say, “Of course one must make allowances for those on a lower plane.” All things considered indeed, it may be said, without undue exaggeration, that the really undemocratic and unfraternal thing is the common practice of not kicking the butler downstairs.

It is only because such a vast section of the modern world is out of sympathy with the serious democratic sentiment that this statement will seem to many to be lacking in seriousness. Democracy is not philanthropy; it is not even altruism or social reform. Democracy is not founded on pity for the common man; democracy is founded on reverence for the common man, or, if you will, even on fear of him. It does not champion man because man is so miserable, but because man is so sublime. It does not object so much to the ordinary man being a slave as to his not being a king, for its dream is always the dream of the first Roman republic, a nation of kings.

Next to a genuine republic, the most democratic thing in the world is a hereditary despotism. I mean a despotism in which there is absolutely no trace whatever of any nonsense about intellect or special fitness for the post. Rational despotism—that is, selective despotism—is always a curse to mankind, because with that you have the ordinary man misunderstood and misgoverned by some prig who has no brotherly respect for him at all. But irrational despotism is always democratic, because it is the ordinary man enthroned. The worst form of slavery is that which is called Caesarism, or the choice of some bold or brilliant man as despot because he is suitable. For that means that men choose a representative, not because he represents them, but because he does not. Men trust an ordinary man like George III or William IV. because they are themselves ordinary men and understand him. Men trust an ordinary man because they trust themselves. But men trust a great man because they do not trust themselves. And hence the worship of great men always appears in times of weakness and cowardice; we never hear of great men until the time when all other men are small.

Hereditary despotism is, then, in essence and sentiment democratic because it chooses from mankind at random. If it does not declare that every man may rule, it declares the next most democratic thing; it declares that any man may rule. Hereditary aristocracy is a far worse and more dangerous thing, because the numbers and multiplicity of an aristocracy make it sometimes possible for it to figure as an aristocracy of intellect. Some of its members will presumably have brains, and thus they, at any rate, will be an intellectual aristocracy within the social one. They will rule the aristocracy by virtue of their intellect, and they will rule the country by virtue of their aristocracy. Thus a double falsity will be set up, and millions of the images of God, who, fortunately for their wives and families, are neither gentlemen nor clever men, will be represented by a man like Mr. Balfour or Mr. Wyndham, because he is too gentlemanly to be called merely clever, and just too clever to be called merely a gentleman. But even an hereditary aristocracy may exhibit, by a sort of accident, from time to time some of the basically democratic quality which belongs to a hereditary despotism. It is amusing to think how much conservative ingenuity has been wasted in the defence of the House of Lords by men who were desperately endeavouring to prove that the House of Lords consisted of clever men. There is one really good defence of the House of Lords, though admirers of the peerage are strangely coy about using it; and that is, that the House of Lords, in its full and proper strength, consists of stupid men. It really would be a plausible defence of that otherwise indefensible body to point out that the clever men in the Commons, who owed their power to cleverness, ought in the last resort to be checked by the average man in the Lords, who owed their power to accident. Of course, there would be many answers to such a contention, as, for instance, that the House of Lords is largely no longer a House of Lords, but a House of tradesmen and financiers, or that the bulk of the commonplace nobility do not vote, and so leave the chamber to the prigs and the specialists and the mad old gentlemen with hobbies. But on some occasions the House of Lords, even under all these disadvantages, is in some sense representative. When all the peers flocked together to vote against Mr. Gladstone’s second Home Rule Bill, for instance, those who said that the peers represented the English people, were perfectly right. All those dear old men who happened to be born peers were at that moment, and upon that question, the precise counterpart of all the dear old men who happened to be born paupers or middle-class gentlemen. That mob of peers did really represent the English people— that is to say, it was honest, ignorant, vaguely excited, almost unanimous, and obviously wrong. Of course, rational democracy is better as an expression of the public will than the haphazard hereditary method. While we are about having any kind of democracy, let it be rational democracy. But if we are to have any kind of oligarchy, let it be irrational oligarchy. Then at least we shall be ruled by men.

XIX. I romanzieri dei bassifondi e i bassifondi

Idee bizzarre si coltivano nel nostro tempo intorno alla vera natura della dottrina della fraternità umana. La vera dottrina è qualcosa che noi, con tutto il nostro moderno umanitarismo, non comprendiamo affatto con chiarezza, e ancor meno mettiamo in pratica con rigore. Non v’è nulla, per esempio, di particolarmente antidemocratico nel prendere a calci il proprio maggiordomo giù per le scale. Sarà cosa sbagliata, ma non è cosa poco fraterna. In un certo senso, il colpo o il calcio possono essere considerati una confessione di eguaglianza: state affrontando il vostro maggiordomo corpo a corpo; gli state quasi concedendo il privilegio del duello. Non v’è nulla di antidemocratico, per quanto possa esservi qualcosa di irragionevole, nel pretendere moltissimo dal maggiordomo, e nell’essere presi da una sorta di frenesia di stupore quando egli non raggiunge la statura divina. La cosa che è davvero antidemocratica e poco fraterna è non aspettarsi che il maggiordomo sia più o meno divino. La cosa che è davvero antidemocratica e poco fraterna è dire, come dicono tanti umanitari moderni: «Naturalmente bisogna avere qualche indulgenza per chi si trova su un piano più basso». Tutto sommato, anzi, si può affermare, senza indebita esagerazione, che la cosa davvero antidemocratica e poco fraterna è la pratica comune di non prendere a calci il maggiordomo giù per le scale.

È soltanto perché una sezione così vasta del mondo moderno è priva di ogni simpatia per il serio sentimento democratico che questa affermazione sembrerà a molti mancare di serietà. La democrazia non è filantropia; non è nemmeno altruismo o riforma sociale. La democrazia non è fondata sulla pietà per l’uomo comune; la democrazia è fondata sulla riverenza per l’uomo comune, o, se volete, persino sulla paura di lui. Essa non difende l’uomo perché l’uomo è tanto miserabile, ma perché l’uomo è tanto sublime. Non tanto si oppone al fatto che l’uomo ordinario sia uno schiavo, quanto al fatto che egli non sia un re, poiché il suo sogno è sempre il sogno della prima repubblica romana, una nazione di re.

Subito dopo una repubblica genuina, la cosa più democratica del mondo è un dispotismo ereditario. Intendo un dispotismo in cui non vi sia assolutamente traccia alcuna di quelle sciocchezze sull’intelletto o sulla speciale idoneità alla carica. Il dispotismo razionale — cioè il dispotismo selettivo — è sempre una maledizione per l’umanità, perché con esso si ha l’uomo ordinario frainteso e mal governato da qualche saccente che non nutre per lui il minimo rispetto fraterno. Ma il dispotismo irrazionale è sempre democratico, perché è l’uomo ordinario assiso sul trono. La peggiore forma di schiavitù è quella che si chiama cesarismo, ovvero la scelta di qualche uomo audace o brillante come despota perché è adatto. Ciò significa infatti che gli uomini scelgono un rappresentante, non perché li rappresenti, ma perché non li rappresenta. Gli uomini si fidano di un uomo ordinario come Giorgio III o Guglielmo IV perché essi stessi sono uomini ordinari e lo comprendono. Gli uomini si fidano di un uomo ordinario perché si fidano di se stessi. Ma gli uomini si fidano di un grand’uomo perché non si fidano di se stessi. E perciò il culto dei grandi uomini appare sempre in tempi di debolezza e di viltà; non sentiamo mai parlare di grandi uomini se non nel tempo in cui tutti gli altri uomini sono piccoli.

Il dispotismo ereditario è dunque, nella sua essenza e nel suo sentimento, democratico, perché sceglie tra l’umanità a caso. Se non dichiara che ogni uomo può governare, dichiara la cosa immediatamente più democratica; dichiara che qualunque uomo può governare. L’aristocrazia ereditaria è cosa assai peggiore e più pericolosa, perché il numero e la molteplicità di un’aristocrazia le consentono talvolta di figurare come un’aristocrazia dell’intelletto. Alcuni dei suoi membri presumibilmente avranno cervello, e così essi, quantomeno, costituiranno un’aristocrazia intellettuale in seno a quella sociale. Governeranno l’aristocrazia in virtù del loro intelletto, e governeranno il paese in virtù della loro aristocrazia. Si stabilirà così una doppia falsità, e milioni di immagini di Dio, che, per fortuna delle loro mogli e delle loro famiglie, non sono né gentiluomini né uomini d’ingegno, verranno rappresentati da un uomo come il signor Balfour o il signor Wyndham, perché egli è troppo signorile per essere detto meramente intelligente, e appena troppo intelligente per essere detto meramente un gentiluomo. Ma persino un’aristocrazia ereditaria può manifestare, per una sorta di accidente, di tempo in tempo, qualcosa di quella qualità fondamentalmente democratica che appartiene a un dispotismo ereditario. È divertente pensare quanta ingegnosità conservatrice sia stata sprecata nella difesa della Camera dei Lord da uomini che si sforzavano disperatamente di dimostrare che la Camera dei Lord era composta di uomini intelligenti. C’è una difesa davvero valida della Camera dei Lord, per quanto gli ammiratori del pariato siano stranamente restii a servirsene; ed è che la Camera dei Lord, nella sua piena e propria forza, è composta di uomini stupidi. Sarebbe davvero una difesa plausibile di quel corpo altrimenti indifendibile far notare che gli uomini intelligenti nei Comuni, che devono il loro potere all’intelligenza, dovrebbero in ultima istanza essere frenati dall’uomo medio nei Lord, che deve il suo potere all’accidente. Naturalmente, vi sarebbero molte risposte a una simile tesi, come, per esempio, che la Camera dei Lord in gran parte non è più una Camera di Lord, ma una Camera di commercianti e finanzieri, oppure che il grosso della nobiltà mediocre non vota, e lascia così l’aula ai saccenti, agli specialisti e ai vecchi gentiluomini mattacchioni coi loro hobby. Ma in alcune occasioni la Camera dei Lord, persino sotto tutti questi svantaggi, è in un certo senso rappresentativa. Quando tutti i pari accorsero in massa a votare contro il secondo Home Rule Bill del signor Gladstone, per esempio, coloro che dissero che i pari rappresentavano il popolo inglese avevano perfettamente ragione. Tutti quei cari vecchi che si erano trovati a nascere pari erano in quel momento, e su quella questione, l’esatto corrispettivo di tutti i cari vecchi che si erano trovati a nascere indigenti o gentiluomini della classe media. Quella folla di pari rappresentava davvero il popolo inglese — vale a dire, era onesta, ignorante, vagamente eccitata, quasi unanime e manifestamente nel torto. Naturalmente, la democrazia razionale è migliore, come espressione della volontà pubblica, del metodo ereditario casuale. Finché siamo in tema di avere una qualche forma di democrazia, che sia democrazia razionale. Ma se dobbiamo avere una qualche forma di oligarchia, che sia oligarchia irrazionale. Allora almeno saremo governati da uomini.

But the thing which is really required for the proper working of democracy is not merely the democratic system, or even the democratic philosophy, but the democratic emotion. The democratic emotion, like most elementary and indispensable things, is a thing difficult to describe at any time. But it is peculiarly difficult to describe it in our enlightened age, for the simple reason that it is peculiarly difficult to find it. It is a certain instinctive attitude which feels the things in which all men agree to be unspeakably important, and all the things in which they differ (such as mere brains) to be almost unspeakably unimportant. The nearest approach to it in our ordinary life would be the promptitude with which we should consider mere humanity in any circumstance of shock or death. We should say, after a somewhat disturbing discovery, “There is a dead man under the sofa.” We should not be likely to say, “There is a dead man of considerable personal refinement under the sofa.” We should say, “A woman has fallen into the water.” We should not say, “A highly educated woman has fallen into the water.” Nobody would say, “There are the remains of a clear thinker in your back garden.” Nobody would say, “Unless you hurry up and stop him, a man with a very fine ear for music will have jumped off that cliff.” But this emotion, which all of us have in connection with such things as birth and death, is to some people native and constant at all ordinary times and in all ordinary places. It was native to St. Francis of Assisi. It was native to Walt Whitman. In this strange and splendid degree it cannot be expected, perhaps, to pervade a whole commonwealth or a whole civilization; but one commonwealth may have it much more than another commonwealth, one civilization much more than another civilization. No community, perhaps, ever had it so much as the early Franciscans. No community, perhaps, ever had it so little as ours.

Everything in our age has, when carefully examined, this fundamentally undemocratic quality. In religion and morals we should admit, in the abstract, that the sins of the educated classes were as great as, or perhaps greater than, the sins of the poor and ignorant. But in practice the great difference between the mediaeval ethics and ours is that ours concentrate attention on the sins which are the sins of the ignorant, and practically deny that the sins which are the sins of the educated are sins at all. We are always talking about the sin of intemperate drinking, because it is quite obvious that the poor have it more than the rich. But we are always denying that there is any such thing as the sin of pride, because it would be quite obvious that the rich have it more than the poor. We are always ready to make a saint or prophet of the educated man who goes into cottages to give a little kindly advice to the uneducated. But the medieval idea of a saint or prophet was something quite different. The mediaeval saint or prophet was an uneducated man who walked into grand houses to give a little kindly advice to the educated. The old tyrants had enough insolence to despoil the poor, but they had not enough insolence to preach to them. It was the gentleman who oppressed the slums; but it was the slums that admonished the gentleman. And just as we are undemocratic in faith and morals, so we are, by the very nature of our attitude in such matters, undemocratic in the tone of our practical politics. It is a sufficient proof that we are not an essentially democratic state that we are always wondering what we shall do with the poor. If we were democrats, we should be wondering what the poor will do with us. With us the governing class is always saying to itself, “What laws shall we make?” In a purely democratic state it would be always saying, “What laws can we obey?” A purely democratic state perhaps there has never been. But even the feudal ages were in practice thus far democratic, that every feudal potentate knew that any laws which he made would in all probability return upon himself. His feathers might be cut off for breaking a sumptuary law. His head might be cut off for high treason. But the modern laws are almost always laws made to affect the governed class, but not the governing. We have public-house licensing laws, but not sumptuary laws. That is to say, we have laws against the festivity and hospitality of the poor, but no laws against the festivity and hospitality of the rich. We have laws against blasphemy—that is, against a kind of coarse and offensive speaking in which nobody but a rough and obscure man would be likely to indulge. But we have no laws against heresy— that is, against the intellectual poisoning of the whole people, in which only a prosperous and prominent man would be likely to be successful. The evil of aristocracy is not that it necessarily leads to the infliction of bad things or the suffering of sad ones; the evil of aristocracy is that it places everything in the hands of a class of people who can always inflict what they can never suffer. Whether what they inflict is, in their intention, good or bad, they become equally frivolous. The case against the governing class of modern England is not in the least that it is selfish; if you like, you may call the English oligarchs too fantastically unselfish. The case against them simply is that when they legislate for all men, they always omit themselves.

We are undemocratic, then, in our religion, as is proved by our efforts to “raise” the poor. We are undemocratic in our government, as is proved by our innocent attempt to govern them well. But above all we are undemocratic in our literature, as is proved by the torrent of novels about the poor and serious studies of the poor which pour from our publishers every month. And the more “modern” the book is the more certain it is to be devoid of democratic sentiment.

Ma ciò che è davvero necessario per il buon funzionamento della democrazia non è meramente il sistema democratico, e nemmeno la filosofia democratica, ma l’emozione democratica. L’emozione democratica, come la maggior parte delle cose elementari e indispensabili, è una cosa difficile da descrivere in qualsiasi tempo. Ma è particolarmente difficile descriverla nella nostra epoca illuminata, per la semplice ragione che è particolarmente difficile trovarla. È un certo atteggiamento istintivo che sente come indicibilmente importanti le cose in cui tutti gli uomini concordano, e come quasi indicibilmente prive di importanza tutte le cose in cui differiscono (quali il mero cervello). L’approssimazione più prossima ad essa nella nostra vita ordinaria sarebbe la prontezza con cui considereremmo la mera umanità in una qualunque circostanza di shock o di morte. Diremmo, dopo una scoperta alquanto sconvolgente: «C’è un uomo morto sotto il divano». Non è probabile che diremmo: «C’è un uomo morto di notevole raffinatezza personale sotto il divano». Diremmo: «Una donna è caduta nell’acqua». Non diremmo: «Una donna di elevata cultura è caduta nell’acqua». Nessuno direbbe: «Ci sono i resti di un pensatore lucido nel tuo giardino sul retro». Nessuno direbbe: «Se non ti sbrighi a fermarlo, un uomo dall’orecchio musicale finissimo si sarà gettato da quella rupe». Ma questa emozione, che tutti noi proviamo in rapporto a cose come la nascita e la morte, è per alcuni innata e costante in tutti i tempi ordinari e in tutti i luoghi ordinari. Era innata in san Francesco d’Assisi. Era innata in Walt Whitman. In questo grado strano e splendido non ci si può forse aspettare che essa pervada un’intera comunità o un’intera civiltà; ma una comunità può averla molto più di un’altra comunità, una civiltà molto più di un’altra civiltà. Nessuna comunità, forse, l’ebbe mai tanto quanto i primi francescani. Nessuna comunità, forse, l’ebbe mai tanto poco quanto la nostra.

Ogni cosa nella nostra epoca ha, se attentamente esaminata, questa qualità fondamentalmente antidemocratica. In religione e in morale ammetteremmo, in astratto, che i peccati delle classi colte fossero grandi quanto, o forse più grandi dei peccati dei poveri e degli ignoranti. Ma in pratica la grande differenza tra l’etica medievale e la nostra è che la nostra concentra l’attenzione sui peccati che sono i peccati degli ignoranti, e praticamente nega che i peccati che sono i peccati dei colti siano affatto peccati. Parliamo sempre del peccato del bere smodato, perché è del tutto ovvio che i poveri lo commettono più dei ricchi. Ma neghiamo sempre che esista una cosa come il peccato dell’orgoglio, perché sarebbe del tutto ovvio che i ricchi lo commettono più dei poveri. Siamo sempre pronti a fare un santo o un profeta dell’uomo colto che entra nelle capanne per dare qualche cortese consiglio agli incolti. Ma l’idea medievale di un santo o profeta era qualcosa di del tutto diverso. Il santo o profeta medievale era un uomo incolto che entrava nelle grandi case per dare qualche cortese consiglio ai colti. Gli antichi tiranni avevano abbastanza insolenza da spogliare i poveri, ma non avevano abbastanza insolenza da predicare loro. Era il gentiluomo a opprimere i bassifondi; ma erano i bassifondi ad ammonire il gentiluomo. E proprio come siamo antidemocratici nella fede e nella morale, così siamo, per la stessa natura del nostro atteggiamento in tali materie, antidemocratici nel tono della nostra politica pratica. È prova sufficiente che non siamo uno stato essenzialmente democratico il fatto che ci chiediamo sempre che cosa faremo dei poveri. Se fossimo democratici, ci chiederemmo che cosa i poveri faranno di noi. Presso di noi la classe dirigente dice sempre a se stessa: «Quali leggi faremo?». In uno stato puramente democratico direbbe sempre: «Quali leggi possiamo obbedire?». Uno stato puramente democratico forse non è mai esistito. Ma persino le età feudali erano in pratica democratiche fino a questo punto, che ogni potentato feudale sapeva che qualunque legge egli facesse con ogni probabilità sarebbe ricaduta su di lui. Gli si potevano tagliare le penne per aver infranto una legge suntuaria. Gli si poteva tagliare la testa per alto tradimento. Ma le leggi moderne sono quasi sempre leggi fatte per incidere sulla classe governata, non su quella governante. Abbiamo leggi sulle licenze delle osterie, ma non leggi suntuarie. Vale a dire, abbiamo leggi contro la festosità e l’ospitalità dei poveri, ma nessuna legge contro la festosità e l’ospitalità dei ricchi. Abbiamo leggi contro la bestemmia — cioè contro una sorta di linguaggio rozzo e offensivo in cui nessuno se non un uomo grossolano e oscuro sarebbe incline a indulgere. Ma non abbiamo leggi contro l’eresia — cioè contro l’avvelenamento intellettuale dell’intero popolo, nel quale solo un uomo prospero ed eminente avrebbe probabilità di riuscire. Il male dell’aristocrazia non è che essa conduca necessariamente a infliggere cose cattive o a far patire sofferenze tristi; il male dell’aristocrazia è che pone ogni cosa nelle mani di una classe di persone che possono sempre infliggere ciò che non possono mai patire. Che ciò che infliggono sia, nella loro intenzione, buono o cattivo, essi diventano egualmente frivoli. Il capo d’accusa contro la classe dirigente dell’Inghilterra moderna non è affatto che sia egoista; se volete, potete chiamare gli oligarchi inglesi fantasticamente disinteressati. Il capo d’accusa contro di loro è semplicemente che, quando legiferano per tutti gli uomini, omettono sempre se stessi.

Siamo dunque antidemocratici nella nostra religione, come è provato dai nostri sforzi di «elevare» i poveri. Siamo antidemocratici nel nostro governo, come è provato dal nostro innocente tentativo di governarli bene. Ma soprattutto siamo antidemocratici nella nostra letteratura, come è provato dal torrente di romanzi sui poveri e di seri studi sui poveri che ogni mese si riversa dai nostri editori. E quanto più «moderno» è il libro, tanto più è certo che sia privo di sentimento democratico.

A poor man is a man who has not got much money. This may seem a simple and unnecessary description, but in the face of a great mass of modern fact and fiction, it seems very necessary indeed; most of our realists and sociologists talk about a poor man as if he were an octopus or an alligator. There is no more need to study the psychology of poverty than to study the psychology of bad temper, or the psychology of vanity, or the psychology of animal spirits. A man ought to know something of the emotions of an insulted man, not by being insulted, but simply by being a man. And he ought to know something of the emotions of a poor man, not by being poor, but simply by being a man. Therefore, in any writer who is describing poverty, my first objection to him will be that he has studied his subject. A democrat would have imagined it.

A great many hard things have been said about religious slumming and political or social slumming, but surely the most despicable of all is artistic slumming. The religious teacher is at least supposed to be interested in the costermonger because he is a man; the politician is in some dim and perverted sense interested in the costermonger because he is a citizen; it is only the wretched writer who is interested in the costermonger merely because he is a costermonger. Nevertheless, so long as he is merely seeking impressions, or in other words copy, his trade, though dull, is honest. But when he endeavours to represent that he is describing the spiritual core of a costermonger, his dim vices and his delicate virtues, then we must object that his claim is preposterous; we must remind him that he is a journalist and nothing else. He has far less psychological authority even than the foolish missionary. For he is in the literal and derivative sense a journalist, while the missionary is an eternalist. The missionary at least pretends to have a version of the man’s lot for all time; the journalist only pretends to have a version of it from day to day. The missionary comes to tell the poor man that he is in the same condition with all men. The journalist comes to tell other people how different the poor man is from everybody else.

If the modern novels about the slums, such as the novels of Mr. Arthur Morrison, or the exceedingly able novels of Mr. Somerset Maugham, are intended to be sensational, I can only say that that is a noble and reasonable object, and that they attain it. A sensation, a shock to the imagination, like the contact with cold water, is always a good and exhilarating thing; and, undoubtedly, men will always seek this sensation (among other forms) in the form of the study of the strange antics of remote or alien peoples. In the twelfth century men obtained this sensation by reading about dog-headed men in Africa. In the twentieth century they obtained it by reading about pig-headed Boers in Africa. The men of the twentieth century were certainly, it must be admitted, somewhat the more credulous of the two. For it is not recorded of the men in the twelfth century that they organized a sanguinary crusade solely for the purpose of altering the singular formation of the heads of the Africans. But it may be, and it may even legitimately be, that since all these monsters have faded from the popular mythology, it is necessary to have in our fiction the image of the horrible and hairy East-ender, merely to keep alive in us a fearful and childlike wonder at external peculiarities. But the Middle Ages (with a great deal more common sense than it would now be fashionable to admit) regarded natural history at bottom rather as a kind of joke; they regarded the soul as very important. Hence, while they had a natural history of dog-headed men, they did not profess to have a psychology of dog-headed men. They did not profess to mirror the mind of a dog-headed man, to share his tenderest secrets, or mount with his most celestial musings. They did not write novels about the semi-canine creature, attributing to him all the oldest morbidities and all the newest fads. It is permissible to present men as monsters if we wish to make the reader jump; and to make anybody jump is always a Christian act. But it is not permissible to present men as regarding themselves as monsters, or as making themselves jump. To summarize, our slum fiction is quite defensible as aesthetic fiction; it is not defensible as spiritual fact.

One enormous obstacle stands in the way of its actuality. The men who write it, and the men who read it, are men of the middle classes or the upper classes; at least, of those who are loosely termed the educated classes. Hence, the fact that it is the life as the refined man sees it proves that it cannot be the life as the unrefined man lives it. Rich men write stories about poor men, and describe them as speaking with a coarse, or heavy, or husky enunciation. But if poor men wrote novels about you or me they would describe us as speaking with some absurd shrill and affected voice, such as we only hear from a duchess in a three-act farce. The slum novelist gains his whole effect by the fact that some detail is strange to the reader; but that detail by the nature of the case cannot be strange in itself. It cannot be strange to the soul which he is professing to study. The slum novelist gains his effects by describing the same grey mist as draping the dingy factory and the dingy tavern. But to the man he is supposed to be studying there must be exactly the same difference between the factory and the tavern that there is to a middle-class man between a late night at the office and a supper at Pagani’s. The slum novelist is content with pointing out that to the eye of his particular class a pickaxe looks dirty and a pewter pot looks dirty. But the man he is supposed to be studying sees the difference between them exactly as a clerk sees the difference between a ledger and an edition de luxe. The chiaroscuro of the life is inevitably lost; for to us the high lights and the shadows are a light grey. But the high lights and the shadows are not a light grey in that life any more than in any other. The kind of man who could really express the pleasures of the poor would be also the kind of man who could share them. In short, these books are not a record of the psychology of poverty. They are a record of the psychology of wealth and culture when brought in contact with poverty. They are not a description of the state of the slums. They are only a very dark and dreadful description of the state of the slummers. One might give innumerable examples of the essentially unsympathetic and unpopular quality of these realistic writers. But perhaps the simplest and most obvious example with which we could conclude is the mere fact that these writers are realistic. The poor have many other vices, but, at least, they are never realistic. The poor are melodramatic and romantic in grain; the poor all believe in high moral platitudes and copy-book maxims; probably this is the ultimate meaning of the great saying, “Blessed are the poor.” Blessed are the poor, for they are always making life, or trying to make life, like an Adelphi play. Some innocent educationalists and philanthropists (for even philanthropists can be innocent) have expressed a grave astonishment that the masses prefer shilling shockers to scientific treatises and melodramas to problem plays. The reason is very simple. The realistic story is certainly more artistic than the melodramatic story. If what you desire is deft handling, delicate proportions, a unit of artistic atmosphere, the realistic story has a full advantage over the melodrama. In everything that is light and bright and ornamental the realistic story has a full advantage over the melodrama. But, at least, the melodrama has one indisputable advantage over the realistic story. The melodrama is much more like life. It is much more like man, and especially the poor man. It is very banal and very inartistic when a poor woman at the Adelphi says, “Do you think I will sell my own child?” But poor women in the Battersea High Road do say, “Do you think I will sell my own child?” They say it on every available occasion; you can hear a sort of murmur or babble of it all the way down the street. It is very stale and weak dramatic art (if that is all) when the workman confronts his master and says, “I’m a man.” But a workman does say “I’m a man” two or three times every day. In fact, it is tedious, possibly, to hear poor men being melodramatic behind the footlights; but that is because one can always hear them being melodramatic in the street outside. In short, melodrama, if it is dull, is dull because it is too accurate. Somewhat the same problem exists in the case of stories about schoolboys. Mr. Kipling’s “Stalky and Co.” is much more amusing (if you are talking about amusement) than the late Dean Farrar’s “Eric; or, Little by Little.” But “Eric” is immeasurably more like real school-life. For real school-life, real boyhood, is full of the things of which Eric is full— priggishness, a crude piety, a silly sin, a weak but continual attempt at the heroic, in a word, melodrama. And if we wish to lay a firm basis for any efforts to help the poor, we must not become realistic and see them from the outside. We must become melodramatic, and see them from the inside. The novelist must not take out his notebook and say, “I am an expert.” No; he must imitate the workman in the Adelphi play. He must slap himself on the chest and say, “I am a man.”

Un uomo povero è un uomo che non ha molto denaro. Questa potrà sembrare una descrizione semplice e superflua, ma di fronte a una grande massa di fatti e di finzioni moderni sembra invece davvero molto necessaria; la maggior parte dei nostri realisti e sociologi parla di un uomo povero come se fosse un polpo o un alligatore. Non c’è più bisogno di studiare la psicologia della povertà di quanto ce ne sia di studiare la psicologia del cattivo umore, o la psicologia della vanità, o la psicologia della vivacità animale. Un uomo dovrebbe conoscere qualcosa delle emozioni di un uomo insultato, non facendosi insultare, ma semplicemente essendo un uomo. E dovrebbe conoscere qualcosa delle emozioni di un uomo povero, non facendosi povero, ma semplicemente essendo un uomo. Perciò, in ogni scrittore che descriva la povertà, la mia prima obiezione contro di lui sarà che egli ha studiato il suo argomento. Un democratico l’avrebbe immaginato.

Molte cose dure sono state dette sullo slumming religioso e sullo slumming politico o sociale, ma senza dubbio il più spregevole di tutti è lo slumming artistico. Del maestro religioso si suppone almeno che si interessi al venditore ambulante perché è un uomo; il politico si interessa in qualche senso confuso e distorto al venditore ambulante perché è un cittadino; è soltanto il misero scrittore a interessarsi al venditore ambulante meramente perché è un venditore ambulante. Ciò nondimeno, finché egli si limita a cercare impressioni, o in altre parole materiale, il suo mestiere, per quanto ottuso, è onesto. Ma quando si sforza di sostenere che sta descrivendo il nucleo spirituale di un venditore ambulante, i suoi vizi confusi e le sue virtù delicate, allora dobbiamo obiettare che la sua pretesa è assurda; dobbiamo ricordargli che egli è un giornalista e nient’altro. Ha assai meno autorità psicologica persino dello sciocco missionario. Poiché egli è, nel senso letterale e derivato, un giornalista, mentre il missionario è un eternalista. Il missionario almeno pretende di avere una versione della sorte dell’uomo valida per tutto il tempo; il giornalista pretende soltanto di averne una versione giorno per giorno. Il missionario viene a dire all’uomo povero che egli si trova nella medesima condizione di tutti gli uomini. Il giornalista viene a dire agli altri quanto l’uomo povero sia diverso da tutti gli altri.

Se i moderni romanzi sui bassifondi, come i romanzi del signor Arthur Morrison, o gli straordinariamente abili romanzi del signor Somerset Maugham, intendono essere sensazionali, posso solo dire che quello è un obiettivo nobile e ragionevole, e che essi lo raggiungono. Una sensazione, uno shock all’immaginazione, come il contatto con l’acqua fredda, è sempre cosa buona ed esilarante; e, senza dubbio, gli uomini cercheranno sempre questa sensazione (tra le altre forme) nella forma dello studio delle strane bizzarrie di popoli remoti o estranei. Nel dodicesimo secolo gli uomini ottenevano questa sensazione leggendo di uomini dalla testa di cane in Africa. Nel ventesimo secolo la ottenevano leggendo di boeri dalla testa di maiale in Africa. Gli uomini del ventesimo secolo erano certamente, bisogna ammetterlo, alquanto più creduloni dei due. Non è infatti registrato degli uomini del dodicesimo secolo che abbiano organizzato una sanguinosa crociata al solo scopo di alterare la singolare conformazione delle teste degli africani. Ma può darsi, e può darsi persino legittimamente, che, poiché tutti questi mostri sono svaniti dalla mitologia popolare, sia necessario avere nella nostra narrativa l’immagine dell’orribile e peloso abitante dell’East End, meramente per tenere viva in noi una pauroso e fanciullesca meraviglia dinanzi alle peculiarità esteriori. Ma il Medioevo (con assai più buon senso di quanto oggi sarebbe di moda ammettere) considerava la storia naturale in fondo piuttosto come una specie di scherzo; considerava l’anima come cosa importantissima. Perciò, pur avendo una storia naturale degli uomini dalla testa di cane, non pretendevano di avere una psicologia degli uomini dalla testa di cane. Non pretendevano di rispecchiare la mente di un uomo dalla testa di cane, di condividere i suoi segreti più teneri, o di innalzarsi con le sue più celestiali fantasticherie. Non scrivevano romanzi sulla creatura semi-canina, attribuendole tutte le più antiche morbosità e tutte le più recenti manie. È lecito presentare gli uomini come mostri se vogliamo far sussultare il lettore; e far sussultare qualcuno è sempre un atto cristiano. Ma non è lecito presentare gli uomini come se considerassero se stessi dei mostri, o come se facessero sussultare se stessi. Per riassumere, la nostra narrativa dei bassifondi è del tutto difendibile come narrativa estetica; non è difendibile come fatto spirituale.

Un enorme ostacolo si frappone alla sua realtà. Gli uomini che la scrivono, e gli uomini che la leggono, sono uomini delle classi medie o delle classi superiori; quantomeno, di quelle che vengono vagamente dette le classi colte. Perciò, il fatto che sia la vita come la vede l’uomo raffinato dimostra che non può essere la vita come la vive l’uomo non raffinato. Uomini ricchi scrivono storie su uomini poveri, e li descrivono mentre parlano con una pronuncia rozza, o pesante, o roca. Ma se uomini poveri scrivessero romanzi su di voi o su di me, ci descriverebbero mentre parliamo con una voce stridula e affettata, assurda, quale si sente solo da una duchessa in una farsa in tre atti. Il romanziere dei bassifondi ottiene tutto il suo effetto dal fatto che qualche dettaglio è strano per il lettore; ma quel dettaglio, per la natura stessa del caso, non può essere strano in sé. Non può essere strano per l’anima che egli pretende di studiare. Il romanziere dei bassifondi ottiene i suoi effetti descrivendo la medesima nebbia grigia mentre ammanta la sordida fabbrica e la sordida taverna. Ma per l’uomo che egli suppone di studiare deve esserci esattamente la stessa differenza tra la fabbrica e la taverna che c’è, per un uomo della classe media, tra una tarda notte in ufficio e una cena da Pagani. Il romanziere dei bassifondi si accontenta di far notare che all’occhio della sua particolare classe un piccone sembra sporco e un boccale di peltro sembra sporco. Ma l’uomo che egli suppone di studiare vede la differenza tra di essi esattamente come un impiegato vede la differenza tra un libro mastro e un’edizione di lusso. Il chiaroscuro della vita va inevitabilmente perduto; poiché per noi le luci alte e le ombre sono un grigio chiaro. Ma le luci alte e le ombre non sono un grigio chiaro in quella vita più di quanto lo siano in qualsiasi altra. Il tipo d’uomo che potesse davvero esprimere i piaceri dei poveri sarebbe anche il tipo d’uomo che potesse condividerli. In breve, questi libri non sono un resoconto della psicologia della povertà. Sono un resoconto della psicologia della ricchezza e della cultura poste a contatto con la povertà. Non sono una descrizione dello stato dei bassifondi. Sono soltanto una descrizione oscurissima e terribile dello stato di coloro che frequentano i bassifondi. Si potrebbero addurre innumerevoli esempi della qualità essenzialmente poco simpatetica e poco popolare di questi scrittori realisti. Ma forse l’esempio più semplice e più ovvio con cui potremmo concludere è il mero fatto che questi scrittori sono realisti. I poveri hanno molti altri vizi, ma, quantomeno, non sono mai realisti. I poveri sono melodrammatici e romantici fino al midollo; i poveri credono tutti nelle alte banalità morali e nelle massime da quaderno di calligrafia; probabilmente questo è il significato ultimo del grande detto: «Beati i poveri». Beati i poveri, poiché sempre fanno della vita, o cercano di fare della vita, qualcosa come un dramma dell’Adelphi. Alcuni innocenti pedagoghi e filantropi (poiché anche i filantropi possono essere innocenti) hanno espresso un grave stupore per il fatto che le masse preferiscono i romanzetti d’appendice ai trattati scientifici e i melodrammi ai drammi a tesi. La ragione è molto semplice. La storia realistica è certamente più artistica della storia melodrammatica. Se ciò che desiderate è una mano abile, proporzioni delicate, un’unità di atmosfera artistica, la storia realistica ha un pieno vantaggio sul melodramma. In tutto ciò che è lieve e brillante e ornamentale la storia realistica ha un pieno vantaggio sul melodramma. Ma, quantomeno, il melodramma ha un vantaggio indiscutibile sulla storia realistica. Il melodramma somiglia molto più alla vita. Somiglia molto più all’uomo, e specialmente all’uomo povero. È cosa molto banale e molto inartistica quando una donna povera all’Adelphi dice: «Credete che venderei la mia creatura?». Ma le donne povere di Battersea High Road dicono davvero: «Credete che venderei la mia creatura?». Lo dicono a ogni occasione possibile; se ne può udire una sorta di mormorio o brusio lungo tutta la strada. È arte drammatica molto stantìa e fiacca (se è tutto qui) quando l’operaio affronta il suo padrone e dice: «Sono un uomo». Ma un operaio dice davvero «Sono un uomo» due o tre volte al giorno. In effetti, è tedioso, forse, sentire uomini poveri fare del melodramma dietro le luci della ribalta; ma questo perché li si può sempre sentire fare del melodramma nella strada là fuori. In breve, il melodramma, se è noioso, è noioso perché è troppo accurato. Un problema pressoché identico esiste nel caso delle storie di scolari. «Stalky and Co.» del signor Kipling è molto più divertente (se si parla di divertimento) di «Eric; or, Little by Little» del defunto decano Farrar. Ma «Eric» somiglia incommensurabilmente di più alla vita reale della scuola. Poiché la vera vita della scuola, la vera fanciullezza, è piena delle cose di cui è pieno Eric — la saccenteria, una rozza pietà, un peccato sciocco, un debole ma continuo tentativo di eroismo, in una parola, il melodramma. E se desideriamo porre una solida base a qualunque sforzo di aiutare i poveri, non dobbiamo diventare realisti e vederli dal di fuori. Dobbiamo diventare melodrammatici, e vederli dal di dentro. Il romanziere non deve tirar fuori il suo taccuino e dire: «Sono un esperto». No; deve imitare l’operaio del dramma dell’Adelphi. Deve battersi il petto e dire: «Sono un uomo».

XX. Concluding Remarks on the Importance of Orthodoxy

Whether the human mind can advance or not, is a question too little discussed, for nothing can be more dangerous than to found our social philosophy on any theory which is debatable but has not been debated. But if we assume, for the sake of argument, that there has been in the past, or will be in the future, such a thing as a growth or improvement of the human mind itself, there still remains a very sharp objection to be raised against the modern version of that improvement. The vice of the modern notion of mental progress is that it is always something concerned with the breaking of bonds, the effacing of boundaries, the casting away of dogmas. But if there be such a thing as mental growth, it must mean the growth into more and more definite convictions, into more and more dogmas. The human brain is a machine for coming to conclusions; if it cannot come to conclusions it is rusty. When we hear of a man too clever to believe, we are hearing of something having almost the character of a contradiction in terms. It is like hearing of a nail that was too good to hold down a carpet; or a bolt that was too strong to keep a door shut. Man can hardly be defined, after the fashion of Carlyle, as an animal who makes tools; ants and beavers and many other animals make tools, in the sense that they make an apparatus. Man can be defined as an animal that makes dogmas. As he piles doctrine on doctrine and conclusion on conclusion in the formation of some tremendous scheme of philosophy and religion, he is, in the only legitimate sense of which the expression is capable, becoming more and more human. When he drops one doctrine after another in a refined scepticism, when he declines to tie himself to a system, when he says that he has outgrown definitions, when he says that he disbelieves in finality, when, in his own imagination, he sits as God, holding no form of creed but contemplating all, then he is by that very process sinking slowly backwards into the vagueness of the vagrant animals and the unconsciousness of the grass. Trees have no dogmas. Turnips are singularly broad-minded.

If then, I repeat, there is to be mental advance, it must be mental advance in the construction of a definite philosophy of life. And that philosophy of life must be right and the other philosophies wrong. Now of all, or nearly all, the able modern writers whom I have briefly studied in this book, this is especially and pleasingly true, that they do each of them have a constructive and affirmative view, and that they do take it seriously and ask us to take it seriously. There is nothing merely sceptically progressive about Mr. Rudyard Kipling. There is nothing in the least broad minded about Mr. Bernard Shaw. The paganism of Mr. Lowes Dickinson is more grave than any Christianity. Even the opportunism of Mr. H. G. Wells is more dogmatic than the idealism of anybody else. Somebody complained, I think, to Matthew Arnold that he was getting as dogmatic as Carlyle. He replied, “That may be true; but you overlook an obvious difference. I am dogmatic and right, and Carlyle is dogmatic and wrong.” The strong humour of the remark ought not to disguise from us its everlasting seriousness and common sense; no man ought to write at all, or even to speak at all, unless he thinks that he is in truth and the other man in error. In similar style, I hold that I am dogmatic and right, while Mr. Shaw is dogmatic and wrong. But my main point, at present, is to notice that the chief among these writers I have discussed do most sanely and courageously offer themselves as dogmatists, as founders of a system. It may be true that the thing in Mr. Shaw most interesting to me, is the fact that Mr. Shaw is wrong. But it is equally true that the thing in Mr. Shaw most interesting to himself, is the fact that Mr. Shaw is right. Mr. Shaw may have none with him but himself; but it is not for himself he cares. It is for the vast and universal church, of which he is the only member.

The two typical men of genius whom I have mentioned here, and with whose names I have begun this book, are very symbolic, if only because they have shown that the fiercest dogmatists can make the best artists. In the fin de siecle atmosphere every one was crying out that literature should be free from all causes and all ethical creeds. Art was to produce only exquisite workmanship, and it was especially the note of those days to demand brilliant plays and brilliant short stories. And when they got them, they got them from a couple of moralists. The best short stories were written by a man trying to preach Imperialism. The best plays were written by a man trying to preach Socialism. All the art of all the artists looked tiny and tedious beside the art which was a byproduct of propaganda.

The reason, indeed, is very simple. A man cannot be wise enough to be a great artist without being wise enough to wish to be a philosopher. A man cannot have the energy to produce good art without having the energy to wish to pass beyond it. A small artist is content with art; a great artist is content with nothing except everything. So we find that when real forces, good or bad, like Kipling and G. B. S., enter our arena, they bring with them not only startling and arresting art, but very startling and arresting dogmas. And they care even more, and desire us to care even more, about their startling and arresting dogmas than about their startling and arresting art. Mr. Shaw is a good dramatist, but what he desires more than anything else to be is a good politician. Mr. Rudyard Kipling is by divine caprice and natural genius an unconventional poet; but what he desires more than anything else to be is a conventional poet. He desires to be the poet of his people, bone of their bone, and flesh of their flesh, understanding their origins, celebrating their destiny. He desires to be Poet Laureate, a most sensible and honourable and public-spirited desire. Having been given by the gods originality— that is, disagreement with others—he desires divinely to agree with them. But the most striking instance of all, more striking, I think, even than either of these, is the instance of Mr. H. G. Wells. He began in a sort of insane infancy of pure art. He began by making a new heaven and a new earth, with the same irresponsible instinct by which men buy a new necktie or button-hole. He began by trifling with the stars and systems in order to make ephemeral anecdotes; he killed the universe for a joke. He has since become more and more serious, and has become, as men inevitably do when they become more and more serious, more and more parochial. He was frivolous about the twilight of the gods; but he is serious about the London omnibus. He was careless in “The Time Machine,” for that dealt only with the destiny of all things; but be is careful, and even cautious, in “Mankind in the Making,” for that deals with the day after to-morrow. He began with the end of the world, and that was easy. Now he has gone on to the beginning of the world, and that is difficult. But the main result of all this is the same as in the other cases. The men who have really been the bold artists, the realistic artists, the uncompromising artists, are the men who have turned out, after all, to be writing “with a purpose.” Suppose that any cool and cynical art-critic, any art-critic fully impressed with the conviction that artists were greatest when they were most purely artistic, suppose that a man who professed ably a humane aestheticism, as did Mr. Max Beerbohm, or a cruel aestheticism, as did Mr. W. E. Henley, had cast his eye over the whole fictional literature which was recent in the year 1895, and had been asked to select the three most vigorous and promising and original artists and artistic works, he would, I think, most certainly have said that for a fine artistic audacity, for a real artistic delicacy, or for a whiff of true novelty in art, the things that stood first were “Soldiers Three,” by a Mr. Rudyard Kipling; “Arms and the Man,” by a Mr. Bernard Shaw; and “The Time Machine,” by a man called Wells. And all these men have shown themselves ingrainedly didactic. You may express the matter if you will by saying that if we want doctrines we go to the great artists. But it is clear from the psychology of the matter that this is not the true statement; the true statement is that when we want any art tolerably brisk and bold we have to go to the doctrinaires.

XX. Osservazioni conclusive sull’importanza dell’ortodossia

Se la mente umana possa o no progredire è questione discussa troppo poco, giacché nulla può essere più pericoloso che fondare la nostra filosofia sociale su una qualche teoria discutibile, ma che non è stata discussa. Eppure, se ammettiamo, per amor di ragionamento, che vi sia stato in passato, o vi sarà in futuro, qualcosa come una crescita o un perfezionamento della mente umana stessa, resta pur sempre da sollevare un’obiezione assai acuta contro la versione moderna di tale perfezionamento. Il vizio della moderna nozione di progresso mentale è che essa ha sempre a che fare con lo spezzare i vincoli, con il cancellare i confini, con il gettar via i dogmi. Ma se una crescita mentale esiste davvero, essa deve significare la crescita verso convinzioni sempre più definite, verso dogmi sempre più numerosi. Il cervello umano è una macchina fatta per giungere a conclusioni; se non riesce a giungere a conclusioni, è arrugginito. Quando sentiamo parlare di un uomo troppo intelligente per credere, sentiamo parlare di qualcosa che ha quasi il carattere di una contraddizione in termini. È come sentir parlare di un chiodo troppo buono per fissare un tappeto; o di un catenaccio troppo robusto per tenere chiusa una porta. L’uomo può difficilmente essere definito, alla maniera di Carlyle, come un animale che fabbrica strumenti; le formiche, i castori e molti altri animali fabbricano strumenti, nel senso che costruiscono un congegno. L’uomo può essere definito come un animale che fabbrica dogmi. Man mano che ammucchia dottrina su dottrina e conclusione su conclusione nell’elaborazione di qualche formidabile sistema di filosofia e di religione, egli diviene, nell’unico senso legittimo di cui l’espressione è capace, sempre più umano. Quando lascia cadere una dottrina dopo l’altra in un raffinato scetticismo, quando rifiuta di legarsi a un sistema, quando dice di aver superato le definizioni, quando dichiara di non credere in alcuna conclusione ultima, quando, nella propria immaginazione, siede come Dio, non professando alcuna forma di credo ma contemplandole tutte, allora, per quel medesimo processo, sprofonda lentamente all’indietro nella vaghezza degli animali vaganti e nell’incoscienza dell’erba. Gli alberi non hanno dogmi. Le rape sono singolarmente aperte di mente.

Se dunque, lo ripeto, un progresso mentale ci ha da essere, esso deve essere un progresso mentale nella costruzione di una definita filosofia della vita. E quella filosofia della vita deve essere giusta, e le altre filosofie sbagliate. Ora, di tutti, o quasi tutti, gli abili scrittori moderni che ho brevemente studiato in questo libro, è particolarmente e piacevolmente vero questo: che ciascuno di loro possiede davvero una visione costruttiva e affermativa, e che la prende davvero sul serio e ci chiede di prenderla sul serio. Non c’è nulla di meramente scetticamente progressista nel signor Rudyard Kipling. Non c’è nulla di minimamente aperto di mente nel signor Bernard Shaw. Il paganesimo del signor Lowes Dickinson è più grave di qualsiasi cristianesimo. Perfino l’opportunismo del signor H. G. Wells è più dogmatico dell’idealismo di chiunque altro. Qualcuno si lamentò, credo, con Matthew Arnold che egli stesse diventando dogmatico quanto Carlyle. Egli rispose: «Sarà anche vero; ma tu trascuri una differenza evidente. Io sono dogmatico e ho ragione, mentre Carlyle è dogmatico e ha torto». Il forte umorismo della battuta non dovrebbe celarci la sua eterna serietà e il suo buon senso; nessun uomo dovrebbe mai scrivere alcunché, e neppure aprir bocca, se non pensa di essere lui nella verità e l’altro nell’errore. In stile analogo, sostengo di essere io dogmatico e nel giusto, mentre il signor Shaw è dogmatico e nell’errore. Ma il mio punto principale, per ora, è di notare che i maggiori fra questi scrittori di cui ho discusso si offrono, con quanta più sanità e coraggio, come dogmatici, come fondatori di un sistema. Sarà pur vero che ciò che nel signor Shaw più mi interessa è il fatto che il signor Shaw ha torto. Ma è altrettanto vero che ciò che nel signor Shaw più interessa a lui stesso è il fatto che il signor Shaw ha ragione. Il signor Shaw potrà non avere con sé nessun altro che sé stesso; ma non è di sé stesso che gli importa. È della vasta e universale chiesa di cui egli è l’unico membro.

I due tipici uomini di genio che ho qui menzionato, e con i cui nomi ho aperto questo libro, sono assai simbolici, non fosse che perché hanno mostrato come i più feroci dogmatici possano fare i migliori artisti. Nell’atmosfera del fin de siècle tutti gridavano che la letteratura dovesse essere libera da ogni causa e da ogni credo etico. L’arte doveva produrre soltanto una fattura squisita, ed era soprattutto la nota di quei giorni esigere commedie brillanti e novelle brillanti. E quando le ottennero, le ottennero da una coppia di moralisti. Le migliori novelle furono scritte da un uomo che cercava di predicare l’imperialismo. Le migliori commedie furono scritte da un uomo che cercava di predicare il socialismo. Tutta l’arte di tutti gli artisti appariva minuscola e tediosa accanto a quell’arte che era un sottoprodotto della propaganda.

La ragione, in verità, è semplicissima. Un uomo non può essere abbastanza saggio da essere un grande artista senza essere abbastanza saggio da desiderare di essere un filosofo. Un uomo non può avere l’energia di produrre buona arte senza avere l’energia di desiderare di spingersi oltre di essa. Un piccolo artista si accontenta dell’arte; un grande artista non si accontenta di nulla, tranne che di tutto. Così troviamo che, quando forze reali, buone o cattive, come Kipling e G. B. S., scendono nella nostra arena, portano con sé non soltanto un’arte sorprendente e avvincente, ma dogmi assai sorprendenti e avvincenti. E hanno ancor più a cuore, e desiderano che noi abbiamo ancor più a cuore, i loro dogmi sorprendenti e avvincenti che non la loro arte sorprendente e avvincente. Il signor Shaw è un buon drammaturgo, ma ciò che egli desidera essere più di ogni altra cosa è un buon politico. Il signor Rudyard Kipling è, per divino capriccio e per genio naturale, un poeta anticonvenzionale; ma ciò che desidera essere più di ogni altra cosa è un poeta convenzionale. Egli desidera essere il poeta del suo popolo, osso delle sue ossa e carne della sua carne, comprendendone le origini, celebrandone il destino. Desidera essere Poeta Laureato, un desiderio quanto mai assennato, onorevole e civico. Avendogli gli dèi elargito l’originalità — cioè il dissenso dagli altri —, egli aspira divinamente a concordare con loro. Ma l’esempio più impressionante di tutti, più impressionante, credo, di entrambi questi, è l’esempio del signor H. G. Wells. Egli esordì in una sorta di folle infanzia di arte pura. Cominciò facendo un cielo nuovo e una terra nuova, con lo stesso istinto irresponsabile per cui gli uomini comprano una nuova cravatta o un fiore all’occhiello. Cominciò trastullandosi con le stelle e con i sistemi per ricavarne aneddoti effimeri; uccise l’universo per uno scherzo. Da allora è divenuto sempre più serio, e, come inevitabilmente accade agli uomini quando diventano sempre più seri, è divenuto sempre più parrocchiale. Era frivolo riguardo al crepuscolo degli dèi; ma è serio riguardo all’omnibus di Londra. Era noncurante in «The Time Machine», ché quello trattava soltanto del destino di tutte le cose; ma è attento, e perfino cauto, in «Mankind in the Making», ché quello tratta del dopodomani. Cominciò con la fine del mondo, e ciò fu facile. Ora è passato all’inizio del mondo, e ciò è difficile. Ma il risultato principale di tutto questo è il medesimo che negli altri casi. Gli uomini che sono stati davvero gli artisti audaci, gli artisti realistici, gli artisti intransigenti, sono gli uomini che alla fine sono risultati scrivere «a scopo». Supponiamo che un qualsiasi freddo e cinico critico d’arte, un qualsiasi critico d’arte pienamente compreso della convinzione che gli artisti fossero massimi quando erano più puramente artistici, supponiamo che un uomo il quale professasse abilmente un’estetica umana, come faceva il signor Max Beerbohm, o un’estetica crudele, come faceva il signor W. E. Henley, avesse posato lo sguardo su tutta la letteratura di finzione recente nell’anno 1895, e gli fosse stato chiesto di scegliere i tre artisti e le tre opere artistiche più vigorosi, più promettenti e più originali: egli, io credo, avrebbe con ogni certezza detto che, per fine audacia artistica, per reale delicatezza artistica, o per un soffio di vera novità nell’arte, le cose che venivano prime erano «Soldiers Three», di un tal signor Rudyard Kipling; «Arms and the Man», di un tal signor Bernard Shaw; e «The Time Machine», di un uomo chiamato Wells. E tutti questi uomini si sono mostrati intimamente didattici. Puoi esprimere la cosa, se vuoi, dicendo che, se vogliamo dottrine, andiamo dai grandi artisti. Ma è chiaro, dalla psicologia della faccenda, che questa non è la vera formulazione; la vera formulazione è che, quando vogliamo un’arte tollerabilmente vivace e ardita, dobbiamo andare dai dottrinari.

In concluding this book, therefore, I would ask, first and foremost, that men such as these of whom I have spoken should not be insulted by being taken for artists. No man has any right whatever merely to enjoy the work of Mr. Bernard Shaw; he might as well enjoy the invasion of his country by the French. Mr. Shaw writes either to convince or to enrage us. No man has any business to be a Kiplingite without being a politician, and an Imperialist politician. If a man is first with us, it should be because of what is first with him. If a man convinces us at all, it should be by his convictions. If we hate a poem of Kipling’s from political passion, we are hating it for the same reason that the poet loved it; if we dislike him because of his opinions, we are disliking him for the best of all possible reasons. If a man comes into Hyde Park to preach it is permissible to hoot him; but it is discourteous to applaud him as a performing bear. And an artist is only a performing bear compared with the meanest man who fancies he has anything to say.

There is, indeed, one class of modern writers and thinkers who cannot altogether be overlooked in this question, though there is no space here for a lengthy account of them, which, indeed, to confess the truth, would consist chiefly of abuse. I mean those who get over all these abysses and reconcile all these wars by talking about “aspects of truth,” by saying that the art of Kipling represents one aspect of the truth, and the art of William Watson another; the art of Mr. Bernard Shaw one aspect of the truth, and the art of Mr. Cunningham Grahame another; the art of Mr. H. G. Wells one aspect, and the art of Mr. Coventry Patmore (say) another. I will only say here that this seems to me an evasion which has not even bad the sense to disguise itself ingeniously in words. If we talk of a certain thing being an aspect of truth, it is evident that we claim to know what is truth; just as, if we talk of the hind leg of a dog, we claim to know what is a dog. Unfortunately, the philosopher who talks about aspects of truth generally also asks, “What is truth?” Frequently even he denies the existence of truth, or says it is inconceivable by the human intelligence. How, then, can he recognize its aspects? I should not like to be an artist who brought an architectural sketch to a builder, saying, “This is the south aspect of Sea-View Cottage. Sea-View Cottage, of course, does not exist.” I should not even like very much to have to explain, under such circumstances, that Sea-View Cottage might exist, but was unthinkable by the human mind. Nor should I like any better to be the bungling and absurd metaphysician who professed to be able to see everywhere the aspects of a truth that is not there. Of course, it is perfectly obvious that there are truths in Kipling, that there are truths in Shaw or Wells. But the degree to which we can perceive them depends strictly upon how far we have a definite conception inside us of what is truth. It is ludicrous to suppose that the more sceptical we are the more we see good in everything. It is clear that the more we are certain what good is, the more we shall see good in everything.

I plead, then, that we should agree or disagree with these men. I plead that we should agree with them at least in having an abstract belief. But I know that there are current in the modern world many vague objections to having an abstract belief, and I feel that we shall not get any further until we have dealt with some of them. The first objection is easily stated.

A common hesitation in our day touching the use of extreme convictions is a sort of notion that extreme convictions, specially upon cosmic matters, have been responsible in the past for the thing which is called bigotry. But a very small amount of direct experience will dissipate this view. In real life the people who are most bigoted are the people who have no convictions at all. The economists of the Manchester school who disagree with Socialism take Socialism seriously. It is the young man in Bond Street, who does not know what socialism means, much less whether he agrees with it, who is quite certain that these socialist fellows are making a fuss about nothing. The man who understands the Calvinist philosophy enough to agree with it must understand the Catholic philosophy in order to disagree with it. It is the vague modern who is not at all certain what is right who is most certain that Dante was wrong. The serious opponent of the Latin Church in history, even in the act of showing that it produced great infamies, must know that it produced great saints. It is the hard-headed stockbroker, who knows no history and believes no religion, who is, nevertheless, perfectly convinced that all these priests are knaves. The Salvationist at the Marble Arch may be bigoted, but he is not too bigoted to yearn from a common human kinship after the dandy on church parade. But the dandy on church parade is so bigoted that he does not in the least yearn after the Salvationist at the Marble Arch. Bigotry may be roughly defined as the anger of men who have no opinions. It is the resistance offered to definite ideas by that vague bulk of people whose ideas are indefinite to excess. Bigotry may be called the appalling frenzy of the indifferent. This frenzy of the indifferent is in truth a terrible thing; it has made all monstrous and widely pervading persecutions. In this degree it was not the people who cared who ever persecuted; the people who cared were not sufficiently numerous. It was the people who did not care who filled the world with fire and oppression. It was the hands of the indifferent that lit the faggots; it was the hands of the indifferent that turned the rack. There have come some persecutions out of the pain of a passionate certainty; but these produced, not bigotry, but fanaticism—a very different and a somewhat admirable thing. Bigotry in the main has always been the pervading omnipotence of those who do not care crushing out those who care in darkness and blood.

Nel concludere questo libro, dunque, chiederei, prima e innanzitutto, che uomini come questi di cui ho parlato non vengano insultati con l’essere scambiati per artisti. Nessun uomo ha il benché minimo diritto di limitarsi a godere l’opera del signor Bernard Shaw; tanto varrebbe che godesse dell’invasione del proprio paese da parte dei Francesi. Il signor Shaw scrive o per convincerci o per farci infuriare. Nessun uomo ha titolo di essere un kiplingiano senza essere un politico, e un politico imperialista. Se un uomo ci sta a cuore per primo, dev’essere in ragione di ciò che sta a cuore per primo a lui. Se un uomo ci convince, dev’essere per le sue convinzioni. Se odiamo una poesia di Kipling per passione politica, la odiamo per la stessa ragione per cui il poeta l’ha amata; se ci è sgradito a causa delle sue opinioni, ci è sgradito per la migliore di tutte le ragioni possibili. Se un uomo viene a Hyde Park per predicare, è lecito fischiarlo; ma è scortese applaudirlo come un orso ammaestrato. E un artista non è che un orso ammaestrato, se paragonato all’uomo più meschino che si immagini di avere qualcosa da dire.

Vi è, in verità, una categoria di scrittori e pensatori moderni che non può essere del tutto trascurata in questa questione, sebbene non vi sia qui spazio per un lungo resoconto su di essa, il quale, invero, a dire la verità, consisterebbe per lo più di invettive. Intendo coloro che superano tutti questi abissi e riconciliano tutte queste guerre parlando di «aspetti della verità», dicendo che l’arte di Kipling rappresenta un aspetto della verità, e l’arte di William Watson un altro; l’arte del signor Bernard Shaw un aspetto della verità, e l’arte del signor Cunningham Grahame un altro; l’arte del signor H. G. Wells un aspetto, e l’arte del signor Coventry Patmore (poniamo) un altro. Dirò qui soltanto che questo mi pare un sotterfugio che non ha avuto nemmeno il buon senso di camuffarsi ingegnosamente nelle parole. Se parliamo di una certa cosa come di un aspetto della verità, è evidente che pretendiamo di sapere che cosa sia la verità; proprio come, se parliamo della zampa posteriore di un cane, pretendiamo di sapere che cosa sia un cane. Sfortunatamente, il filosofo che parla di aspetti della verità di solito chiede anche: «Che cos’è la verità?». Spesso egli nega perfino l’esistenza della verità, o dice che essa è inconcepibile per l’intelligenza umana. Come può, allora, riconoscerne gli aspetti? Non vorrei essere un artista che portasse a un costruttore uno schizzo architettonico, dicendo: «Questo è l’aspetto meridionale di Sea-View Cottage. Sea-View Cottage, naturalmente, non esiste». Non mi piacerebbe nemmeno troppo dover spiegare, in tali circostanze, che Sea-View Cottage potrebbe esistere, ma è impensabile per la mente umana. Né mi piacerebbe di più essere il pasticcione e assurdo metafisico che pretendesse di saper scorgere dappertutto gli aspetti di una verità che non c’è. Naturalmente, è perfettamente evidente che vi sono verità in Kipling, che vi sono verità in Shaw o in Wells. Ma il grado in cui possiamo percepirle dipende rigorosamente da quanto abbiamo dentro di noi una concezione definita di che cosa sia la verità. È ridicolo supporre che, quanto più siamo scettici, tanto più vediamo il bene in ogni cosa. È chiaro che, quanto più siamo certi di che cosa sia il bene, tanto più vedremo il bene in ogni cosa.

Peroro, dunque, che dovremmo trovarci d’accordo o in disaccordo con questi uomini. Peroro che dovremmo trovarci d’accordo con loro almeno nell’avere una convinzione astratta. Ma so che circolano nel mondo moderno molte vaghe obiezioni contro l’avere una convinzione astratta, e sento che non andremo oltre finché non ne avremo affrontate alcune. La prima obiezione è facilmente enunciata.

Una comune esitazione dei nostri giorni, riguardo all’uso di convinzioni estreme, è una sorta di idea che le convinzioni estreme, specie in materia cosmica, siano state responsabili in passato di quella cosa che si chiama bigottismo. Ma una piccolissima dose di esperienza diretta dissiperà questa opinione. Nella vita reale le persone più bigotte sono le persone che non hanno affatto convinzioni. Gli economisti della scuola di Manchester che dissentono dal socialismo prendono il socialismo sul serio. È il giovanotto di Bond Street, che non sa che cosa significhi socialismo, e tanto meno se sia d’accordo con esso, colui che è ben certo che questi tizi socialisti stiano facendo un gran chiasso per nulla. L’uomo che comprende la filosofia calvinista abbastanza da essere d’accordo con essa deve comprendere la filosofia cattolica per poterne dissentire. È il vago uomo moderno, che non è per nulla certo di che cosa sia giusto, colui che è più che mai certo che Dante avesse torto. Il serio oppositore della Chiesa latina nella storia, perfino nell’atto di mostrare che essa produsse grandi infamie, deve sapere che essa produsse grandi santi. È l’agente di cambio dalla testa dura, che non conosce alcuna storia e non crede in alcuna religione, colui che è ciò nondimeno perfettamente convinto che tutti questi preti siano dei farabutti. Il salutista di Marble Arch potrà essere bigotto, ma non è tanto bigotto da non anelare, per una comune fratellanza umana, verso il damerino della parata domenicale in chiesa. Ma il damerino della parata domenicale in chiesa è tanto bigotto da non anelare minimamente verso il salutista di Marble Arch. Il bigottismo può essere grossolanamente definito come la collera degli uomini che non hanno opinioni. È la resistenza opposta alle idee definite da quella vaga massa di persone le cui idee sono indefinite all’eccesso. Il bigottismo può essere chiamato la spaventosa frenesia degli indifferenti. Questa frenesia degli indifferenti è, in verità, una cosa terribile; ha prodotto tutte le persecuzioni mostruose e vastamente diffuse. In tale misura, non furono mai coloro cui la cosa stava a cuore a perseguitare; coloro cui stava a cuore non erano abbastanza numerosi. Furono coloro cui non importava a riempire il mondo di fuoco e di oppressione. Furono le mani degli indifferenti ad accendere le fascine; furono le mani degli indifferenti a girare la ruota della tortura. Vi sono state alcune persecuzioni scaturite dal dolore di una certezza appassionata; ma queste produssero non bigottismo, bensì fanatismo — cosa assai diversa e in qualche modo ammirevole. Il bigottismo, nel complesso, è sempre stato la pervasiva onnipotenza di coloro cui non importa nulla, che schiaccia coloro cui importa nelle tenebre e nel sangue.

There are people, however, who dig somewhat deeper than this into the possible evils of dogma. It is felt by many that strong philosophical conviction, while it does not (as they perceive) produce that sluggish and fundamentally frivolous condition which we call bigotry, does produce a certain concentration, exaggeration, and moral impatience, which we may agree to call fanaticism. They say, in brief, that ideas are dangerous things. In politics, for example, it is commonly urged against a man like Mr. Balfour, or against a man like Mr. John Morley, that a wealth of ideas is dangerous. The true doctrine on this point, again, is surely not very difficult to state. Ideas are dangerous, but the man to whom they are least dangerous is the man of ideas. He is acquainted with ideas, and moves among them like a lion-tamer. Ideas are dangerous, but the man to whom they are most dangerous is the man of no ideas. The man of no ideas will find the first idea fly to his head like wine to the head of a teetotaller. It is a common error, I think, among the Radical idealists of my own party and period to suggest that financiers and business men are a danger to the empire because they are so sordid or so materialistic. The truth is that financiers and business men are a danger to the empire because they can be sentimental about any sentiment, and idealistic about any ideal, any ideal that they find lying about. Just as a boy who has not known much of women is apt too easily to take a woman for the woman, so these practical men, unaccustomed to causes, are always inclined to think that if a thing is proved to be an ideal it is proved to be the ideal. Many, for example, avowedly followed Cecil Rhodes because he had a vision. They might as well have followed him because he had a nose; a man without some kind of dream of perfection is quite as much of a monstrosity as a noseless man. People say of such a figure, in almost feverish whispers, “He knows his own mind,” which is exactly like saying in equally feverish whispers, “He blows his own nose.” Human nature simply cannot subsist without a hope and aim of some kind; as the sanity of the Old Testament truly said, where there is no vision the people perisheth. But it is precisely because an ideal is necessary to man that the man without ideals is in permanent danger of fanaticism. There is nothing which is so likely to leave a man open to the sudden and irresistible inroad of an unbalanced vision as the cultivation of business habits. All of us know angular business men who think that the earth is flat, or that Mr. Kruger was at the head of a great military despotism, or that men are graminivorous, or that Bacon wrote Shakespeare. Religious and philosophical beliefs are, indeed, as dangerous as fire, and nothing can take from them that beauty of danger. But there is only one way of really guarding ourselves against the excessive danger of them, and that is to be steeped in philosophy and soaked in religion.

Briefly, then, we dismiss the two opposite dangers of bigotry and fanaticism, bigotry which is a too great vagueness and fanaticism which is a too great concentration. We say that the cure for the bigot is belief; we say that the cure for the idealist is ideas. To know the best theories of existence and to choose the best from them (that is, to the best of our own strong conviction) appears to us the proper way to be neither bigot nor fanatic, but something more firm than a bigot and more terrible than a fanatic, a man with a definite opinion. But that definite opinion must in this view begin with the basic matters of human thought, and these must not be dismissed as irrelevant, as religion, for instance, is too often in our days dismissed as irrelevant. Even if we think religion insoluble, we cannot think it irrelevant. Even if we ourselves have no view of the ultimate verities, we must feel that wherever such a view exists in a man it must be more important than anything else in him. The instant that the thing ceases to be the unknowable, it becomes the indispensable. There can be no doubt, I think, that the idea does exist in our time that there is something narrow or irrelevant or even mean about attacking a man’s religion, or arguing from it in matters of politics or ethics. There can be quite as little doubt that such an accusation of narrowness is itself almost grotesquely narrow. To take an example from comparatively current events: we all know that it was not uncommon for a man to be considered a scarecrow of bigotry and obscurantism because he distrusted the Japanese, or lamented the rise of the Japanese, on the ground that the Japanese were Pagans. Nobody would think that there was anything antiquated or fanatical about distrusting a people because of some difference between them and us in practice or political machinery. Nobody would think it bigoted to say of a people, “I distrust their influence because they are Protectionists.” No one would think it narrow to say, “I lament their rise because they are Socialists, or Manchester Individualists, or strong believers in militarism and conscription.” A difference of opinion about the nature of Parliaments matters very much; but a difference of opinion about the nature of sin does not matter at all. A difference of opinion about the object of taxation matters very much; but a difference of opinion about the object of human existence does not matter at all. We have a right to distrust a man who is in a different kind of municipality; but we have no right to mistrust a man who is in a different kind of cosmos. This sort of enlightenment is surely about the most unenlightened that it is possible to imagine. To recur to the phrase which I employed earlier, this is tantamount to saying that everything is important with the exception of everything. Religion is exactly the thing which cannot be left out— because it includes everything. The most absent-minded person cannot well pack his Gladstone-bag and leave out the bag. We have a general view of existence, whether we like it or not; it alters or, to speak more accurately, it creates and involves everything we say or do, whether we like it or not. If we regard the Cosmos as a dream, we regard the Fiscal Question as a dream. If we regard the Cosmos as a joke, we regard St. Paul’s Cathedral as a joke. If everything is bad, then we must believe (if it be possible) that beer is bad; if everything be good, we are forced to the rather fantastic conclusion that scientific philanthropy is good. Every man in the street must hold a metaphysical system, and hold it firmly. The possibility is that he may have held it so firmly and so long as to have forgotten all about its existence.

Vi sono, tuttavia, persone che scavano un po’ più a fondo di così nei possibili mali del dogma. Molti avvertono che la forte convinzione filosofica, pur non producendo (come essi percepiscono) quella condizione ottusa e fondamentalmente frivola che chiamiamo bigottismo, produce nondimeno una certa concentrazione, esagerazione e impazienza morale, che possiamo convenire di chiamare fanatismo. Dicono, in breve, che le idee sono cose pericolose. In politica, per esempio, contro un uomo come il signor Balfour, o contro un uomo come il signor John Morley, comunemente si obietta che una ricchezza di idee è pericolosa. La vera dottrina su questo punto, ancora una volta, non è certo troppo difficile da enunciare. Le idee sono pericolose, ma l’uomo per il quale sono meno pericolose è l’uomo di idee. Egli ha dimestichezza con le idee, e si muove fra esse come un domatore di leoni. Le idee sono pericolose, ma l’uomo per il quale sono più pericolose è l’uomo privo di idee. L’uomo privo di idee troverà che la prima idea gli sale alla testa come il vino alla testa di un astemio. È un errore comune, credo, fra gli idealisti radicali del mio stesso partito e della mia stessa epoca, suggerire che i finanzieri e gli uomini d’affari siano un pericolo per l’impero perché sono così sordidi o così materialisti. La verità è che i finanzieri e gli uomini d’affari sono un pericolo per l’impero perché possono intenerirsi per qualsiasi sentimento e idealeggiare su qualsiasi ideale, su qualunque ideale trovino in giro. Proprio come un ragazzo che non ha conosciuto molto le donne è incline con troppa facilità a scambiare una donna per la donna, così questi uomini pratici, non avvezzi alle cause, sono sempre inclini a pensare che, se una cosa è dimostrata essere un ideale, è dimostrata essere l’ideale. Molti, per esempio, seguirono dichiaratamente Cecil Rhodes perché egli aveva una visione. Tanto varrebbe che l’avessero seguito perché aveva un naso; un uomo privo di qualche sorta di sogno di perfezione è mostruoso tanto quanto un uomo privo di naso. La gente dice di una simile figura, in bisbigli quasi febbrili: «Egli sa quel che ha in mente», il che è esattamente come dire, in bisbigli altrettanto febbrili: «Egli si soffia il proprio naso». La natura umana semplicemente non può sussistere senza una speranza e uno scopo di qualche genere; come diceva con verità la saggezza dell’Antico Testamento, dove non c’è visione il popolo perisce. Ma è precisamente perché un ideale è necessario all’uomo che l’uomo privo di ideali è in permanente pericolo di fanatismo. Non c’è nulla che tanto facilmente lasci un uomo aperto all’improvvisa e irresistibile irruzione di una visione squilibrata quanto la coltivazione di abitudini d’affari. Tutti noi conosciamo spigolosi uomini d’affari che pensano che la terra sia piatta, o che il signor Kruger fosse a capo di un grande dispotismo militare, o che gli uomini siano granivori, o che Bacone abbia scritto Shakespeare. Le credenze religiose e filosofiche sono, in verità, pericolose come il fuoco, e nulla può togliere loro quella bellezza del pericolo. Ma vi è un solo modo per premunirci davvero contro il loro eccessivo pericolo, ed è essere impregnati di filosofia e imbevuti di religione.

In breve, dunque, liquidiamo i due pericoli opposti del bigottismo e del fanatismo: il bigottismo, che è una vaghezza troppo grande, e il fanatismo, che è una concentrazione troppo grande. Diciamo che la cura per il bigotto è la fede; diciamo che la cura per l’idealista sono le idee. Conoscere le migliori teorie dell’esistenza e scegliere fra esse la migliore (cioè, secondo la nostra più salda convinzione) ci appare il modo giusto per non essere né bigotti né fanatici, ma qualcosa di più fermo di un bigotto e di più terribile di un fanatico: un uomo con un’opinione definita. Ma quell’opinione definita, in questa prospettiva, deve cominciare dalle questioni basilari del pensiero umano, e queste non devono essere liquidate come irrilevanti, come troppo spesso ai giorni nostri viene liquidata come irrilevante, per esempio, la religione. Anche se riteniamo la religione insolubile, non possiamo ritenerla irrilevante. Anche se noi stessi non abbiamo alcuna veduta sulle verità ultime, dobbiamo sentire che, ovunque una tale veduta esista in un uomo, essa dev’essere più importante di qualsiasi altra cosa in lui. Nell’istante in cui la cosa cessa di essere l’inconoscibile, essa diventa l’indispensabile. Non può esserci alcun dubbio, credo, che nel nostro tempo esista l’idea che vi sia qualcosa di ristretto o di irrilevante o perfino di meschino nell’attaccare la religione di un uomo, o nel trarne argomenti in materia di politica o di etica. Non può esserci dubbio altrettanto scarso che una simile accusa di ristrettezza sia essa stessa quasi grottescamente ristretta. Per prendere un esempio da eventi comparativamente attuali: tutti sappiamo che non era raro che un uomo venisse considerato uno spauracchio di bigottismo e oscurantismo perché diffidava dei Giapponesi, o deplorava l’ascesa dei Giapponesi, sulla base del fatto che i Giapponesi erano pagani. Nessuno penserebbe che vi sia alcunché di antiquato o di fanatico nel diffidare di un popolo a causa di qualche differenza fra esso e noi nella pratica o nelle istituzioni politiche. Nessuno riterrebbe bigotto dire di un popolo: «Diffido della loro influenza perché sono protezionisti». Nessuno riterrebbe ristretto dire: «Deploro la loro ascesa perché sono socialisti, o individualisti alla Manchester, o strenui credenti nel militarismo e nella coscrizione». Una differenza di opinione sulla natura dei parlamenti conta moltissimo; ma una differenza di opinione sulla natura del peccato non conta affatto. Una differenza di opinione sull’oggetto della tassazione conta moltissimo; ma una differenza di opinione sull’oggetto dell’esistenza umana non conta affatto. Abbiamo il diritto di diffidare di un uomo che appartiene a un diverso tipo di municipalità; ma non abbiamo il diritto di diffidare di un uomo che appartiene a un diverso tipo di cosmo. Questa sorta di illuminismo è di certo quanto di più oscurantista si possa immaginare. Per tornare alla frase che ho impiegato prima, ciò equivale a dire che tutto è importante, ad eccezione di tutto. La religione è esattamente la cosa che non può essere lasciata fuori — perché essa include ogni cosa. La persona più distratta non può bene fare la valigia e lasciar fuori la valigia. Abbiamo una veduta generale dell’esistenza, che ci piaccia o no; essa altera, o, a dire con più esattezza, essa crea e implica tutto ciò che diciamo o facciamo, che ci piaccia o no. Se consideriamo il cosmo come un sogno, consideriamo la questione fiscale come un sogno. Se consideriamo il cosmo come uno scherzo, consideriamo la cattedrale di San Paolo come uno scherzo. Se tutto è cattivo, allora dobbiamo credere (se è possibile) che la birra sia cattiva; se tutto è buono, siamo costretti alla conclusione piuttosto fantastica che la filantropia scientifica sia buona. Ogni uomo per strada deve professare un sistema metafisico, e professarlo fermamente. È possibile che l’abbia professato tanto fermamente e tanto a lungo da aver dimenticato del tutto la sua esistenza.

This latter situation is certainly possible; in fact, it is the situation of the whole modern world. The modern world is filled with men who hold dogmas so strongly that they do not even know that they are dogmas. It may be said even that the modern world, as a corporate body, holds certain dogmas so strongly that it does not know that they are dogmas. It may be thought “dogmatic,” for instance, in some circles accounted progressive, to assume the perfection or improvement of man in another world. But it is not thought “dogmatic” to assume the perfection or improvement of man in this world; though that idea of progress is quite as unproved as the idea of immortality, and from a rationalistic point of view quite as improbable. Progress happens to be one of our dogmas, and a dogma means a thing which is not thought dogmatic. Or, again, we see nothing “dogmatic” in the inspiring, but certainly most startling, theory of physical science, that we should collect facts for the sake of facts, even though they seem as useless as sticks and straws. This is a great and suggestive idea, and its utility may, if you will, be proving itself, but its utility is, in the abstract, quite as disputable as the utility of that calling on oracles or consulting shrines which is also said to prove itself. Thus, because we are not in a civilization which believes strongly in oracles or sacred places, we see the full frenzy of those who killed themselves to find the sepulchre of Christ. But being in a civilization which does believe in this dogma of fact for facts’ sake, we do not see the full frenzy of those who kill themselves to find the North Pole. I am not speaking of a tenable ultimate utility which is true both of the Crusades and the polar explorations. I mean merely that we do see the superficial and aesthetic singularity, the startling quality, about the idea of men crossing a continent with armies to conquer the place where a man died. But we do not see the aesthetic singularity and startling quality of men dying in agonies to find a place where no man can live—a place only interesting because it is supposed to be the meeting-place of some lines that do not exist.

Let us, then, go upon a long journey and enter on a dreadful search. Let us, at least, dig and seek till we have discovered our own opinions. The dogmas we really hold are far more fantastic, and, perhaps, far more beautiful than we think. In the course of these essays I fear that I have spoken from time to time of rationalists and rationalism, and that in a disparaging sense. Being full of that kindliness which should come at the end of everything, even of a book, I apologize to the rationalists even for calling them rationalists. There are no rationalists. We all believe fairy-tales, and live in them. Some, with a sumptuous literary turn, believe in the existence of the lady clothed with the sun. Some, with a more rustic, elvish instinct, like Mr. McCabe, believe merely in the impossible sun itself. Some hold the undemonstrable dogma of the existence of God; some the equally undemonstrable dogma of the existence of the man next door.

Truths turn into dogmas the instant that they are disputed. Thus every man who utters a doubt defines a religion. And the scepticism of our time does not really destroy the beliefs, rather it creates them; gives them their limits and their plain and defiant shape. We who are Liberals once held Liberalism lightly as a truism. Now it has been disputed, and we hold it fiercely as a faith. We who believe in patriotism once thought patriotism to be reasonable, and thought little more about it. Now we know it to be unreasonable, and know it to be right. We who are Christians never knew the great philosophic common sense which inheres in that mystery until the anti-Christian writers pointed it out to us. The great march of mental destruction will go on. Everything will be denied. Everything will become a creed. It is a reasonable position to deny the stones in the street; it will be a religious dogma to assert them. It is a rational thesis that we are all in a dream; it will be a mystical sanity to say that we are all awake. Fires will be kindled to testify that two and two make four. Swords will be drawn to prove that leaves are green in summer. We shall be left defending, not only the incredible virtues and sanities of human life, but something more incredible still, this huge impossible universe which stares us in the face. We shall fight for visible prodigies as if they were invisible. We shall look on the impossible grass and the skies with a strange courage. We shall be of those who have seen and yet have believed.

THE END

Quest’ultima situazione è certamente possibile; di fatto, è la situazione dell’intero mondo moderno. Il mondo moderno è colmo di uomini che professano dogmi tanto fermamente da non sapere nemmeno che si tratta di dogmi. Si può dire perfino che il mondo moderno, come corpo collettivo, professi certi dogmi tanto fermamente da non sapere che sono dogmi. Può essere ritenuto «dogmatico», per esempio, in certi circoli reputati progressisti, presumere la perfezione o il perfezionamento dell’uomo in un altro mondo. Ma non è ritenuto «dogmatico» presumere la perfezione o il perfezionamento dell’uomo in questo mondo; benché quell’idea di progresso sia altrettanto indimostrata quanto l’idea dell’immortalità, e da un punto di vista razionalistico altrettanto improbabile. Il progresso si dà il caso che sia uno dei nostri dogmi, e un dogma è una cosa che non è ritenuta dogmatica. Oppure, ancora, non vediamo nulla di «dogmatico» nell’ispirante, ma certo assai sorprendente, teoria della scienza fisica, secondo cui dovremmo raccogliere i fatti per amore dei fatti, anche se sembrano inutili come stecchi e fuscelli. Questa è un’idea grande e suggestiva, e la sua utilità potrà, se vuoi, dimostrarsi da sé, ma la sua utilità è, in astratto, altrettanto discutibile quanto l’utilità di quel ricorrere agli oracoli o consultare i santuari che pure si dice si dimostri da sé. Così, poiché non ci troviamo in una civiltà che crede fermamente negli oracoli o nei luoghi sacri, vediamo la piena frenesia di coloro che si uccisero per trovare il sepolcro di Cristo. Ma, trovandoci in una civiltà che crede davvero in questo dogma del fatto per amore dei fatti, non vediamo la piena frenesia di coloro che si uccidono per trovare il Polo Nord. Non sto parlando di una sostenibile utilità ultima, che vale tanto per le crociate quanto per le esplorazioni polari. Intendo semplicemente che vediamo bene la singolarità superficiale ed estetica, la qualità sorprendente, dell’idea di uomini che attraversano un continente con degli eserciti per conquistare il luogo dove un uomo morì. Ma non vediamo la singolarità estetica e la qualità sorprendente di uomini che muoiono fra le agonie per trovare un luogo dove nessun uomo può vivere — un luogo interessante soltanto perché si suppone essere il punto d’incontro di certe linee che non esistono.

Andiamo, allora, in un lungo viaggio e mettiamoci in una tremenda ricerca. Scaviamo e cerchiamo, almeno, finché non avremo scoperto le nostre stesse opinioni. I dogmi che davvero professiamo sono assai più fantastici, e, forse, assai più belli di quanto pensiamo. Nel corso di questi saggi temo di aver parlato di tempo in tempo di razionalisti e di razionalismo, e in senso spregiativo. Essendo pieno di quella benevolenza che dovrebbe sopraggiungere alla fine di ogni cosa, perfino di un libro, chiedo scusa ai razionalisti perfino per averli chiamati razionalisti. Non esistono razionalisti. Tutti crediamo alle fiabe, e viviamo in esse. Alcuni, con una fastosa inclinazione letteraria, credono nell’esistenza della donna vestita di sole. Alcuni, con un istinto più rustico ed elfico, come il signor McCabe, credono semplicemente nell’impossibile sole stesso. Alcuni professano l’indimostrabile dogma dell’esistenza di Dio; altri l’egualmente indimostrabile dogma dell’esistenza dell’uomo della porta accanto.

Le verità si tramutano in dogmi nell’istante stesso in cui vengono contestate. Così ogni uomo che pronuncia un dubbio definisce una religione. E lo scetticismo del nostro tempo non distrugge affatto le credenze; anzi, le crea; conferisce loro i loro limiti e la loro forma netta e sfidante. Noi che siamo liberali un tempo tenevamo il liberalismo con leggerezza, come un truismo. Ora esso è stato contestato, e lo teniamo ferocemente come una fede. Noi che crediamo nel patriottismo un tempo pensavamo che il patriottismo fosse ragionevole, e non ci pensavamo molto oltre. Ora sappiamo che è irragionevole, e sappiamo che è giusto. Noi che siamo cristiani non conoscemmo mai il grande buon senso filosofico insito in quel mistero, finché gli scrittori anticristiani non ce lo indicarono. La grande marcia della distruzione mentale proseguirà. Ogni cosa sarà negata. Ogni cosa diventerà un credo. È una posizione ragionevole negare le pietre per strada; sarà un dogma religioso affermarle. È una tesi razionale che siamo tutti in un sogno; sarà una mistica saggezza dire che siamo tutti svegli. Si accenderanno fuochi per testimoniare che due più due fa quattro. Si sguaineranno spade per provare che le foglie sono verdi d’estate. Ci ritroveremo a difendere non soltanto le incredibili virtù e sanità della vita umana, ma qualcosa di ancor più incredibile, questo enorme, impossibile universo che ci fissa in volto. Combatteremo per prodigi visibili come se fossero invisibili. Guarderemo l’impossibile erba e i cieli con uno strano coraggio. Saremo tra coloro che hanno visto e nondimeno hanno creduto.

FINE