GEORGE BERNARD SHAW
By
GILBERT K. CHESTERTON
This contains the first 1909 edition, and an appendix, “The Later Phases”, from 1935.
NEW YORK: JOHN LANE COMPANY, MCMX
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY JOHN LANE COMPANY
THE PLIMPTON PRESS, NORWOOD, MASS.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO THE FIRST EDITION
THE PROBLEM OF A PREFACE
THE IRISHMAN
THE PURITAN
THE PROGRESSIVE
THE CRITIC
THE DRAMATIST
THE PHILOSOPHER
THE LATER PHASES
Introduction to the First Edition
MOST people either say that they agree with Bernard Shaw or that they do not understand him. I am the only person who understands him, and I do not agree with him.
G. K. C.
The Problem of a Preface
A PECULIAR difficulty arrests the writer of this rough study at the very start. Many people know Mr. Bernard Shaw chiefly as a man who would write a very long preface even to a very short play. And there is truth in the idea; he is indeed a very prefatory sort of person. He always gives the explanation before the incident; but so, for the matter of that, does the Gospel of St. John. For Bernard Shaw, as for the mystics, Christian and heathen (and Shaw is best described as a heathen mystic), the philosophy of facts is anterior to the facts themselves. In due time we come to the fact, the incarnation; but in the beginning was the Word.
This produces upon many minds an impression of needless preparation and a kind of bustling prolixity. But the truth is that the very rapidity of such a man’s mind makes him seem slow in getting to the point. It is positively because he is quick-witted that he is long-winded. A quick eye for ideas may actually make a writer slow in reaching his goal, just as a quick eye for landscapes might make a motorist slow in reaching Brighton. An original man has to pause at every allusion or simile to re-explain historical parallels, to re-shape distorted words. Any ordinary leader-writer (let us say) might write swiftly and smoothly something like this: “The element of religion in the Puritan rebellion, if hostile to art, yet saved the movement from some of the evils in which the French Revolution involved morality.” Now a man like Mr. Shaw, who has his own views on everything, would be forced to make the sentence long and broken instead of swift and smooth. He would say something like: “The element of religion, as I explain religion, in the Puritan rebellion (which you wholly misunderstand) if hostile to art—that is what I mean by art— may have saved it from some evils (remember my definition of evil) in which the French Revolution—of which I have my own opinion— involved morality, which I will define for you in a minute.” That is the worst of being a really universal sceptic and philosopher; it is such slow work. The very forest of the man’s thoughts chokes up his thoroughfare. A man must be orthodox upon most things, or he will never even have time to preach his own heresy.
Now the same difficulty which affects the work of Bernard Shaw affects also any book about him. There is an unavoidable artistic necessity to put the preface before the play; that is, there is a necessity to say something of what Bernard Shaw’s experience means before one even says what it was. We have to mention what he did when we have already explained why he did it. Viewed superficially, his life consists of fairly conventional incidents, and might easily fall under fairly conventional phrases. It might be the life of any Dublin clerk or Manchester Socialist or London author. If I touch on the man’s life before his work, it will seem trivial; yet taken with his work it is most important. In short, one could scarcely know what Shaw’s doings meant unless one knew what he meant by them. This difficulty in mere order and construction has puzzled me very much. I am going to overcome it, clumsily perhaps, but in the way which affects me as most sincere. Before I write even a slight suggestion of his relation to the stage, I am going to write of three soils or atmospheres out of which that relation grew. In other words, before I write of Shaw I will write of the three great influences upon Shaw. They were all three there before he was born, yet each one of them is himself and a very vivid portrait of him from one point of view. I have called these three traditions: “The Irishman,” “The Puritan,” and “The Progressive.” I do not see how this prefatory theorising is to be avoided; for if I simply said, for instance, that Bernard Shaw was an Irishman, the impression produced on the reader might be remote from my thought and, what is more important, from Shaw’s. People might think, for instance, that I meant that he was “irresponsible.” That would throw out the whole plan of these pages, for if there is one thing that Shaw is not, it is irresponsible. The responsibility in him rings like steel. Or, again, if I simply called him a Puritan, it might mean something about nude statues or “prudes on the prowl.” Or if I called him a Progressive, it might be supposed to mean that he votes for Progressives at the County Council election, which I very much doubt. I have no other course but this: of briefly explaining such matters as Shaw himself might explain them. Some fastidious persons may object to my thus putting the moral in front of the fable. Some may imagine in their innocence that they already understand the word Puritan or the yet more mysterious word Irishman. The only person, indeed, of whose approval I feel fairly certain is Mr. Bernard Shaw himself, the man of many introductions.
The Irishman
THE English public has commonly professed, with a kind of pride, that it cannot understand Mr. Bernard Shaw. There are many reasons for it which ought to be adequately considered in such a book as this. But the first and most obvious reason is the mere statement that George Bernard Shaw was born in Dublin in 1856. At least one reason why Englishmen cannot understand Mr. Shaw is that Englishmen have never taken the trouble to understand Irishmen. They will sometimes be generous to Ireland; but never just to Ireland. They will speak to Ireland; they will speak for Ireland; but they will not hear Ireland speak. All the real amiability which most Englishmen undoubtedly feel towards Irishmen is lavished upon a class of Irishmen which unfortunately does not exist. The Irishman of the English farce, with his brogue, his buoyancy, and his tender-hearted irresponsibility, is a man who ought to have been thoroughly pampered with praise and sympathy, if he had only existed to receive them. Unfortunately, all the time that we were creating a comic Irishman in fiction, we were creating a tragic Irishman in fact. Never perhaps has there been a situation of such excruciating cross-purposes even in the three-act farce. The more we saw in the Irishman a sort of warm and weak fidelity, the more he regarded us with a sort of icy anger. The more the oppressor looked down with an amiable pity, the more did the oppressed look down with a somewhat unamiable contempt. But, indeed, it is needless to say that such comic cross-purposes could be put into a play; they have been put into a play. They have been put into what is perhaps the most real of Mr. Bernard Shaw’s plays, John Bull’s Other Island.
It is somewhat absurd to imagine that any one who has not read a play by Mr. Shaw will be reading a book about him. But if it comes to that it is (as I clearly perceive) absurd to be writing a book about Mr. Bernard Shaw at all. It is indefensibly foolish to attempt to explain a man whose whole object through life has been to explain himself. But even in nonsense there is a need for logic and consistency; therefore let us proceed on the assumption that when I say that all Mr. Shaw’s blood and origin may be found in JOHN BULL’S OTHER ISLAND, some reader may answer that he does not know the play. Besides, it is more important to put the reader right about England and Ireland even than to put him right about Shaw. If he reminds me that this is a book about Shaw, I can only assure him that I will reasonably, and at proper intervals, remember the fact.
Mr. Shaw himself said once, “I am a typical Irishman; my family came from Yorkshire.” Scarcely anyone but a typical Irishman could have made the remark. It is in fact a bull, a conscious bull. A bull is only a paradox which people are too stupid to understand. It is the rapid summary of something which is at once so true and so complex that the speaker who has the swift intelligence to perceive it, has not the slow patience to explain it. Mystical dogmas are much of this kind. Dogmas are often spoken of as if they were signs of the slowness or endurance of the human mind. As a matter of fact, they are marks of mental promptitude and lucid impatience. A man will put his meaning mystically because he cannot waste time in putting it rationally. Dogmas are not dark and mysterious; rather a dogma is like a flash of lightning—an instantaneous lucidity that opens across a whole landscape. Of the same nature are Irish bulls; they are summaries which are too true to be consistent. The Irish make Irish bulls for the same reason that they accept Papal bulls. It is because it is better to speak wisdom foolishly, like the Saints, rather than to speak folly wisely, like the Dons.
This is the truth about mystical dogmas and the truth about Irish bulls; it is also the truth about the paradoxes of Bernard Shaw. Each of them is an argument impatiently shortened into an epigram. Each of them represents a truth hammered and hardened, with an almost disdainful violence until it is compressed into a small space, until it is made brief and almost incomprehensible. The case of that curt remark about Ireland and Yorkshire is a very typical one. If Mr. Shaw had really attempted to set out all the sensible stages of his joke, the sentence would have run something like this: “That I am an Irishman is a fact of psychology which I can trace in many of the things that come out of me, my fastidiousness, my frigid fierceness and my distrust of mere pleasure. But the thing must be tested by what comes from me; do not try on me the dodge of asking where I came from, how many batches of three hundred and sixty-five days my family was in Ireland. Do not play any games on me about whether I am a Celt, a word that is dim to the anthropologist and utterly unmeaning to anybody else. Do not start any drivelling discussions about whether the word Shaw is German or Scandinavian or Iberian or Basque. You know you are human; I know I am Irish. I know I belong to a certain type and temper of society; and I know that all sorts of people of all sorts of blood live in that society and by that society; and are therefore Irish. You can take your books of anthropology to hell or to Oxford.” Thus gently, elaborately and at length, Mr. Shaw would have explained his meaning, if he had thought it worth his while. As he did not he merely flung the symbolic, but very complete sentence, “I am a typical Irishman; my family came from Yorkshire.”
What then is the colour of this Irish society of which Bernard Shaw, with all his individual oddity, is yet an essential type? One generalisation, I think, may at least be made. Ireland has in it a quality which caused it (in the most ascetic age of Christianity) to be called the “Land of Saints”; and which still might give it a claim to be called the Land of Virgins. An Irish Catholic priest once said to me, “There is in our people a fear of the passions which is older even than Christianity.” Everyone who has read Shaw’s play upon Ireland will remember the thing in the horror of the Irish girl at being kissed in the public streets. But anyone who knows Shaw’s work will recognize it in Shaw himself. There exists by accident an early and beardless portrait of him which really suggests in the severity and purity of its lines some of the early ascetic pictures of the beardless Christ. However he may shout profanities or seek to shatter the shrines, there is always something about him which suggests that in a sweeter and more solid civilisation he would have been a great saint. He would have been a saint of a sternly ascetic, perhaps of a sternly negative type. But he has this strange note of the saint in him: that he is literally unworldly. Worldliness has no human magic for him; he is not bewitched by rank nor drawn on by conviviality at all. He could not understand the intellectual surrender of the snob. He is perhaps a defective character; but he is not a mixed one. All the virtues he has are heroic virtues. Shaw is like the Venus of Milo; all that there is of him is admirable.
But in any case this Irish innocence is peculiar and fundamental in him; and strange as it may sound, I think that his innocence has a great deal to do with his suggestions of sexual revolution. Such a man is comparatively audacious in theory because he is comparatively clean in thought. Powerful men who have powerful passions use much of their strength in forging chains for themselves; they alone know how strong the chains need to be. But there are other souls who walk the woods like Diana, with a sort of wild chastity. I confess I think that this Irish purity a little disables a critic in dealing, as Mr. Shaw has dealt, with the roots and reality of the marriage law. He forgets that those fierce and elementary functions which drive the universe have an impetus which goes beyond itself and cannot always easily be recovered. So the healthiest men may often erect a law to watch them, just as the healthiest sleepers may want an alarum clock to wake them up. However this may be, Bernard Shaw certainly has all the virtues and all the powers that go with this original quality in Ireland. One of them is a sort of awful elegance; a dangerous and somewhat inhuman daintiness of taste which sometimes seems to shrink from matter itself, as though it were mud. Of the many sincere things Mr. Shaw has said he never said a more sincere one than when he stated he was a vegetarian, not because eating meat was bad morality, but because it was bad taste. It would be fanciful to say that Mr. Shaw is a vegetarian because he comes of a race of vegetarians, of peasants who are compelled to accept the simple life in the shape of potatoes. But I am sure that his fierce fastidiousness in such matters is one of the allotropic forms of the Irish purity; it is to the virtue of Father Matthew what a coal is to a diamond. It has, of course, the quality common to all special and unbalanced types of virtue, that you never know where it will stop. I can feel what Mr. Shaw probably means when he says that it is disgusting to feast off dead bodies, or to cut lumps off what was once a living thing. But I can never know at what moment he may not feel in the same way that it is disgusting to mutilate a pear-tree, or to root out of the earth those miserable mandrakes which cannot even groan. There is no natural limit to this rush and riotous gallop of refinement.
But it is not this physical and fantastic purity which I should chiefly count among the legacies of the old Irish morality. A much more important gift is that which all the saints declared to be the reward of chastity: a queer clearness of the intellect, like the hard clearness of a crystal. This certainly Mr. Shaw possesses; in such degree that at certain times the hardness seems rather clearer than the clearness. But so it does in all the most typical Irish characters and Irish attitudes of mind. This is probably why Irishmen succeed so much in such professions as require a certain crystalline realism, especially about results. Such professions are the soldier and the lawyer; these give ample opportunity for crimes but not much for mere illusions. If you have composed a bad opera you may persuade yourself that it is a good one; if you have carved a bad statue you can think yourself better than Michael Angelo. But if you have lost a battle you cannot believe you have won it; if your client is hanged you cannot pretend that you have got him off.
There must be some sense in every popular prejudice, even about foreigners. And the English people certainly have somehow got an impression and a tradition that the Irishman is genial, unreasonable, and sentimental. This legend of the tender, irresponsible Paddy has two roots; there are two elements in the Irish which made the mistake possible. First, the very logic of the Irishman makes him regard war or revolution as extra-logical, an ULTIMA RATIO which is beyond reason. When fighting a powerful enemy he no more worries whether all his charges are exact or all his attitudes dignified than a soldier worries whether a cannon-ball is shapely or a plan of campaign picturesque. He is aggressive; he attacks. He seems merely to be rowdy in Ireland when he is really carrying the war into Africa—or England. A Dublin tradesman printed his name and trade in archaic Erse on his cart. He knew that hardly anybody could read it; he did it to annoy. In his position I think he was quite right. When one is oppressed it is a mark of chivalry to hurt oneself in order to hurt the oppressor. But the English (never having had a real revolution since the Middle Ages) find it very hard to understand this steady passion for being a nuisance, and mistake it for mere whimsical impulsiveness and folly. When an Irish member holds up the whole business of the House of Commons by talking of his bleeding country for five or six hours, the simple English members suppose that he is a sentimentalist. The truth is that he is a scornful realist who alone remains unaffected by the sentimentalism of the House of Commons. The Irishman is neither poet enough nor snob enough to be swept away by those smooth social and historical tides and tendencies which carry Radicals and Labour members comfortably off their feet. He goes on asking for a thing because he wants it; and he tries really to hurt his enemies because they are his enemies. This is the first of the queer confusions which make the hard Irishman look soft. He seems to us wild and unreasonable because he is really much too reasonable to be anything but fierce when he is fighting.
In all this it will not be difficult to see the Irishman in Bernard Shaw. Though personally one of the kindest men in the world, he has often written really in order to hurt; not because he hated any particular men (he is hardly hot and animal enough for that), but because he really hated certain ideas even unto slaying. He provokes; he will not let people alone. One might even say that he bullies, only that this would be unfair, because he always wishes the other man to hit back. At least he always challenges, like a true Green Islander. An even stronger instance of this national trait can be found in another eminent Irishman, Oscar Wilde. His philosophy (which was vile) was a philosophy of ease, of acceptance, and luxurious illusion; yet, being Irish, he could not help putting it in pugnacious and propagandist epigrams. He preached his softness with hard decision; he praised pleasure in the words most calculated to give pain. This armed insolence, which was the noblest thing about him, was also the Irish thing; he challenged all comers. It is a good instance of how right popular tradition is even when it is most wrong, that the English have perceived and preserved this essential trait of Ireland in a proverbial phrase. It IS true that the Irishman says, “Who will tread on the tail of my coat?”
But there is a second cause which creates the English fallacy that the Irish are weak and emotional. This again springs from the very fact that the Irish are lucid and logical. For being logical they strictly separate poetry from prose; and as in prose they are strictly prosaic, so in poetry they are purely poetical. In this, as in one or two other things, they resemble the French, who make their gardens beautiful because they are gardens, but their fields ugly because they are only fields. An Irishman may like romance, but he will say, to use a frequent Shavian phrase, that it is “only romance.” A great part of the English energy in fiction arises from the very fact that their fiction half deceives them. If Rudyard Kipling, for instance, had written his short stories in France, they would have been praised as cool, clever little works of art, rather cruel, and very nervous and feminine; Kipling’s short stories would have been appreciated like Maupassant’s short stories. In England they were not appreciated but believed. They were taken seriously by a startled nation as a true picture of the empire and the universe. The English people made haste to abandon England in favour of Mr. Kipling and his imaginary colonies; they made haste to abandon Christianity in favour of Mr. Kipling’s rather morbid version of Judaism. Such a moral boom of a book would be almost impossible in Ireland, because the Irish mind distinguishes between life and literature. Mr. Bernard Shaw himself summed this up as he sums up so many things in a compact sentence which he uttered in conversation with the present writer, “An Irishman has two eyes.” He meant that with one eye an Irishman saw that a dream was inspiring, bewitching, or sublime, and with the other eye that after all it was a dream. Both the humour and the sentiment of an Englishman cause him to wink the other eye. Two other small examples will illustrate the English mistake. Take, for instance, that noble survival from a nobler age of politics—I mean Irish oratory. The English imagine that Irish politicians are so hot-headed and poetical that they have to pour out a torrent of burning words. The truth is that the Irish are so clear-headed and critical that they still regard rhetoric as a distinct art, as the ancients did. Thus a man makes a speech as a man plays a violin, not necessarily without feeling, but chiefly because he knows how to do it. Another instance of the same thing is that quality which is always called the Irish charm. The Irish are agreeable, not because they are particularly emotional, but because they are very highly civilised. Blarney is a ritual; as much of a ritual as kissing the Blarney Stone.
Lastly, there is one general truth about Ireland which may very well have influenced Bernard Shaw from the first; and almost certainly influenced him for good. Ireland is a country in which the political conflicts are at least genuine; they are about something. They are about patriotism, about religion, or about money: the three great realities. In other words, they are concerned with what commonwealth a man lives in or with what universe a man lives in or with how he is to manage to live in either. But they are not concerned with which of two wealthy cousins in the same governing class shall be allowed to bring in the same Parish Councils Bill; there is no party system in Ireland. The party system in England is an enormous and most efficient machine for preventing political conflicts. The party system is arranged on the same principle as a three-legged race: the principle that union is not always strength and is never activity. Nobody asks for what he really wants. But in Ireland the loyalist is just as ready to throw over the King as the Fenian to throw over Mr. Gladstone; each will throw over anything except the thing that he wants. Hence it happens that even the follies or the frauds of Irish politics are more genuine as symptoms and more honourable as symbols than the lumbering hypocrisies of the prosperous Parliamentarian. The very lies of Dublin and Belfast are truer than the truisms of Westminster. They have an object; they refer to a state of things. There was more honesty, in the sense of actuality, about Piggott’s letters than about the TIMES’ leading articles on them. When Parnell said calmly before the Royal Commission that he had made a certain remark “in order to mislead the House” he proved himself to be one of the few truthful men of his time. An ordinary British statesman would never have made the confession, because he would have grown quite accustomed to committing the crime. The party system itself implies a habit of stating something other than the actual truth. A Leader of the House means a Misleader of the House.
Bernard Shaw was born outside all this; and he carries that freedom upon his face. Whether what he heard in boyhood was violent Nationalism or virulent Unionism, it was at least something which wanted a certain principle to be in force, not a certain clique to be in office. Of him the great Gilbertian generalisation is untrue; he was not born either a little Liberal or else a little Conservative. He did not, like most of us, pass through the stage of being a good party man on his way to the difficult business of being a good man. He came to stare at our general elections as a Red Indian might stare at the Oxford and Cambridge boat-race, blind to all its irrelevant sentimentalities and to some of its legitimate sentiments. Bernard Shaw entered England as an alien, as an invader, as a conqueror. In other words, he entered England as an Irishman.
The Puritan
IT has been said in the first section that Bernard Shaw draws from his own nation two unquestionable qualities, a kind of intellectual chastity, and the fighting spirit. He is so much of an idealist about his ideals that he can be a ruthless realist in his methods. His soul has (in short) the virginity and the violence of Ireland. But Bernard Shaw is not merely an Irishman; he is not even a typical one. He is a certain separated and peculiar kind of Irishman, which is not easy to describe. Some Nationalist Irishmen have referred to him contemptuously as a “West Briton.” But this is really unfair; for whatever Mr. Shaw’s mental faults may be, the easy adoption of an unmeaning phrase like “Briton” is certainly not one of them. It would be much nearer the truth to put the thing in the bold and bald terms of the old Irish song, and to call him “The anti-Irish Irishman.” But it is only fair to say that the description is far less of a monstrosity than the anti-English Englishman would be; because the Irish are so much stronger in self-criticism. Compared with the constant self-flattery of the English, nearly every Irishman is an anti-Irish Irishman. But here again popular phraseology hits the right word. This fairly educated and fairly wealthy Protestant wedge which is driven into the country at Dublin and elsewhere is a thing not easy superficially to summarise in any term. It cannot be described merely as a minority; for a minority means the part of a nation which is conquered. But this thing means something that conquers, and is not entirely part of a nation. Nor can one even fall back on the phrase of aristocracy. For an aristocracy implies at least some chorus of snobbish enthusiasm; it implies that some at least are willingly led by the leaders, if only towards vulgarity and vice. There is only one word for the minority in Ireland, and that is the word that public phraseology has found; I mean the word “Garrison.” The Irish are essentially right when they talk as if all Protestant Unionists lived inside “The Castle.” They have all the virtues and limitations of a literal garrison in a fort. That is, they are valiant, consistent, reliable in an obvious public sense; but their curse is that they can only tread the flagstones of the courtyard or the cold rock of the ramparts; they have never so much as set their foot upon their native soil.
We have considered Bernard Shaw as an Irishman. The next step is to consider him as an exile from Ireland living in Ireland; that, some people would say, is a paradox after his own heart. But, indeed, such a complication is not really difficult to expound. The great religion and the great national tradition which have persisted for so many centuries in Ireland have encouraged these clean and cutting elements; but they have encouraged many other things which serve to balance them. The Irish peasant has these qualities which are somewhat peculiar to Ireland, a strange purity and a strange pugnacity. But the Irish peasant also has qualities which are common to all peasants, and his nation has qualities that are common to all healthy nations. I mean chiefly the things that most of us absorb in childhood; especially the sense of the supernatural and the sense of the natural; the love of the sky with its infinity of vision, and the love of the soil with its strict hedges and solid shapes of ownership. But here comes the paradox of Shaw; the greatest of all his paradoxes and the one of which he is unconscious. These one or two plain truths which quite stupid people learn at the beginning are exactly the one or two truths which Bernard Shaw may not learn even at the end. He is a daring pilgrim who has set out from the grave to find the cradle. He started from points of view which no one else was clever enough to discover, and he is at last discovering points of view which no one else was ever stupid enough to ignore. This absence of the red-hot truisms of boyhood; this sense that he is not rooted in the ancient sagacities of infancy, has, I think, a great deal to do with his position as a member of an alien minority in Ireland. He who has no real country can have no real home. The average autochthonous Irishman is close to patriotism because he is close to the earth; he is close to domesticity because he is close to the earth; he is close to doctrinal theology and elaborate ritual because he is close to the earth. In short, he is close to the heavens because he is close to the earth. But we must not expect any of these elemental and collective virtues in the man of the garrison. He cannot be expected to exhibit the virtues of a people, but only (as Ibsen would say) of an enemy of the people. Mr. Shaw has no living traditions, no schoolboy tricks, no college customs, to link him with other men. Nothing about him can be supposed to refer to a family feud or to a family joke. He does not drink toasts; he does not keep anniversaries; musical as he is I doubt if he would consent to sing. All this has something in it of a tree with its roots in the air. The best way to shorten winter is to prolong Christmas; and the only way to enjoy the sun of April is to be an April Fool. When people asked Bernard Shaw to attend the Stratford Tercentenary, he wrote back with characteristic contempt: “I do not keep my own birthday, and I cannot see why I should keep Shakespeare’s.” I think that if Mr. Shaw had always kept his own birthday he would be better able to understand Shakespeare’s birthday— and Shakespeare’s poetry.
In conjecturally referring this negative side of the man, his lack of the smaller charities of our common childhood, to his birth in the dominant Irish sect, I do not write without historic memory or reference to other cases. That minority of Protestant exiles which mainly represented Ireland to England during the eighteenth century did contain some specimens of the Irish lounger and even of the Irish blackguard; Sheridan and even Goldsmith suggest the type. Even in their irresponsibility these figures had a touch of Irish tartness and realism; but the type has been too much insisted on to the exclusion of others equally national and interesting. To one of these it is worth while to draw attention. At intervals during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries there has appeared a peculiar kind of Irishman. He is so unlike the English image of Ireland that the English have actually fallen back on the pretence that he was not Irish at all. The type is commonly Protestant; and sometimes seems to be almost anti-national in its acrid instinct for judging itself. Its nationalism only appears when it flings itself with even bitterer pleasure into judging the foreigner or the invader. The first and greatest of such figures was Swift. Thackeray simply denied that Swift was an Irishman, because he was not a stage Irishman. He was not (in the English novelist’s opinion) winning and agreeable enough to be Irish. The truth is that Swift was much too harsh and disagreeable to be English. There is a great deal of Jonathan Swift in Bernard Shaw. Shaw is like Swift, for instance, in combining extravagant fancy with a curious sort of coldness. But he is most like Swift in that very quality which Thackeray said was impossible in an Irishman, benevolent bullying, a pity touched with contempt, and a habit of knocking men down for their own good. Characters in novels are often described as so amiable that they hate to be thanked. It is not an amiable quality, and it is an extremely rare one; but Swift possessed it. When Swift was buried the Dublin poor came in crowds and wept by the grave of the broadest and most freehanded of their benefactors. Swift deserved the public tribute; but he might have writhed and kicked in his grave at the thought of receiving it. There is in G. B. S. something of the same inhumane humanity. Irish history has offered a third instance of this particular type of educated and Protestant Irishman, sincere, unsympathetic, aggressive, alone. I mean Parnell; and with him also a bewildered England tried the desperate dodge of saying that he was not Irish at all. As if any thinkable sensible snobbish law-abiding Englishman would ever have defied all the drawing-rooms by disdaining the House of Commons! Despite the difference between taciturnity and a torrent of fluency there is much in common also between Shaw and Parnell; something in common even in the figures of the two men, in the bony bearded faces with their almost Satanic self-possession. It will not do to pretend that none of these three men belong to their own nation; but it is true that they belonged to one special, though recurring, type of that nation. And they all three have this peculiar mark, that while Nationalists in their various ways they all give to the more genial English one common impression; I mean the impression that they do not so much love Ireland as hate England.
I will not dogmatise upon the difficult question as to whether there is any religious significance in the fact that these three rather ruthless Irishmen were Protestant Irishmen. I incline to think myself that the Catholic Church has added charity and gentleness to the virtues of a people which would otherwise have been too keen and contemptuous, too aristocratic. But however this may be, there can surely be no question that Bernard Shaw’s Protestant education in a Catholic country has made a great deal of difference to his mind. It has affected it in two ways, the first negative and the second positive. It has affected him by cutting him off (as we have said) from the fields and fountains of his real home and history; by making him an Orangeman. And it has affected him by the particular colour of the particular religion which he received; by making him a Puritan.
In one of his numerous prefaces he says, “I have always been on the side of the Puritans in the matter of Art”; and a closer study will, I think, reveal that he is on the side of the Puritans in almost everything. Puritanism was not a mere code of cruel regulations, though some of its regulations were more cruel than any that have disgraced Europe. Nor was Puritanism a mere nightmare, an evil shadow of eastern gloom and fatalism, though this element did enter it, and was as it were the symptom and punishment of its essential error. Something much nobler (even if almost equally mistaken) was the original energy in the Puritan creed. And it must be defined with a little more delicacy if we are really to understand the attitude of G. B. S., who is the greatest of the modern Puritans and perhaps the last.
I should roughly define the first spirit in Puritanism thus. It was a refusal to contemplate God or goodness with anything lighter or milder than the most fierce concentration of the intellect. A Puritan meant originally a man whose mind had no holidays. To use his own favourite phrase, he would let no living thing come between him and his God; an attitude which involved eternal torture for him and a cruel contempt for all the living things. It was better to worship in a barn than in a cathedral for the specific and specified reason that the cathedral was beautiful. Physical beauty was a false and sensual symbol coming in between the intellect and the object of its intellectual worship. The human brain ought to be at every instant a consuming fire which burns through all conventional images until they were as transparent as glass.
This is the essential Puritan idea, that God can only be praised by direct contemplation of Him. You must praise God only with your brain; it is wicked to praise Him with your passions or your physical habits or your gesture or instinct of beauty. Therefore it is wicked to worship by singing or dancing or drinking sacramental wines or building beautiful churches or saying prayers when you are half asleep. We must not worship by dancing, drinking, building or singing; we can only worship by thinking. Our heads can praise God, but never our hands and feet. That is the true and original impulse of the Puritans. There is a great deal to be said for it, and a great deal was said for it in Great Britain steadily for two hundred years. It has gradually decayed in England and Scotland, not because of the advance of modern thought (which means nothing), but because of the slow revival of the mediaeval energy and character in the two peoples. The English were always hearty and humane, and they have made up their minds to be hearty and humane in spite of the Puritans. The result is that Dickens and W. W. Jacobs have picked up the tradition of Chaucer and Robin Hood. The Scotch were always romantic, and they have made up their minds to be romantic in spite of the Puritans. The result is that Scott and Stevenson have picked up the tradition of Bruce, Blind Harry and the vagabond Scottish kings. England has become English again; Scotland has become Scottish again, in spite of the splendid incubus, the noble nightmare of Calvin. There is only one place in the British Islands where one may naturally expect to find still surviving in its fulness the fierce detachment of the true Puritan. That place is the Protestant part of Ireland. The Orange Calvinists can be disturbed by no national resurrection, for they have no nation. In them, if in any people, will be found the rectangular consistency of the Calvinist. The Irish Protestant rioters are at least immeasurably finer fellows than any of their brethren in England. They have the two enormous superiorities: first, that the Irish Protestant rioters really believe in Protestant theology; and second, that the Irish Protestant rioters do really riot. Among these people, if anywhere, should be found the cult of theological clarity combined with barbarous external simplicity. Among these people Bernard Shaw was born.
There is at least one outstanding fact about the man we are studying; Bernard Shaw is never frivolous. He never gives his opinions a holiday; he is never irresponsible even for an instant. He has no nonsensical second self which he can get into as one gets into a dressing-gown; that ridiculous disguise which is yet more real than the real person. That collapse and humorous confession of futility was much of the force in Charles Lamb and in Stevenson. There is nothing of this in Shaw; his wit is never a weakness; therefore it is never a sense of humour. For wit is always connected with the idea that truth is close and clear. Humour, on the other hand, is always connected with the idea that truth is tricky and mystical and easily mistaken. What Charles Lamb said of the Scotchman is far truer of this type of Puritan Irishman; he does not see things suddenly in a new light; all his brilliancy is a blindingly rapid calculation and deduction. Bernard Shaw never said an indefensible thing; that is, he never said a thing that he was not prepared brilliantly to defend. He never breaks out into that cry beyond reason and conviction, that cry of Lamb when he cried, “We would indict our dreams!” or of Stevenson, “Shall we never shed blood?” In short he is not a humorist, but a great wit, almost as great as Voltaire. Humour is akin to agnosticism, which is only the negative side of mysticism. But pure wit is akin to Puritanism; to the perfect and painful consciousness of the final fact in the universe. Very briefly, the man who sees the consistency in things is a wit—and a Calvinist. The man who sees the inconsistency in things is a humorist—and a Catholic. However this may be, Bernard Shaw exhibits all that is purest in the Puritan; the desire to see truth face to face even if it slay us, the high impatience with irrelevant sentiment or obstructive symbol; the constant effort to keep the soul at its highest pressure and speed. His instincts upon all social customs and questions are Puritan. His favourite author is Bunyan.
But along with what was inspiring and direct in Puritanism Bernard Shaw has inherited also some of the things that were cumbersome and traditional. If ever Shaw exhibits a prejudice it is always a Puritan prejudice. For Puritanism has not been able to sustain through three centuries that native ecstasy of the direct contemplation of truth; indeed it was the whole mistake of Puritanism to imagine for a moment that it could. One cannot be serious for three hundred years. In institutions built so as to endure for ages you must have relaxation, symbolic relativity and healthy routine. In eternal temples you must have frivolity. You must “be at ease in Zion” unless you are only paying it a flying visit.
By the middle of the nineteenth century this old austerity and actuality in the Puritan vision had fallen away into two principal lower forms. The first is a sort of idealistic garrulity upon which Bernard Shaw has made fierce and on the whole fruitful war. Perpetual talk about righteousness and unselfishness, about things that should elevate and things which cannot but degrade, about social purity and true Christian manhood, all poured out with fatal fluency and with very little reference to the real facts of anybody’s soul or salary—into this weak and lukewarm torrent has melted down much of that mountainous ice which sparkled in the seventeenth century, bleak indeed, but blazing. The hardest thing of the seventeenth century bids fair to be the softest thing of the twentieth.
Of all this sentimental and deliquescent Puritanism Bernard Shaw has always been the antagonist; and the only respect in which it has soiled him was that he believed for only too long that such sloppy idealism was the whole idealism of Christendom and so used “idealist” itself as a term of reproach. But there were other and negative effects of Puritanism which he did not escape so completely. I cannot think that he has wholly escaped that element in Puritanism which may fairly bear the title of the taboo. For it is a singular fact that although extreme Protestantism is dying in elaborate and over-refined civilisation, yet it is the barbaric patches of it that live longest and die last. Of the creed of John Knox the modern Protestant has abandoned the civilised part and retained only the savage part. He has given up that great and systematic philosophy of Calvinism which had much in common with modern science and strongly resembles ordinary and recurrent determinism. But he has retained the accidental veto upon cards or comic plays, which Knox only valued as mere proof of his people’s concentration on their theology. All the awful but sublime affirmations of Puritan theology are gone. Only savage negations remain; such as that by which in Scotland on every seventh day the creed of fear lays his finger on all hearts and makes an evil silence in the streets.
By the middle of the nineteenth century when Shaw was born this dim and barbaric element in Puritanism, being all that remained of it, had added another taboo to its philosophy of taboos; there had grown up a mystical horror of those fermented drinks which are part of the food of civilised mankind. Doubtless many persons take an extreme line on this matter solely because of some calculation of social harm; many, but not all and not even most. Many people think that paper money is a mistake and does much harm. But they do not shudder or snigger when they see a cheque-book. They do not whisper with unsavoury slyness that such and such a man was “seen” going into a bank. I am quite convinced that the English aristocracy is the curse of England, but I have not noticed either in myself or others any disposition to ostracise a man simply for accepting a peerage, as the modern Puritans would certainly ostracise him (from any of their positions of trust) for accepting a drink. The sentiment is certainly very largely a mystical one, like the sentiment about the seventh day. Like the Sabbath, it is defended with sociological reasons; but those reasons can be simply and sharply tested. If a Puritan tells you that all humanity should rest once a week, you have only to propose that they should rest on Wednesday. And if a Puritan tells you that he does not object to beer but to the tragedies of excess in beer, simply propose to him that in prisons and workhouses (where the amount can be absolutely regulated) the inmates should have three glasses of beer a day. The Puritan cannot call that excess; but he will find something to call it. For it is not the excess he objects to, but the beer. It is a transcendental taboo, and it is one of the two or three positive and painful prejudices with which Bernard Shaw began. A similar severity of outlook ran through all his earlier attitude towards the drama; especially towards the lighter or looser drama. His Puritan teachers could not prevent him from taking up theatricals, but they made him take theatricals seriously. All his plays were indeed “plays for Puritans.” All his criticisms quiver with a refined and almost tortured contempt for the indulgencies of ballet and burlesque, for the tights and the DOUBLE ENTENTE. He can endure lawlessness but not levity. He is not repelled by the divorces and the adulteries as he is by the “splits.” And he has always been foremost among the fierce modern critics who ask indignantly, “Why do you object to a thing full of sincere philosophy like THE WILD DUCk while you tolerate a mere dirty joke like THE SPRING CHICKEN?” I do not think he has ever understood what seems to me the very sensible answer of the man in the street, “I laugh at the dirty joke of THE SPRING CHICKEN because it is a joke. I criticise the philosophy of THE WILD DUCk because it is a philosophy.”
Shaw does not do justice to the democratic ease and sanity on this subject; but indeed, whatever else he is, he is not democratic. As an Irishman he is an aristocrat, as a Calvinist he is a soul apart; he drew the breath of his nostrils from a land of fallen principalities and proud gentility, and the breath of his spirit from a creed which made a wall of crystal around the elect. The two forces between them produced this potent and slender figure, swift, scornful, dainty and full of dry magnanimity; and it only needed the last touch of oligarchic mastery to be given by the overwhelming oligarchic atmosphere of our present age. Such was the Puritan Irishman who stepped out into the world. Into what kind of world did he step?
The Progressive
IT is now partly possible to justify the Shavian method of putting the explanations before the events. I can now give a fact or two with a partial certainty at least that the reader will give to the affairs of Bernard Shaw something of the same kind of significance which they have for Bernard Shaw himself. Thus, if I had simply said that Shaw was born in Dublin the average reader might exclaim, “Ah yes—a wild Irishman, gay, emotional and untrustworthy.” The wrong note would be struck at the start. I have attempted to give some idea of what being born in Ireland meant to the man who was really born there. Now therefore for the first time I may be permitted to confess that Bernard Shaw was, like other men, born. He was born in Dublin on the 26th of July, 1856.
Just as his birth can only be appreciated through some vision of Ireland, so his family can only be appreciated by some realisation of the Puritan. He was the youngest son of one George Carr Shaw, who had been a civil servant and was afterwards a somewhat unsuccessful business man. If I had merely said that his family was Protestant (which in Ireland means Puritan) it might have been passed over as a quite colourless detail. But if the reader will keep in mind what has been said about the degeneration of Calvinism into a few clumsy vetoes, he will see in its full and frightful significance such a sentence as this which comes from Shaw himself: “My father was in theory a vehement teetotaller, but in practice often a furtive drinker.” The two things of course rest upon exactly the same philosophy; the philosophy of the taboo. There is a mystical substance, and it can give monstrous pleasures or call down monstrous punishments. The dipsomaniac and the abstainer are not only both mistaken, but they both make the same mistake. They both regard wine as a drug and not as a drink. But if I had mentioned that fragment of family information without any ethical preface, people would have begun at once to talk nonsense about artistic heredity and Celtic weakness, and would have gained the general impression that Bernard Shaw was an Irish wastrel and the child of Irish wastrels. Whereas it is the whole point of the matter that Bernard Shaw comes of a Puritan middle-class family of the most solid respectability; and the only admission of error arises from the fact that one member of that Puritan family took a particularly Puritan view of strong drink. That is, he regarded it generally as a poison and sometimes as a medicine, if only a mental medicine. But a poison and a medicine are very closely akin, as the nearest chemist knows; and they are chiefly akin in this; that no one will drink either of them for fun. Moreover, medicine and a poison are also alike in this; that no one will by preference drink either of them in public. And this medical or poisonous view of alcohol is not confined to the one Puritan to whose failure I have referred, it is spread all over the whole of our dying Puritan civilisation. For instance, social reformers have fired a hundred shots against the public-house; but never one against its really shameful feature. The sign of decay is not in the public-house, but in the private bar; or rather the row of five or six private bars, into each of which a respectable dipsomaniac can go in solitude, and by indulging his own half-witted sin violate his own half-witted morality. Nearly all these places are equipped with an atrocious apparatus of ground-glass windows which can be so closed that they practically conceal the face of the buyer from the seller. Words cannot express the abysses of human infamy and hateful shame expressed by that elaborate piece of furniture. Whenever I go into a public-house, which happens fairly often, I always carefully open all these apertures and then leave the place, in every way refreshed.
In other ways also it is necessary to insist not only on the fact of an extreme Protestantism, but on that of the Protestantism of a garrison; a world where that religious force both grew and festered all the more for being at once isolated and protected. All the influences surrounding Bernard Shaw in boyhood were not only Puritan, but such that no non-Puritan force could possibly pierce or counteract. He belonged to that Irish group which, according to Catholicism, has hardened its heart, which, according to Protestantism has hardened its head, but which, as I fancy, has chiefly hardened its hide, lost its sensibility to the contact of the things around it. In reading about his youth, one forgets that it was passed in the island which is still one flame before the altar of St. Peter and St. Patrick. The whole thing might be happening in Wimbledon. He went to the Wesleyan Connexional School. He went to hear Moody and Sankey. “I was,” he writes, “wholly unmoved by their eloquence; and felt bound to inform the public that I was, on the whole, an atheist. My letter was solemnly printed in PUBLIC OPINION, to the extreme horror of my numerous aunts and uncles.” That is the philosophical atmosphere; those are the religious postulates. It could never cross the mind of a man of the Garrison that before becoming an atheist he might stroll into one of the churches of his own country, and learn something of the philosophy that had satisfied Dante and Bossuet, Pascal and Descartes.
In the same way I have to appeal to my theoretic preface at this third point of the drama of Shaw’s career. On leaving school he stepped into a secure business position which he held steadily for four years and which he flung away almost in one day. He rushed even recklessly to London; where he was quite unsuccessful and practically starved for six years. If I had mentioned this act on the first page of this book it would have seemed to have either the simplicity of a mere fanatic or else to cover some ugly escapade of youth or some quite criminal looseness of temperament. But Bernard Shaw did not act thus because he was careless, but because he was ferociously careful, careful especially of the one thing needful. What was he thinking about when he threw away his last halfpence and went to a strange place; what was he thinking about when he endured hunger and small-pox in London almost without hope? He was thinking of what he has ever since thought of, the slow but sure surge of the social revolution; you must read into all those bald sentences and empty years what I shall attempt to sketch in the third section. You must read the revolutionary movement of the later nineteenth century, darkened indeed by materialism and made mutable by fear and free thought, but full of awful vistas of an escape from the curse of Adam.
Bernard Shaw happened to be born in an epoch, or rather at the end of an epoch, which was in its way unique in the ages of history. The nineteenth century was not unique in the success or rapidity of its reforms or in their ultimate cessation; but it was unique in the peculiar character of the failure which followed the success. The French Revolution was an enormous act of human realisation; it has altered the terms of every law and the shape of every town in Europe; but it was by no means the only example of a strong and swift period of reform. What was really peculiar about the Republican energy was this, that it left behind it, not an ordinary reaction but a kind of dreary, drawn out and utterly unmeaning hope. The strong and evident idea of reform sank lower and lower until it became the timid and feeble idea of progress. Towards the end of the nineteenth century there appeared its two incredible figures; they were the pure Conservative and the pure Progressive; two figures which would have been overwhelmed with laughter by any other intellectual commonwealth of history. There was hardly a human generation which could not have seen the folly of merely going forward or merely standing still; of mere progressing or mere conserving. In the coarsest Greek Comedy we might have a joke about a man who wanted to keep what he had, whether it was yellow gold or yellow fever. In the dullest mediaeval morality we might have a joke about a progressive gentleman who, having passed heaven and come to purgatory, decided to go further and fare worse. The twelfth and thirteenth centuries were an age of quite impetuous progress; men made in one rush, roads, trades, synthetic philosophies, parliaments, university settlements, a law that could cover the world and such spires as had never struck the sky. But they would not have said that they wanted progress, but that they wanted the road, the parliaments, and the spires. In the same way the time from Richelieu to the Revolution was upon the whole a time of conservation, often of harsh and hideous conservation; it preserved tortures, legal quibbles, and despotism. But if you had asked the rulers they would not have said that they wanted conservation; but that they wanted the torture and the despotism. The old reformers and the old despots alike desired definite THINGS, powers, licenses, payments, vetoes, and permissions. Only the modern progressive and the modern conservative have been content with two words.
Other periods of active improvement have died by stiffening at last into some routine. Thus the Gothic gaiety of the thirteenth century stiffening into the mere Gothic ugliness of the fifteenth. Thus the mighty wave of the Renaissance, whose crest was lifted to heaven, was touched by a wintry witchery of classicism and frozen for ever before it fell. Alone of all such movements the democratic movement of the last two centuries has not frozen, but loosened and liquefied. Instead of becoming more pedantic in its old age, it has grown more bewildered. By the analogy of healthy history we ought to have gone on worshipping the republic and calling each other citizen, with increasing seriousness until some other part of the truth broke into our republican temple. But in fact we have turned the freedom of democracy into a mere scepticism, destructive of everything, including democracy itself. It is none the less destructive because it is, so to speak, an optimistic scepticism—or, as I have said, a dreary hope. It was none the better because the destroyers were always talking about the new vistas and enlightenments which their new negations opened to us. The republican temple, like any other strong building, rested on certain definite limits and supports. But the modern man inside it went on indefinitely knocking holes in his own house and saying that they were windows. The result is not hard to calculate: the moral world was pretty well all windows and no house by the time that Bernard Shaw arrived on the scene.
Then there entered into full swing that great game of which he soon became the greatest master. A progressive or advanced person was now to mean not a man who wanted democracy, but a man who wanted something newer than democracy. A reformer was to be, not a man who wanted a parliament or a republic, but a man who wanted anything that he hadn’t got. The emancipated man must cast a weird and suspicious eye round him at all the institutions of the world, wondering which of them was destined to die in the next few centuries. Each one of them was whispering to himself, “What can I alter?”
This quite vague and varied discontent probably did lead to the revelation of many incidental wrongs and to much humane hard work in certain holes and corners. It also gave birth to a great deal of quite futile and frantic speculation, which seemed destined to take away babies from women, or to give votes to tom-cats. But it had an evil in it much deeper and more psychologically poisonous than any superficial absurdities. There was in this thirst to be “progressive” a subtle sort of double-mindedness and falsity. A man was so eager to be in advance of his age that he pretended to be in advance of himself. Institutions that his wholesome nature and habit fully accepted he had to sneer at as old-fashioned, out of a servile and snobbish fear of the future. Out of the primal forests, through all the real progress of history, man had picked his way obeying his human instinct, or (in the excellent phrase) following his nose. But now he was trying, by violent athletic exertions, to get in front of his nose.
Into this riot of all imaginary innovations Shaw brought the sharp edge of the Irishman and the concentration of the Puritan, and thoroughly thrashed all competitors in the difficult art of being at once modern and intelligent. In twenty twopenny controversies he took the revolutionary side, I fear in most cases because it was called revolutionary. But the other revolutionists were abruptly startled by the presentation of quite rational and ingenious arguments on their own side. The dreary thing about most new causes is that they are praised in such very old terms. Every new religion bores us with the same stale rhetoric about closer fellowship and the higher life. No one ever approximately equalled Bernard Shaw in the power of finding really fresh and personal arguments for these recent schemes and creeds. No one ever came within a mile of him in the knack of actually producing a new argument for a new philosophy. I give two instances to cover the kind of thing I mean. Bernard Shaw (being honestly eager to put himself on the modern side in everything) put himself on the side of what is called the feminist movement; the proposal to give the two sexes not merely equal social privileges, but identical. To this it is often answered that women cannot be soldiers; and to this again the sensible feminists answer that women run their own kind of physical risk, while the silly feminists answer that war is an outworn barbaric thing which women would abolish. But Bernard Shaw took the line of saying that women had been soldiers, in all occasions of natural and unofficial war, as in the French Revolution. That has the great fighting value of being an unexpected argument; it takes the other pugilist’s breath away for one important instant. To take the other case, Mr. Shaw has found himself, led by the same mad imp of modernity, on the side of the people who want to have phonetic spelling. The people who want phonetic spelling generally depress the world with tireless and tasteless explanations of how much easier it would be for children or foreign bagmen if “height” were spelt “hite.” Now children would curse spelling whatever it was, and we are not going to permit foreign bagmen to improve Shakespeare. Bernard Shaw charged along quite a different line; he urged that Shakespeare himself believed in phonetic spelling, since he spelt his own name in six different ways. According to Shaw, phonetic spelling is merely a return to the freedom and flexibility of Elizabethan literature. That, again, is exactly the kind of blow the old speller does not expect. As a matter of fact there is an answer to both the ingenuities I have quoted. When women have fought in revolutions they have generally shown that it was not natural to them, by their hysterical cruelty and insolence; it was the men who fought in the Revolution; it was the women who tortured the prisoners and mutilated the dead. And because Shakespeare could sing better than he could spell, it does not follow that his spelling and ours ought to be abruptly altered by a race that has lost all instinct for singing. But I do not wish to discuss these points; I only quote them as examples of the startling ability which really brought Shaw to the front; the ability to brighten even our modern movements with original and suggestive thoughts.
But while Bernard Shaw pleasantly surprised innumerable cranks and revolutionists by finding quite rational arguments for them, he surprised them unpleasantly also by discovering something else. He discovered a turn of argument or trick of thought which has ever since been the plague of their lives, and given him in all assemblies of their kind, in the Fabian Society or in the whole Socialist movement, a fantastic but most formidable domination. This method may be approximately defined as that of revolutionising the revolutionists by turning their rationalism against their remaining sentimentalism. But definition leaves the matter dark unless we give one or two examples. Thus Bernard Shaw threw himself as thoroughly as any New Woman into the cause of the emancipation of women. But while the New Woman praised woman as a prophetess, the new man took the opportunity to curse her and kick her as a comrade. For the others sex equality meant the emancipation of women, which allowed them to be equal to men. For Shaw it mainly meant the emancipation of men, which allowed them to be rude to women. Indeed, almost every one of Bernard Shaw’s earlier plays might be called an argument between a man and a woman, in which the woman is thumped and thrashed and outwitted until she admits that she is the equal of her conqueror. This is the first case of the Shavian trick of turning on the romantic rationalists with their own rationalism. He said in substance, “If we are democrats, let us have votes for women; but if we are democrats, why on earth should we have respect for women?” I take one other example out of many. Bernard Shaw was thrown early into what may be called the cosmopolitan club of revolution. The Socialists of the S. D. F. call it “L’Internationale,” but the club covers more than Socialists. It covers many who consider themselves the champions of oppressed nationalities— Poland, Finland, and even Ireland; and thus a strong nationalist tendency exists in the revolutionary movement. Against this nationalist tendency Shaw set himself with sudden violence. If the flag of England was a piece of piratical humbug, was not the flag of Poland a piece of piratical humbug too? If we hated the jingoism of the existing armies and frontiers, why should we bring into existence new jingo armies and new jingo frontiers? All the other revolutionists fell in instinctively with Home Rule for Ireland. Shaw urged, in effect, that Home Rule was as bad as Home Influences and Home Cooking, and all the other degrading domesticities that began with the word “Home.” His ultimate support of the South African war was largely created by his irritation against the other revolutionists for favouring a nationalist resistance. The ordinary Imperialists objected to Pro-Boers because they were anti-patriots. Bernard Shaw objected to Pro-Boers because they were pro-patriots.
But among these surprise attacks of G. B. S., these turnings of scepticism against the sceptics, there was one which has figured largely in his life; the most amusing and perhaps the most salutary of all these reactions. The “progressive” world being in revolt against religion had naturally felt itself allied to science; and against the authority of priests it would perpetually hurl the authority of scientific men. Shaw gazed for a few moments at this new authority, the veiled god of Huxley and Tyndall, and then with the greatest placidity and precision kicked it in the stomach. He declared to the astounded progressives around him that physical science was a mystical fake like sacerdotalism; that scientists, like priests, spoke with authority because they could not speak with proof or reason; that the very wonders of science were mostly lies, like the wonders of religion. “When astronomers tell me”, he says somewhere, “that a star is so far off that its light takes a thousand years to reach us, the magnitude of the lie seems to me inartistic.” The paralysing impudence of such remarks left everyone quite breathless; and even to this day this particular part of Shaw’s satiric war has been far less followed up than it deserves. For there was present in it an element very marked in Shaw’s controversies; I mean that his apparent exaggerations are generally much better backed up by knowledge than would appear from their nature. He can lure his enemy on with fantasies and then overwhelm him with facts. Thus the man of science, when he read some wild passage in which Shaw compared Huxley to a tribal soothsayer grubbing in the entrails of animals, supposed the writer to be a mere fantastic whom science could crush with one finger. He would therefore engage in a controversy with Shaw about (let us say) vivisection, and discover to his horror that Shaw really knew a great deal about the subject, and could pelt him with expert witnesses and hospital reports. Among the many singular contradictions in a singular character, there is none more interesting than this combination of exactitude and industry in the detail of opinions with audacity and a certain wildness in their outline.
This great game of catching revolutionists napping, of catching the unconventional people in conventional poses, of outmarching and outmanoeuvring progressives till they felt like conservatives, of undermining the mines of Nihilists till they felt like the House of Lords, this great game of dishing the anarchists continued for some time to be his most effective business. It would be untrue to say that he was a cynic; he was never a cynic, for that implies a certain corrupt fatigue about human affairs, whereas he was vibrating with virtue and energy. Nor would it be fair to call him even a sceptic, for that implies a dogma of hopelessness and definite belief in unbelief. But it would be strictly just to describe him at this time, at any rate, as a merely destructive person. He was one whose main business was, in his own view, the pricking of illusions, the stripping away of disguises, and even the destruction of ideals. He was a sort of anti-confectioner whose whole business it was to take the gilt off the gingerbread.
Now I have no particular objection to people who take the gilt off the gingerbread; if only for this excellent reason, that I am much fonder of gingerbread than I am of gilt. But there are some objections to this task when it becomes a crusade or an obsession. One of them is this: that people who have really scraped the gilt off gingerbread generally waste the rest of their lives in attempting to scrape the gilt off gigantic lumps of gold. Such has too often been the case of Shaw. He can, if he likes, scrape the romance off the armaments of Europe or the party system of Great Britain. But he cannot scrape the romance off love or military valour, because it is all romance, and three thousand miles thick. It cannot, I think, be denied that much of Bernard Shaw’s splendid mental energy has been wasted in this weary business of gnawing at the necessary pillars of all possible society. But it would be grossly unfair to indicate that even in his first and most destructive stage he uttered nothing except these accidental, if arresting, negations. He threw his whole genius heavily into the scale in favour of two positive projects or causes of the period. When we have stated these we have really stated the full intellectual equipment with which he started his literary life.
I have said that Shaw was on the insurgent side in everything; but in the case of these two important convictions he exercised a solid power of choice. When he first went to London he mixed with every kind of revolutionary society, and met every kind of person except the ordinary person. He knew everybody, so to speak, except everybody. He was more than once a momentary apparition among the respectable atheists. He knew Bradlaugh and spoke on the platforms of that Hall of Science in which very simple and sincere masses of men used to hail with shouts of joy the assurance that they were not immortal. He retains to this day something of the noise and narrowness of that room; as, for instance, when he says that it is contemptible to have a craving for eternal life. This prejudice remains in direct opposition to all his present opinions, which are all to the effect that it is glorious to desire power, consciousness, and vitality even for one’s self. But this old secularist tag, that it is selfish to save one’s soul, remains with him long after he has practically glorified selfishness. It is a relic of those chaotic early days. And just as he mingled with the atheists he mingled with the anarchists, who were in the eighties a much more formidable body than now, disputing with the Socialists on almost equal terms the claim to be the true heirs of the Revolution. Shaw still talks entertainingly about this group. As far as I can make out, it was almost entirely female. When a book came out called A GIRL AMONG THE ANARCHISTS, G. B. S. was provoked to a sort of explosive reminiscence. “A girl among the anarchists!” he exclaimed to his present biographer; “if they had said ‘A man among the anarchists’ it would have been more of an adventure.” He is ready to tell other tales of this eccentric environment, most of which does not convey an impression of a very bracing atmosphere. That revolutionary society must have contained many high public ideals, but also a fair number of low private desires. And when people blame Bernard Shaw for his pitiless and prosaic coldness, his cutting refusal to reverence or admire, I think they should remember this riff-raff of lawless sentimentalism against which his common-sense had to strive, all the grandiloquent “comrades” and all the gushing “affinities,” all the sweetstuff sensuality and senseless sulking against law. If Bernard Shaw became a little too fond of throwing cold water upon prophecies or ideals, remember that he must have passed much of his youth among cosmopolitan idealists who wanted a little cold water in every sense of the word.
Upon two of these modern crusades he concentrated, and, as I have said, he chose them well. The first was broadly what was called the Humanitarian cause. It did not mean the cause of humanity, but rather, if anything, the cause of everything else. At its noblest it meant a sort of mystical identification of our life with the whole life of nature. So a man might wince when a snail was crushed as if his toe were trodden on; so a man might shrink when a moth shrivelled as if his own hair had caught fire. Man might be a network of exquisite nerves running over the whole universe, a subtle spider’s web of pity. This was a fine conception; though perhaps a somewhat severe enforcement of the theological conception of the special divinity of man. For the humanitarians certainly asked of humanity what can be asked of no other creature; no man ever required a dog to understand a cat or expected the cow to cry for the sorrows of the nightingale.
Hence this sense has been strongest in saints of a very mystical sort; such as St. Francis who spoke of Sister Sparrow and Brother Wolf. Shaw adopted this crusade of cosmic pity but adopted it very much in his own style, severe, explanatory, and even unsympathetic. He had no affectionate impulse to say “Brother Wolf”; at the best he would have said “Citizen Wolf,” like a sound republican. In fact, he was full of healthy human compassion for the sufferings of animals; but in phraseology he loved to put the matter unemotionally and even harshly. I was once at a debating club at which Bernard Shaw said that he was not a humanitarian at all, but only an economist, that he merely hated to see life wasted by carelessness or cruelty. I felt inclined to get up and address to him the following lucid question: “If when you spare a herring you are only being oikonomikal, for what oikos are you being nomikal?” But in an average debating club I thought this question might not be quite clear; so I abandoned the idea. But certainly it is not plain for whom Bernard Shaw is economising if he rescues a rhinoceros from an early grave. But the truth is that Shaw only took this economic pose from his hatred of appearing sentimental. If Bernard Shaw killed a dragon and rescued a princess of romance, he would try to say “I have saved a princess” with exactly the same intonation as “I have saved a shilling.” He tries to turn his own heroism into a sort of superhuman thrift. He would thoroughly sympathise with that passage in his favourite dramatic author in which the Button Moulder tells Peer Gynt that there is a sort of cosmic housekeeping; that God Himself is very economical, “and that is why He is so well to do.”
This combination of the widest kindness and consideration with a consistent ungraciousness of tone runs through all Shaw’s ethical utterance, and is nowhere more evident than in his attitude towards animals. He would waste himself to a white-haired shadow to save a shark in an aquarium from inconvenience or to add any little comforts to the life of a carrion-crow. He would defy any laws or lose any friends to show mercy to the humblest beast or the most hidden bird. Yet I cannot recall in the whole of his works or in the whole of his conversation a single word of any tenderness or intimacy with any bird or beast. It was under the influence of this high and almost superhuman sense of duty that he became a vegetarian; and I seem to remember that when he was lying sick and near to death at the end of his SATURDAY REVIEW career he wrote a fine fantastic article, declaring that his hearse ought to be drawn by all the animals that he had not eaten. Whenever that evil day comes there will be no need to fall back on the ranks of the brute creation; there will be no lack of men and women who owe him so much as to be glad to take the place of the animals; and the present writer for one will be glad to express his gratitude as an elephant. There is no doubt about the essential manhood and decency of Bernard Shaw’s instincts in such matters. And quite apart from the vegetarian controversy, I do not doubt that the beasts also owe him much. But when we come to positive things (and passions are the only truly positive things) that obstinate doubt remains which remains after all eulogies of Shaw. That fixed fancy sticks to the mind; that Bernard Shaw is a vegetarian more because he dislikes dead beasts than because he likes live ones.
It was the same with the other great cause to which Shaw more politically though not more publicly committed himself. The actual English people, without representation in Press or Parliament, but faintly expressed in public-houses and music-halls, would connect Shaw (so far as they have heard of him) with two ideas; they would say first that he was a vegetarian, and second that he was a Socialist. Like most of the impressions of the ignorant, these impressions would be on the whole very just. My only purpose here is to urge that Shaw’s Socialism exemplifies the same trait of temperament as his vegetarianism. This book is not concerned with Bernard Shaw as a politician or a sociologist, but as a critic and creator of drama. I will therefore end in this chapter all that I have to say about Bernard Shaw as a politician or a political philosopher. I propose here to dismiss this aspect of Shaw: only let it be remembered, once and for all, that I am here dismissing the most important aspect of Shaw. It is as if one dismissed the sculpture of Michael Angelo and went on to his sonnets. Perhaps the highest and purest thing in him is simply that he cares more for politics than for anything else; more than for art or for philosophy. Socialism is the noblest thing for Bernard Shaw; and it is the noblest thing in him. He really desires less to win fame than to bear fruit. He is an absolute follower of that early sage who wished only to make two blades of grass grow instead of one. He is a loyal subject of Henri Quatre, who said that he only wanted every Frenchman to have a chicken in his pot on Sunday; except, of course, that he would call the repast cannibalism. But CAETERIS PARIBUs he thinks more of that chicken than of the eagle of the universal empire; and he is always ready to support the grass against the laurel.
Yet by the nature of this book the account of the most important Shaw, who is the Socialist, must be also the most brief. Socialism (which I am not here concerned either to attack or defend) is, as everyone knows, the proposal that all property should be nationally owned that it may be more decently distributed. It is a proposal resting upon two principles, unimpeachable as far as they go: first, that frightful human calamities call for immediate human aid; second, that such aid must almost always be collectively organised. If a ship is being wrecked, we organise a lifeboat; if a house is on fire, we organise a blanket; if half a nation is starving, we must organise work and food. That is the primary and powerful argument of the Socialist, and everything that he adds to it weakens it. The only possible line of protest is to suggest that it is rather shocking that we have to treat a normal nation as something exceptional, like a house on fire or a shipwreck. But of such things it may be necessary to speak later. The point here is that Shaw behaved towards Socialism just as he behaved towards vegetarianism; he offered every reason except the emotional reason, which was the real one. When taxed in a DAILY NEWs discussion with being a Socialist for the obvious reason that poverty was cruel, he said this was quite wrong; it was only because poverty was wasteful. He practically professed that modern society annoyed him, not so much like an unrighteous kingdom, but rather like an untidy room. Everyone who knew him knew, of course, that he was full of a proper brotherly bitterness about the oppression of the poor. But here again he would not admit that he was anything but an Economist.
In thus setting his face like flint against sentimental methods of argument he undoubtedly did one great service to the causes for which he stood. Every vulgar anti-humanitarian, every snob who wants monkeys vivisected or beggars flogged has always fallen back upon stereotyped phrases like “maudlin” and “sentimental,” which indicated the humanitarian as a man in a weak condition of tears. The mere personality of Shaw has shattered those foolish phrases for ever. Shaw the humanitarian was like Voltaire the humanitarian, a man whose satire was like steel, the hardest and coolest of fighters, upon whose piercing point the wretched defenders of a masculine brutality wriggled like worms.
In this quarrel one cannot wish Shaw even an inch less contemptuous, for the people who call compassion “sentimentalism” deserve nothing but contempt. In this one does not even regret his coldness; it is an honourable contrast to the blundering emotionalism of the jingoes and flagellomaniacs. The truth is that the ordinary anti-humanitarian only manages to harden his heart by having already softened his head. It is the reverse of sentimental to insist that a nigger is being burned alive; for sentimentalism must be the clinging to pleasant thoughts. And no one, not even a Higher Evolutionist, can think a nigger burned alive a pleasant thought. The sentimental thing is to warm your hands at the fire while denying the existence of the nigger, and that is the ruling habit in England, as it has been the chief business of Bernard Shaw to show. And in this the brutalitarians hate him not because he is soft, but because he is hard, because he is not to be softened by conventional excuses; because he looks hard at a thing—and hits harder. Some foolish fellow of the Henley-Whibley reaction wrote that if we were to be conquerors we must be less tender and more ruthless. Shaw answered with really avenging irony, “What a light this principle throws on the defeat of the tender Dervish, the compassionate Zulu, and the morbidly humane Boxer at the hands of the hardy savages of England, France, and Germany.” In that sentence an idiot is obliterated and the whole story of Europe told; but it is immensely stiffened by its ironic form. In the same way Shaw washed away for ever the idea that Socialists were weak dreamers, who said that things might be only because they wished them to be. G. B. S. in argument with an individualist showed himself, as a rule, much the better economist and much the worse rhetorician. In this atmosphere arose a celebrated Fabian Society, of which he is still the leading spirit—a society which answered all charges of impracticable idealism by pushing both its theoretic statements and its practical negotiations to the verge of cynicism. Bernard Shaw was the literary expert who wrote most of its pamphlets. In one of them, among such sections as Fabian Temperance Reform, Fabian Education and so on, there was an entry gravely headed “Fabian Natural Science,” which stated that in the Socialist cause light was needed more than heat.
Thus the Irish detachment and the Puritan austerity did much good to the country and to the causes for which they were embattled. But there was one thing they did not do; they did nothing for Shaw himself in the matter of his primary mistakes and his real limitation. His great defect was and is the lack of democratic sentiment. And there was nothing democratic either in his humanitarianism or his Socialism. These new and refined faiths tended rather to make the Irishman yet more aristocratic, the Puritan yet more exclusive. To be a Socialist was to look down on all the peasant owners of the earth, especially on the peasant owners of his own island. To be a Vegetarian was to be a man with a strange and mysterious morality, a man who thought the good lord who roasted oxen for his vassals only less bad than the bad lord who roasted the vassals. None of these advanced views could the common people hear gladly; nor indeed was Shaw specially anxious to please the common people. It was his glory that he pitied animals like men; it was his defect that he pitied men only too much like animals. Foulon said of the democracy, “Let them eat grass.” Shaw said, “Let them eat greens.” He had more benevolence, but almost as much disdain. “I have never had any feelings about the English working classes,” he said elsewhere, “except a desire to abolish them and replace them by sensible people.” This is the unsympathetic side of the thing; but it had another and much nobler side, which must at least be seriously recognised before we pass on to much lighter things.
Bernard Shaw is not a democrat; but he is a splendid republican. The nuance of difference between those terms precisely depicts him. And there is after all a good deal of dim democracy in England, in the sense that there is much of a blind sense of brotherhood, and nowhere more than among old-fashioned and even reactionary people. But a republican is a rare bird, and a noble one. Shaw is a republican in the literal and Latin sense; he cares more for the Public Thing than for any private thing. The interest of the State is with him a sincere thirst of the soul, as it was in the little pagan cities. Now this public passion, this clean appetite for order and equity, had fallen to a lower ebb, had more nearly disappeared altogether, during Shaw’s earlier epoch than at any other time. Individualism of the worst type was on the top of the wave; I mean artistic individualism, which is so much crueller, so much blinder and so much more irrational even than commercial individualism. The decay of society was praised by artists as the decay of a corpse is praised by worms. The aesthete was all receptiveness, like the flea. His only affair in this world was to feed on its facts and colours, like a parasite upon blood. The ego was the all; and the praise of it was enunciated in madder and madder rhythms by poets whose Helicon was absinthe and whose Pegasus was the nightmare. This diseased pride was not even conscious of a public interest, and would have found all political terms utterly tasteless and insignificant. It was no longer a question of one man one vote, but of one man one universe.
I have in my time had my fling at the Fabian Society, at the pedantry of schemes, the arrogance of experts; nor do I regret it now. But when I remember that other world against which it reared its bourgeois banner of cleanliness and common sense, I will not end this chapter without doing it decent honour. Give me the drain pipes of the Fabians rather than the panpipes of the later poets; the drain pipes have a nicer smell. Give me even that businesslike benevolence that herded men like beasts rather than that exquisite art which isolated them like devils; give me even the suppression of “Zaeo” rather than the triumph of “Salome.” And if I feel such a confession to be due to those Fabians who could hardly have been anything but experts in any society, such as Mr. Sidney Webb or Mr. Edward Pease, it is due yet more strongly to the greatest of the Fabians. Here was a man who could have enjoyed art among the artists, who could have been the wittiest of all the FLâNEURS; who could have made epigrams like diamonds and drunk music like wine. He has instead laboured in a mill of statistics and crammed his mind with all the most dreary and the most filthy details, so that he can argue on the spur of the moment about sewing-machines or sewage, about typhus fever or twopenny tubes. The usual mean theory of motives will not cover the case; it is not ambition, for he could have been twenty times more prominent as a plausible and popular humorist. It is the real and ancient emotion of the SALUS POPULI, almost extinct in our oligarchical chaos; nor will I for one, as I pass on to many matters of argument or quarrel, neglect to salute a passion so implacable and so pure.
The Critic
IT appears a point of some mystery to the present writer that Bernard Shaw should have been so long unrecognised and almost in beggary. I should have thought his talent was of the ringing and arresting sort; such as even editors and publishers would have sense enough to seize. Yet it is quite certain that he almost starved in London for many years, writing occasional columns for an advertisement or words for a picture. And it is equally certain (it is proved by twenty anecdotes, but no one who knows Shaw needs any anecdotes to prove it) that in those days of desperation he again and again threw up chances and flung back good bargains which did not suit his unique and erratic sense of honour. The fame of having first offered Shaw to the public upon a platform worthy of him belongs, like many other public services, to Mr. William Archer.
I say it seems odd that such a writer should not be appreciated in a flash; but upon this point there is evidently a real difference of opinion, and it constitutes for me the strangest difficulty of the subject. I hear many people complain that Bernard Shaw deliberately mystifies them. I cannot imagine what they mean; it seems to me that he deliberately insults them. His language, especially on moral questions, is generally as straight and solid as that of a bargee and far less ornate and symbolic than that of a hansom-cabman. The prosperous English Philistine complains that Mr. Shaw is making a fool of him. Whereas Mr. Shaw is not in the least making a fool of him; Mr. Shaw is, with laborious lucidity, calling him a fool. G. B. S. calls a landlord a thief; and the landlord, instead of denying or resenting it, says, “Ah, that fellow hides his meaning so cleverly that one can never make out what he means, it is all so fine spun and fantastical.” G. B. S. calls a statesman a liar to his face, and the statesman cries in a kind of ecstasy, “Ah, what quaint, intricate and half-tangled trains of thought! Ah, what elusive and many-coloured mysteries of half-meaning!” I think it is always quite plain what Mr. Shaw means, even when he is joking, and it generally means that the people he is talking to ought to howl aloud for their sins. But the average representative of them undoubtedly treats the Shavian meaning as tricky and complex, when it is really direct and offensive. He always accuses Shaw of pulling his leg, at the exact moment when Shaw is pulling his nose.
This prompt and pungent style he learnt in the open, upon political tubs and platforms; and he is very legitimately proud of it. He boasts of being a demagogue; “The cart and the trumpet for me,” he says, with admirable good sense. Everyone will remember the effective appearance of Cyrano de Bergerac in the first act of the fine play of that name; when instead of leaping in by any hackneyed door or window, he suddenly springs upon a chair above the crowd that has so far kept him invisible; “les bras croisés, le feutre en bataille, la moustache herissée, le nez terrible.” I will not go so far as to say that when Bernard Shaw sprang upon a chair or tub in Trafalgar Square he had the hat in battle, or even that he had the nose terrible. But just as we see Cyrano best when he thus leaps above the crowd, I think we may take this moment of Shaw stepping on his little platform to see him clearly as he then was, and even as he has largely not ceased to be. I, at least, have only known him in his middle age; yet I think I can see him, younger yet only a little more alert, with hair more red but with face yet paler, as he first stood up upon some cart or barrow in the tossing glare of the gas.
The first fact that one realises about Shaw (independent of all one has read and often contradicting it) is his voice. Primarily it is the voice of an Irishman, and then something of the voice of a musician. It possibly explains much of his career; a man may be permitted to say so many impudent things with so pleasant an intonation. But the voice is not only Irish and agreeable, it is also frank and as it were inviting conference. This goes with a style and gesture which can only be described as at once very casual and very emphatic. He assumes that bodily supremacy which goes with oratory, but he assumes it with almost ostentatious carelessness; he throws back the head, but loosely and laughingly. He is at once swaggering and yet shrugging his shoulders, as if to drop from them the mantle of the orator which he has confidently assumed. Lastly, no man ever used voice or gesture better for the purpose of expressing certainty; no man can say “I tell Mr. Jones he is totally wrong” with more air of unforced and even casual conviction.
This particular play of feature or pitch of voice, at once didactic and yet not uncomrade-like, must be counted a very important fact, especially in connection with the period when that voice was first heard. It must be remembered that Shaw emerged as a wit in a sort of secondary age of wits; one of those stale interludes of prematurely old young men, which separate the serious epochs of history. Oscar Wilde was its god; but he was somewhat more mystical, not to say monstrous, than the average of its dried and decorous impudence. The TWO SURVIVALS of that time, as far as I know, are Mr. Max Beerbohm and Mr. Graham Robertson; two most charming people; but the air they had to live in was the devil. One of its notes was an artificial reticence of speech, which waited till it could plant the perfect epigram. Its typical products were far too conceited to lay down the law. Now when people heard that Bernard Shaw was witty, as he most certainly was, when they heard his MOTS repeated like those of Whistler or Wilde, when they heard things like “the Seven deadly Virtues” or “Who WAS Hall Caine?” they expected another of these silent sarcastic dandies who went about with one epigram, patient and poisonous, like a bee with his one sting. And when they saw and heard the new humorist they found no fixed sneer, no frock coat, no green carnation, no silent Savoy Restaurant good manners, no fear of looking a fool, no particular notion of looking a gentleman. They found a talkative Irishman with a kind voice and a brown coat; open gestures and an evident desire to make people really agree with him. He had his own kind of affectations no doubt, and his own kind of tricks of debate; but he broke, and, thank God, forever the spell of the little man with the single eye glass who had frozen both faith and fun at so many tea-tables. Shaw’s humane voice and hearty manner were so obviously more the things of a great man than the hard, gem-like brilliancy of Wilde or the careful ill-temper of Whistler. He brought in a breezier sort of insolence; the single eye-glass fled before the single eye.
Added to the effect of the amiable dogmatic voice and lean, loose swaggering figure, is that of the face with which so many caricaturists have fantastically delighted themselves, the Mephistophilean face with the fierce tufted eyebrows and forked red beard. Yet those caricaturists in their natural delight in coming upon so striking a face, have somewhat misrepresented it, making it merely Satanic; whereas its actual expression has quite as much benevolence as mockery. By this time his costume has become a part of his personality; one has come to think of the reddish brown Jaeger suit as if it were a sort of reddish brown fur, and were, like the hair and eyebrows, a part of the animal; yet there are those who claim to remember a Bernard Shaw of yet more awful aspect before Jaeger came to his assistance; a Bernard Shaw in a dilapidated frock-coat and some sort of straw hat. I can hardly believe it; the man is so much of a piece, and must always have dressed appropriately. In any case his brown woollen clothes, at once artistic and hygienic, completed the appeal for which he stood; which might be defined as an eccentric healthy-mindedness. But something of the vagueness and equivocation of his first fame is probably due to the different functions which he performed in the contemporary world of art.
He began by writing novels. They are not much read, and indeed not imperatively worth reading, with the one exception of the crude and magnificent CASHEL BYRON’S PROFESSION. Mr. William Archer, in the course of his kindly efforts on behalf of his young Irish friend, sent this book to Samoa, for the opinion of the most elvish and yet efficient of modern critics. Stevenson summed up much of Shaw even from that fragment when he spoke of a romantic griffin roaring with laughter at the nature of his own quest. He also added the not wholly unjustified post-script: “I say, Archer,—my God, what women!”
The fiction was largely dropped; but when he began work he felt his way by the avenues of three arts. He was an art critic, a dramatic critic, and a musical critic; and in all three, it need hardly be said, he fought for the newest style and the most revolutionary school. He wrote on all these as he would have written on anything; but it was, I fancy, about the music that he cared most.
It may often be remarked that mathematicians love and understand music more than they love or understand poetry. Bernard Shaw is in much the same condition; indeed, in attempting to do justice to Shakespeare’s poetry, he always calls it “word music.” It is not difficult to explain this special attachment of the mere logician to music. The logician, like every other man on earth, must have sentiment and romance in his existence; in every man’s life, indeed, which can be called a life at all, sentiment is the most solid thing. But if the extreme logician turns for his emotions to poetry, he is exasperated and bewildered by discovering that the words of his own trade are used in an entirely different meaning. He conceives that he understands the word “visible,” and then finds Milton applying it to darkness, in which nothing is visible. He supposes that he understands the word “hide,” and then finds Shelley talking of a poet hidden in the light. He has reason to believe that he understands the common word “hung”; and then William Shakespeare, Esquire, of Stratford-on-Avon, gravely assures him that the tops of the tall sea waves were hung with deafening clamours on the slippery clouds. That is why the common arithmetician prefers music to poetry. Words are his scientific instruments. It irritates him that they should be anyone else’s musical instruments. He is willing to see men juggling, but not men juggling with his own private tools and possessions—his terms. It is then that he turns with an utter relief to music. Here are all the same fascination and inspiration, all the same purity and plunging force as in poetry; but not requiring any verbal confession that light conceals things or that darkness can be seen in the dark. Music is mere beauty; it is beauty in the abstract, beauty in solution. It is a shapeless and liquid element of beauty, in which a man may really float, not indeed affirming the truth, but not denying it. Bernard Shaw, as I have already said, is infinitely far above all such mere mathematicians and pedantic reasoners; still his feeling is partly the same. He adores music because it cannot deal with romantic terms either in their right or their wrong sense. Music can be romantic without reminding him of Shakespeare and Walter Scott, with whom he has had personal quarrels. Music can be Catholic without reminding him verbally of the Catholic Church, which he has never seen, and is sure he does not like. Bernard Shaw can agree with Wagner, the musician, because he speaks without words; if it had been Wagner the man he would certainly have had words with him. Therefore I would suggest that Shaw’s love of music (which is so fundamental that it must be mentioned early, if not first, in his story) may itself be considered in the first case as the imaginative safety-valve of the rationalistic Irishman.
This much may be said conjecturally over the present signature; but more must not be said. Bernard Shaw understands music so much better than I do that it is just possible that he is, in that tongue and atmosphere, all that he is not elsewhere. While he is writing with a pen I know his limitations as much as I admire his genius; and I know it is true to say that he does not appreciate romance. But while he is playing on the piano he may be cocking a feather, drawing a sword or draining a flagon for all I know. While he is speaking I am sure that there are some things he does not understand. But while he is listening (at the Queen’s Hall) he may understand everything, including God and me. Upon this part of him I am a reverent agnostic; it is well to have some such dark continent in the character of a man of whom one writes. It preserves two very important things—modesty in the biographer and mystery in the biography.
For the purpose of our present generalisation it is only necessary to say that Shaw, as a musical critic, summed himself up as “The Perfect Wagnerite”; he threw himself into subtle and yet trenchant eulogy of that revolutionary voice in music. It was the same with the other arts. As he was a Perfect Wagnerite in music, so he was a Perfect Whistlerite in painting; so above all he was a Perfect Ibsenite in drama. And with this we enter that part of his career with which this book is more specially concerned. When Mr. William Archer got him established as dramatic critic of the SATURDAY REVIEW, he became for the first time “a star of the stage”; a shooting star and sometimes a destroying comet.
On the day of that appointment opened one of the very few exhilarating and honest battles that broke the silence of the slow and cynical collapse of the nineteenth century. Bernard Shaw the demagogue had got his cart and his trumpet; and was resolved to make them like the car of destiny and the trumpet of judgment. He had not the servility of the ordinary rebel, who is content to go on rebelling against kings and priests, because such rebellion is as old and as established as any priests or kings. He cast about him for something to attack which was not merely powerful or placid, but was unattacked. After a little quite sincere reflection, he found it. He would not be content to be a common atheist; he wished to blaspheme something in which even atheists believed. He was not satisfied with being revolutionary; there were so many revolutionists. He wanted to pick out some prominent institution which had been irrationally and instinctively accepted by the most violent and profane; something of which Mr. Foote would speak as respectfully on the front page of the FREETHINKEr as Mr. St. Loe Strachey on the front page of the SPECTATOR. He found the thing; he found the great unassailed English institution—Shakespeare.
But Shaw’s attack on Shakespeare, though exaggerated for the fun of the thing, was not by any means the mere folly or firework paradox that has been supposed. He meant what he said; what was called his levity was merely the laughter of a man who enjoyed saying what he meant— an occupation which is indeed one of the greatest larks in life. Moreover, it can honestly be said that Shaw did good by shaking the mere idolatry of Him of Avon. That idolatry was bad for England; it buttressed our perilous self-complacency by making us think that we alone had, not merely a great poet, but the one poet above criticism. It was bad for literature; it made a minute model out of work that was really a hasty and faulty masterpiece. And it was bad for religion and morals that there should be so huge a terrestrial idol, that we should put such utter and unreasoning trust in any child of man. It is true that it was largely through Shaw’s own defects that he beheld the defects of Shakespeare. But it needed someone equally prosaic to resist what was perilous in the charm of such poetry; it may not be altogether a mistake to send a deaf man to destroy the rock of the sirens.
This attitude of Shaw illustrates of course all three of the divisions or aspects to which the reader’s attention has been drawn. It was partly the attitude of the Irishman objecting to the Englishman turning his mere artistic taste into a religion; especially when it was a taste merely taught him by his aunts and uncles. In Shaw’s opinion (one might say) the English do not really enjoy Shakespeare or even admire Shakespeare; one can only say, in the strong colloquialism, that they swear by Shakespeare. He is a mere god; a thing to be invoked. And Shaw’s whole business was to set up the things which were to be sworn by as things to be sworn at. It was partly again the revolutionist in pursuit of pure novelty, hating primarily the oppression of the past, almost hating history itself. For Bernard Shaw the prophets were to be stoned after, and not before, men had built their sepulchres. There was a Yankee smartness in the man which was irritated at the idea of being dominated by a person dead for three hundred years; like Mark Twain, he wanted a fresher corpse.
These two motives there were, but they were small compared with the other. It was the third part of him, the Puritan, that was really at war with Shakespeare. He denounced that playwright almost exactly as any contemporary Puritan coming out of a conventicle in a steeple-crowned hat and stiff bands might have denounced the playwright coming out of the stage door of the old Globe Theatre. This is not a mere fancy; it is philosophically true. A legend has run round the newspapers that Bernard Shaw offered himself as a better writer than Shakespeare. This is false and quite unjust; Bernard Shaw never said anything of the kind. The writer whom he did say was better than Shakespeare was not himself, but Bunyan. And he justified it by attributing to Bunyan a virile acceptance of life as a high and harsh adventure, while in Shakespeare he saw nothing but profligate pessimism, the VANITAS VANITATUM of a disappointed voluptuary. According to this view Shakespeare was always saying, “Out, out, brief candle,” because his was only a ballroom candle; while Bunyan was seeking to light such a candle as by God’s grace should never be put out.
It is odd that Bernard Shaw’s chief error or insensibility should have been the instrument of his noblest affirmation. The denunciation of Shakespeare was a mere misunderstanding. But the denunciation of Shakespeare’s pessimism was the most splendidly understanding of all his utterances. This is the greatest thing in Shaw, a serious optimism—even a tragic optimism. Life is a thing too glorious to be enjoyed. To be is an exacting and exhausting business; the trumpet though inspiring is terrible. Nothing that he ever wrote is so noble as his simple reference to the sturdy man who stepped up to the Keeper of the Book of Life and said, “Put down my name, Sir.” It is true that Shaw called this heroic philosophy by wrong names and buttressed it with false metaphysics; that was the weakness of the age. The temporary decline of theology had involved the neglect of philosophy and all fine thinking; and Bernard Shaw had to find shaky justifications in Schopenhauer for the sons of God shouting for joy. He called it the Will to Live—a phrase invented by Prussian professors who would like to exist, but can’t. Afterwards he asked people to worship the Life-Force; as if one could worship a hyphen. But though he covered it with crude new names (which are now fortunately crumbling everywhere like bad mortar) he was on the side of the good old cause; the oldest and the best of all causes, the cause of creation against destruction, the cause of yes against no, the cause of the seed against the stony earth and the star against the abyss.
His misunderstanding of Shakespeare arose largely from the fact that he is a Puritan, while Shakespeare was spiritually a Catholic. The former is always screwing himself up to see truth; the latter is often content that truth is there. The Puritan is only strong enough to stiffen; the Catholic is strong enough to relax. Shaw, I think, has entirely misunderstood the pessimistic passages of Shakespeare. They are flying moods which a man with a fixed faith can afford to entertain. That all is vanity, that life is dust and love is ashes, these are frivolities, these are jokes that a Catholic can afford to utter. He knows well enough that there is a life that is not dust and a love that is not ashes. But just as he may let himself go more than the Puritan in the matter of enjoyment, so he may let himself go more than the Puritan in the matter of melancholy. The sad exuberances of Hamlet are merely like the glad exuberances of Falstaff. This is not conjecture; it is the text of Shakespeare. In the very act of uttering his pessimism, Hamlet admits that it is a mood and not the truth. Heaven IS a heavenly thing, only to him it seems a foul congregation of vapours. Man IS the paragon of animals, only to him he seems a quintessence of dust. Hamlet is quite the reverse of a sceptic. He is a man whose strong intellect believes much more than his weak temperament can make vivid to him. But this power of knowing a thing without feeling it, this power of believing a thing without experiencing it, this is an old Catholic complexity, and the Puritan has never understood it. Shakespeare confesses his moods (mostly by the mouths of villains and failures), but he never sets up his moods against his mind. His cry of VANITAS VANITATUM is itself only a harmless vanity. Readers may not agree with my calling him Catholic with a big C; but they will hardly complain of my calling him catholic with a small one. And that is here the principal point. Shakespeare was not in any sense a pessimist; he was, if anything, an optimist so universal as to be able to enjoy even pessimism. And this is exactly where he differs from the Puritan. The true Puritan is not squeamish: the true Puritan is free to say “Damn it!” But the Catholic Elizabethan was free (on passing provocation) to say “Damn it all!”
It need hardly be explained that Bernard Shaw added to his negative case of a dramatist to be depreciated a corresponding affirmative case of a dramatist to be exalted and advanced. He was not content with so remote a comparison as that between Shakespeare and Bunyan. In his vivacious weekly articles in the SATURDAY REVIEW, the real comparison upon which everything turned was the comparison between Shakespeare and Ibsen. He early threw himself with all possible eagerness into the public disputes about the great Scandinavian; and though there was no doubt whatever about which side he supported, there was much that was individual in the line he took. It is not our business here to explore that extinct volcano. You may say that anti-Ibsenism is dead, or you may say that Ibsen is dead; in any case, that controversy is dead, and death, as the Roman poet says, can alone confess of what small atoms we are made. The opponents of Ibsen largely exhibited the permanent qualities of the populace; that is, their instincts were right and their reasons wrong. They made the complete controversial mistake of calling Ibsen a pessimist; whereas, indeed, his chief weakness is a rather childish confidence in mere nature and freedom, and a blindness (either of experience or of culture) in the matter of original sin. In this sense Ibsen is not so much a pessimist as a highly crude kind of optimist. Nevertheless the man in the street was right in his fundamental instinct, as he always is. Ibsen, in his pale northern style, is an optimist; but for all that he is a depressing person. The optimism of Ibsen is less comforting than the pessimism of Dante; just as a Norwegian sunrise, however splendid, is colder than a southern night.
But on the side of those who fought for Ibsen there was also a disagreement, and perhaps also a mistake. The vague army of “the advanced” (an army which advances in all directions) were united in feeling that they ought to be the friends of Ibsen because he also was advancing somewhere somehow. But they were also seriously impressed by Flaubert, by Oscar Wilde and all the rest who told them that a work of art was in another universe from ethics and social good. Therefore many, I think most, of the Ibsenites praised the Ibsen plays merely as CHOSES VUES, aesthetic affirmations of what can be without any reference to what ought to be. Mr. William Archer himself inclined to this view, though his strong sagacity kept him in a haze of healthy doubt on the subject. Mr. Walkley certainly took this view. But this view Mr. George Bernard Shaw abruptly and violently refused to take.
With the full Puritan combination of passion and precision he informed everybody that Ibsen was not artistic, but moral; that his dramas were didactic, that all great art was didactic, that Ibsen was strongly on the side of some of his characters and strongly against others, that there was preaching and public spirit in the work of good dramatists; and that if this were not so, dramatists and all other artists would be mere panders of intellectual debauchery, to be locked up as the Puritans locked up the stage players. No one can understand Bernard Shaw who does not give full value to this early revolt of his on behalf of ethics against the ruling school of L’ART POUR L’ART. It is interesting because it is connected with other ambitions in the man, especially with that which has made him somewhat vainer of being a Parish Councillor than of being one of the most popular dramatists in Europe. But its chief interest is again to be referred to our stratification of the psychology; it is the lover of true things rebelling for once against merely new things; it is the Puritan suddenly refusing to be the mere Progressive.
But this attitude obviously laid on the ethical lover of Ibsen a not inconsiderable obligation. If the new drama had an ethical purpose, what was it? and if Ibsen was a moral teacher, what the deuce was he teaching? Answers to this question, answers of manifold brilliancy and promise, were scattered through all the dramatic criticisms of those years on the SATURDAY REVIEW. But even Bernard Shaw grew tired after a time of discussing Ibsen only in connection with the current pantomime or the latest musical comedy. It was felt that so much sincerity and fertility of explanation justified a concentrated attack; and in 1891 appeared the brilliant book called THE QUINTESSENCE OF IBSENISM, which some have declared to be merely the quintessence of Shaw. However this may be, it was in fact and profession the quintessence of Shaw’s theory of the morality or propaganda of Ibsen.
The book itself is much longer than the book that I am writing; and as is only right in so spirited an apologist, every paragraph is provocative. I could write an essay on every sentence which I accept and three essays on every sentence which I deny. Bernard Shaw himself is a master of compression; he can put a conception more compactly than any other man alive. It is therefore rather difficult to compress his compression; one feels as if one were trying to extract a beef essence from Bovril. But the shortest form in which I can state the idea of The Quintessence of Ibsenism is that it is the idea of distrusting ideals, which are universal, in comparison with facts, which are miscellaneous. The man whom he attacks throughout he calls “The Idealist”; that is the man who permits himself to be mainly moved by a moral generalisation. “Actions,” he says, “are to be judged by their effect on happiness, and not by their conformity to any ideal.” As we have already seen, there is a certain inconsistency here; for while Shaw had always chucked all ideals overboard the one he had chucked first was the ideal of happiness. Passing this however for the present, we may mark the above as the most satisfying summary. If I tell a lie I am not to blame myself for having violated the ideal of truth, but only for having perhaps got myself into a mess and made things worse than they were before. If I have broken my word I need not feel (as my fathers did) that I have broken something inside of me, as one who breaks a blood vessel. It all depends on whether I have broken up something outside me; as one who breaks up an evening party. If I shoot my father the only question is whether I have made him happy. I must not admit the idealistic conception that the mere shooting of my father might possibly make me unhappy. We are to judge of every individual case as it arises, apparently without any social summary or moral ready-reckoner at all. “The Golden Rule is that there is no Golden Rule.” We must not say that it is right to keep promises, but that it may be right to keep this promise. Essentially it is anarchy; nor is it very easy to see how a state could be very comfortable which was Socialist in all its public morality and Anarchist in all its private. But if it is anarchy, it is anarchy without any of the abandon and exuberance of anarchy. It is a worried and conscientious anarchy; an anarchy of painful delicacy and even caution. For it refuses to trust in traditional experiments or plainly trodden tracks; every case must be considered anew from the beginning, and yet considered with the most wide-eyed care for human welfare; every man must act as if he were the first man made. Briefly, we must always be worrying about what is best for our children, and we must not take one hint or rule of thumb from our fathers. Some think that this anarchism would make a man tread down mighty cities in his madness. I think it would make a man walk down the street as if he were walking on egg-shells. I do not think this experiment in opportunism would end in frantic license; I think it would end in frozen timidity. If a man was forbidden to solve moral problems by moral science or the help of mankind, his course would be quite easy—he would not solve the problems. The world instead of being a knot so tangled as to need unravelling, would simply become a piece of clock-work too complicated to be touched. I cannot think that this untutored worry was what Ibsen meant; I have my doubts as to whether it was what Shaw meant; but I do not think that it can be substantially doubted that it was what he said.
In any case it can be asserted that the general aim of the work was to exalt the immediate conclusions of practice against the general conclusions of theory. Shaw objected to the solution of every problem in a play being by its nature a general solution, applicable to all other such problems. He disliked the entrance of a universal justice at the end of the last act; treading down all the personal ultimatums and all the varied certainties of men. He disliked the god from the machine—because he was from a machine. But even without the machine he tended to dislike the god; because a god is more general than a man. His enemies have accused Shaw of being anti-domestic, a shaker of the roof-tree. But in this sense Shaw may be called almost madly domestic. He wishes each private problem to be settled in private, without reference to sociological ethics. And the only objection to this kind of gigantic casuistry is that the theatre is really too small to discuss it. It would not be fair to play David and Goliath on a stage too small to admit Goliath. And it is not fair to discuss private morality on a stage too small to admit the enormous presence of public morality; that character which has not appeared in a play since the Middle Ages; whose name is Everyman and whose honour we have all in our keeping.
The Dramatist
NO one who was alive at the time and interested in such matters will ever forget the first acting of ARMS AND THE MAN. It was applauded by that indescribable element in all of us which rejoices to see the genuine thing prevail against the plausible; that element which rejoices that even its enemies are alive. Apart from the problems raised in the play, the very form of it was an attractive and forcible innovation. Classic plays which were wholly heroic, comic plays which were wholly and even heartlessly ironical, were common enough. Commonest of all in this particular time was the play that began playfully, with plenty of comic business, and was gradually sobered by sentiment until it ended on a note of romance or even of pathos. A commonplace little officer, the butt of the mess, becomes by the last act as high and hopeless a lover as Dante. Or a vulgar and violent pork-butcher remembers his own youth before the curtain goes down. The first thing that Bernard Shaw did when he stepped before the footlights was to reverse this process. He resolved to build a play not on pathos, but on bathos. The officer should be heroic first and then everyone should laugh at him; the curtain should go up on a man remembering his youth, and he should only reveal himself as a violent pork-butcher when someone interrupted him with an order for pork. This merely technical originality is indicated in the very title of the play. The ARMA VIRUMQUE of Virgil is a mounting and ascending phrase, the man is more than his weapons. The Latin line suggests a superb procession which should bring on to the stage the brazen and resounding armour, the shield and shattering axe, but end with the hero himself, taller and more terrible because unarmed. The technical effect of Shaw’s scheme is like the same scene, in which a crowd should carry even more gigantic shapes of shield and helmet, but when the horns and howls were at their highest, should end with the figure of Little Tich. The name itself is meant to be a bathos; arms—and the man.
It is well to begin with the superficial; and this is the superficial effectiveness of Shaw; the brilliancy of bathos. But of course the vitality and value of his plays does not lie merely in this; any more than the value of Swinburne lies in alliteration or the value of Hood in puns. This is not his message; but it is his method; it is his style. The first taste we had of it was in this play of ARMS AND THE MAN; but even at the very first it was evident that there was much more in the play than that. Among other things there was one thing not unimportant; there was savage sincerity. Indeed, only a ferociously sincere person can produce such effective flippancies on a matter like war; just as only a strong man could juggle with cannon balls. It is all very well to use the word “fool” as synonymous with “jester”; but daily experience shows that it is generally the solemn and silent man who is the fool. It is all very well to accuse Mr. Shaw of standing on his head; but if you stand on your head you must have a hard and solid head to stand on. In ARMS AND THE MAN the bathos of form was strictly the incarnation of a strong satire in the idea. The play opens in an atmosphere of military melodrama; the dashing officer of cavalry going off to death in an attitude, the lovely heroine left in tearful rapture; the brass band, the noise of guns and the red fire. Into all this enters Bluntschli, the little sturdy crop-haired Swiss professional soldier, a man without a country but with a trade. He tells the army-adoring heroine frankly that she is a humbug; and she, after a moment’s reflection, appears to agree with him. The play is like nearly all Shaw’s plays, the dialogue of a conversion. By the end of it the young lady has lost all her military illusions and admires this mercenary soldier not because he faces guns, but because he faces facts.
This was a fitting entrance for Shaw to his didactic drama; because the commonplace courage which he respects in Bluntschli was the one virtue which he was destined to praise throughout. We can best see how the play symbolises and summarises Bernard Shaw if we compare it with some other attack by modern humanitarians upon war. Shaw has many of the actual opinions of Tolstoy. Like Tolstoy he tells men, with coarse innocence, that romantic war is only butchery and that romantic love is only lust. But Tolstoy objects to these things because they are real; he really wishes to abolish them. Shaw only objects to them in so far as they are ideal; that is in so far as they are idealised. Shaw objects not so much to war as to the attractiveness of war. He does not so much dislike love as the love of love. Before the temple of Mars, Tolstoy stands and thunders, “There shall be no wars”; Bernard Shaw merely murmurs, “Wars if you must; but for God’s sake, not war songs.” Before the temple of Venus, Tolstoy cries terribly, “Come out of it!”; Shaw is quite content to say, “Do not be taken in by it.” Tolstoy seems really to propose that high passion and patriotic valour should be destroyed. Shaw is more moderate; and only asks that they should be desecrated. Upon this note, both about sex and conflict, he was destined to dwell through much of his work with the most wonderful variations of witty adventure and intellectual surprise. It may be doubted perhaps whether this realism in love and war is quite so sensible as it looks. SECURUS JUDICAT ORBIS TERRARUM; the world is wiser than the moderns. The world has kept sentimentalities simply because they are the most practical things in the world. They alone make men do things. The world does not encourage a quite rational lover, simply because a perfectly rational lover would never get married. The world does not encourage a perfectly rational army, because a perfectly rational army would run away.
The brain of Bernard Shaw was like a wedge in the literal sense. Its sharpest end was always in front; and it split our society from end to end the moment it had entrance at all. As I have said he was long unheard of; but he had not the tragedy of many authors, who were heard of long before they were heard. When you had read any Shaw you read all Shaw. When you had seen one of his plays you waited for more. And when he brought them out in volume form, you did what is repugnant to any literary man—you bought a book.
The dramatic volume with which Shaw dazzled the public was called, Plays, Pleasant and Unpleasant. I think the most striking and typical thing about it was that he did not know very clearly which plays were unpleasant and which were pleasant. “Pleasant” is a word which is almost unmeaning to Bernard Shaw. Except, as I suppose, in music (where I cannot follow him), relish and receptivity are things that simply do not appear. He has the best of tongues and the worst of palates. With the possible exception of Mrs. Warren’s Profession (which was at least unpleasant in the sense of being forbidden) I can see no particular reason why any of the seven plays should be held specially to please or displease. First in fame and contemporary importance came the reprint of Arms and the Man, of which I have already spoken. Over all the rest towered unquestionably the two figures of Mrs. Warren and of Candida. They were neither of them pleasant, except as all good art is pleasant. They were neither of them really unpleasant except as all truth is unpleasant. But they did represent the author’s normal preference and his principal fear; and those two sculptured giantesses largely upheld his fame.
I fancy that the author rather dislikes CANDIDA because it is so generally liked. I give my own feeling for what it is worth (a foolish phrase), but I think that there were only two moments when this powerful writer was truly, in the ancient and popular sense, inspired; that is, breathing from a bigger self and telling more truth than he knew. One is that scene in a later play where after the secrets and revenges of Egypt have rioted and rotted all round him, the colossal sanity of Caesar is suddenly acclaimed with swords. The other is that great last scene in CANDIDa where the wife, stung into final speech, declared her purpose of remaining with the strong man because he is the weak man. The wife is asked to decide between two men, one a strenuous self-confident popular preacher, her husband, the other a wild and weak young poet, logically futile and physically timid, her lover; and she chooses the former because he has more weakness and more need of her. Even among the plain and ringing paradoxes of the Shaw play this is one of the best reversals or turnovers ever effected. A paradoxical writer like Bernard Shaw is perpetually and tiresomely told that he stands on his head. But all romance and all religion consist in making the whole universe stand on its head. That reversal is the whole idea of virtue; that the last shall be first and the first last. Considered as a pure piece of Shaw therefore, the thing is of the best. But it is also something much better than Shaw. The writer touches certain realities commonly outside his scope; especially the reality of the normal wife’s attitude to the normal husband, an attitude which is not romantic but which is yet quite quixotic; which is insanely unselfish and yet quite cynically clear-sighted. It involves human sacrifice without in the least involving idolatry.
The truth is that in this place Bernard Shaw comes within an inch of expressing something that is not properly expressed anywhere else; the idea of marriage. Marriage is not a mere chain upon love as the anarchists say; nor is it a mere crown upon love as the sentimentalists say. Marriage is a fact, an actual human relation like that of motherhood which has certain human habits and loyalties, except in a few monstrous cases where it is turned to torture by special insanity and sin. A marriage is neither an ecstasy nor a slavery; it is a commonwealth; it is a separate working and fighting thing like a nation. Kings and diplomatists talk of “forming alliances” when they make weddings; but indeed every wedding is primarily an alliance. The family is a fact even when it is not an agreeable fact, and a man is part of his wife even when he wishes he wasn’t. The twain are one flesh—yes, even when they are not one spirit. Man is duplex. Man is a quadruped.
Of this ancient and essential relation there are certain emotional results, which are subtle, like all the growths of nature. And one of them is the attitude of the wife to the husband, whom she regards at once as the strongest and most helpless of human figures. She regards him in some strange fashion at once as a warrior who must make his way and as an infant who is sure to lose his way. The man has emotions which exactly correspond; sometimes looking down at his wife and sometimes up at her; for marriage is like a splendid game of see-saw. Whatever else it is, it is not comradeship. This living, ancestral bond (not of love or fear, but strictly of marriage) has been twice expressed splendidly in literature. The man’s incurable sense of the mother in his lawful wife was uttered by Browning in one of his two or three truly shattering lines of genius, when he makes the execrable Guido fall back finally upon the fact of marriage and the wife whom he has trodden like mire:
“Christ! Maria! God, Pompilia, will you let them murder me?”
And the woman’s witness to the same fact has been best expressed by Bernard Shaw in this great scene where she remains with the great stalwart successful public man because he is really too little to run alone.
There are one or two errors in the play; and they are all due to the primary error of despising the mental attitude of romance, which is the only key to real human conduct. For instance, the love making of the young poet is all wrong. He is supposed to be a romantic and amorous boy; and therefore the dramatist tries to make him talk turgidly, about seeking for “an archangel with purple wings” who shall be worthy of his lady. But a lad in love would never talk in this mock heroic style; there is no period at which the young male is more sensitive and serious and afraid of looking a fool. This is a blunder; but there is another much bigger and blacker. It is completely and disastrously false to the whole nature of falling in love to make the young Eugene complain of the cruelty which makes Candida defile her fair hands with domestic duties. No boy in love with a beautiful woman would ever feel disgusted when she peeled potatoes or trimmed lamps. He would like her to be domestic. He would simply feel that the potatoes had become poetical and the lamps gained an extra light. This may be irrational; but we are not talking of rationality, but of the psychology of first love. It may be very unfair to women that the toil and triviality of potato peeling should be seen through a glamour of romance; but the glamour is quite as certain a fact as the potatoes. It may be a bad thing in sociology that men should deify domesticity in girls as something dainty and magical; but all men do. Personally I do not think it a bad thing at all; but that is another argument. The argument here is that Bernard Shaw, in aiming at mere realism, makes a big mistake in reality. Misled by his great heresy of looking at emotions from the outside, he makes Eugene a cold-blooded prig at the very moment when he is trying, for his own dramatic purposes, to make him a hot-blooded lover. He makes the young lover an idealistic theoriser about the very things about which he really would have been a sort of mystical materialist. Here the romantic Irishman is much more right than the very rational one; and there is far more truth to life as it is in Lover’s couplet—
“And envied the chicken That Peggy was pickin’.”
than in Eugene’s solemn, aesthetic protest against the potato-skins and the lamp-oil. For dramatic purposes, G. B. S., even if he despises romance, ought to comprehend it. But then, if once he comprehended romance, he would not despise it.
The series contained, besides its more substantial work, tragic and comic, a comparative frivolity called THE MAN OF DESTINY. It is a little comedy about Napoleon, and is chiefly interesting as a foreshadowing of his after sketches of heroes and strong men; it is a kind of parody of CAESAR AND CLEOPATRa before it was written. In this connection the mere title of this Napoleonic play is of interest. All Shaw’s generation and school of thought remembered Napoleon only by his late and corrupt title of “The Man of Destiny,” a title only given to him when he was already fat and tired and destined to exile. They forgot that through all the really thrilling and creative part of his career he was not the man of destiny, but the man who defied destiny. Shaw’s sketch is extraordinarily clever; but it is tinged with this unmilitary notion of an inevitable conquest; and this we must remember when we come to those larger canvases on which he painted his more serious heroes. As for the play, it is packed with good things, of which the last is perhaps the best. The long duologue between Bonaparte and the Irish lady ends with the General declaring that he will only be beaten when he meets an English army under an Irish general. It has always been one of Shaw’s paradoxes that the English mind has the force to fulfil orders, while the Irish mind has the intelligence to give them, and it is among those of his paradoxes which contain a certain truth.
A far more important play is THE PHILANDERER, an ironic comedy which is full of fine strokes and real satire; it is more especially the vehicle of some of Shaw’s best satire upon physical science. Nothing could be cleverer than the picture of the young, strenuous doctor, in the utter innocence of his professional ambition, who has discovered a new disease, and is delighted when he finds people suffering from it and cast down to despair when he finds that it does not exist. The point is worth a pause, because it is a good, short way of stating Shaw’s attitude, right or wrong, upon the whole of formal morality. What he dislikes in young Doctor Paramore is that he has interposed a secondary and false conscience between himself and the facts. When his disease is disproved, instead of seeing the escape of a human being who thought he was going to die of it, Paramore sees the downfall of a kind of flag or cause. This is the whole contention of THE QUINTESSENCE OF IBSENISM, put better than the book puts it; it is a really sharp exposition of the dangers of “idealism,” the sacrifice of people to principles, and Shaw is even wiser in his suggestion that this excessive idealism exists nowhere so strongly as in the world of physical science. He shows that the scientist tends to be more concerned about the sickness than about the sick man; but it was certainly in his mind to suggest here also that the idealist is more concerned about the sin than about the sinner.
This business of Dr. Paramore’s disease while it is the most farcical thing in the play is also the most philosophic and important. The rest of the figures, including the Philanderer himself, are in the full sense of those blasting and obliterating words “funny without being vulgar,” that is, funny without being of any importance to the masses of men. It is a play about a dashing and advanced “Ibsen Club,” and the squabble between the young Ibsenites and the old people who are not yet up to Ibsen. It would be hard to find a stronger example of Shaw’s only essential error, modernity—which means the seeking for truth in terms of time. Only a few years have passed and already almost half the wit of that wonderful play is wasted, because it all turns on the newness of a fashion that is no longer new. Doubtless many people still think the Ibsen drama a great thing, like the French classical drama. But going to “The Philanderer” is like going among periwigs and rapiers and hearing that the young men are now all for Racine. What makes such work sound unreal is not the praise of Ibsen, but the praise of the novelty of Ibsen. Any advantage that Bernard Shaw had over Colonel Craven I have over Bernard Shaw; we who happen to be born last have the meaningless and paltry triumph in that meaningless and paltry war. We are the superiors by that silliest and most snobbish of all superiorities, the mere aristocracy of time. All works must become thus old and insipid which have ever tried to be “modern,” which have consented to smell of time rather than of eternity. Only those who have stooped to be in advance of their time will ever find themselves behind it.
But it is irritating to think what diamonds, what dazzling silver of Shavian wit has been sunk in such an out-of-date warship. In THE PHILANDERER there are five hundred excellent and about five magnificent things. The rattle of repartees between the doctor and the soldier about the humanity of their two trades is admirable. Or again, when the colonel tells Chartaris that “in his young days” he would have no more behaved like Chartaris than he would have cheated at cards. After a pause Chartaris says, “You’re getting old, Craven, and you make a virtue of it as usual.” And there is an altitude of aerial tragedy in the words of Grace, who has refused the man she loves, to Julia, who is marrying the man she doesn’t, “This is what they call a happy ending—these men.”
There is an acrid taste in THE PHILANDERER; and certainly he might be considered a super-sensitive person who should find anything acrid in YOU NEVER CAN TELL. This play is the nearest approach to frank and objectless exuberance in the whole of Shaw’s work. PUNCH, with wisdom as well as wit, said that it might well be called not “You Never Can Tell” but “You Never Can be Shaw.” And yet if anyone will read this blazing farce and then after it any of the romantic farces, such as PICKWICK or even THE WRONG BOX, I do not think he will be disposed to erase or even to modify what I said at the beginning about the ingrained grimness and even inhumanity of Shaw’s art. To take but one test: love, in an “extravaganza,” may be light love or love in idleness, but it should be hearty and happy love if it is to add to the general hilarity. Such are the ludicrous but lucky love affairs of the sportsman Winkle and the Maestro Jimson. In Gloria’s collapse before her bullying lover there is something at once cold and unclean; it calls up all the modern supermen with their cruel and fishy eyes. Such farces should begin in a friendly air, in a tavern. There is something very symbolic of Shaw in the fact that his farce begins in a dentist’s.
The only one out of this brilliant batch of plays in which I think that the method adopted really fails, is the one called WIDOWER’S HOUSES. The best touch of Shaw is simply in the title. The simple substitution of widowers for widows contains almost the whole bitter and yet boisterous protest of Shaw; all his preference for undignified fact over dignified phrase; all his dislike of those subtle trends of sex or mystery which swing the logician off the straight line. We can imagine him crying, “Why in the name of death and conscience should it be tragic to be a widow but comic to be a widower?” But the rationalistic method is here applied quite wrong as regards the production of a drama. The most dramatic point in the affair is when the open and indecent rack-renter turns on the decent young man of means and proves to him that he is equally guilty, that he also can only grind his corn by grinding the faces of the poor. But even here the point is undramatic because it is indirect; it is indirect because it is merely sociological. It may be the truth that a young man living on an unexamined income which ultimately covers a great deal of house-property is as dangerous as any despot or thief. But it is a truth that you can no more put into a play than into a triolet. You can make a play out of one man robbing another man, but not out of one man robbing a million men; still less out of his robbing them unconsciously.
Of the plays collected in this book I have kept MRS. WARREN’S PROFESSION to the last, because, fine as it is, it is even finer and more important because of its fate, which was to rouse a long and serious storm and to be vetoed by the Censor of Plays. I say that this drama is most important because of the quarrel that came out of it. If I were speaking of some mere artist this might be an insult. But there are high and heroic things in Bernard Shaw; and one of the highest and most heroic is this, that he certainly cares much more for a quarrel than for a play. And this quarrel about the censorship is one on which he feels so strongly that in a book embodying any sort of sympathy it would be much better to leave out Mrs. Warren than to leave out Mr. Redford. The veto was the pivot of so very personal a movement by the dramatist, of so very positive an assertion of his own attitude towards things, that it is only just and necessary to state what were the two essential parties to the dispute; the play and the official who prevented the play.
The play of MRS. WARREN’S PROFESSIOn is concerned with a coarse mother and a cold daughter; the mother drives the ordinary and dirty trade of harlotry; the daughter does not know until the end the atrocious origin of all her own comfort and refinement. The daughter, when the discovery is made, freezes up into an iceberg of contempt; which is indeed a very womanly thing to do. The mother explodes into pulverising cynicism and practicality; which is also very womanly. The dialogue is drastic and sweeping; the daughter says the trade is loathsome; the mother answers that she loathes it herself; that every healthy person does loathe the trade by which she lives. And beyond question the general effect of the play is that the trade is loathsome; supposing anyone to be so insensible as to require to be told of the fact. Undoubtedly the upshot is that a brothel is a miserable business, and a brothel-keeper a miserable woman. The whole dramatic art of Shaw is in the literal sense of the word, tragi-comic; I mean that the comic part comes after the tragedy. But just as YOU NEVER CAN TELL represents the nearest approach of Shaw to the purely comic, so MRS. WARREN’S PROFESSIOn represents his only complete, or nearly complete, tragedy. There is no twopenny modernism in it, as in THE PHILANDERER. Mrs. Warren is as old as the Old Testament; “for she hath cast down many wounded, yea, many strong men have been slain by her; her house is in the gates of hell, going down into the chamber of death.” Here is no subtle ethics, as in WIDOWERS’ HOUSES; for even those moderns who think it noble that a woman should throw away her honour, surely cannot think it especially noble that she should sell it. Here is no lighting up by laughter, astonishment, and happy coincidence, as in YOU NEVER CAN TELL. The play is a pure tragedy about a permanent and quite plain human problem; the problem is as plain and permanent, the tragedy is as proud and pure, as in OEDIPUs or MACBETH. This play was presented in the ordinary way for public performance and was suddenly stopped by the Censor of Plays.
The Censor of Plays is a small and accidental eighteenth-century official. Like nearly all the powers which Englishmen now respect as ancient and rooted, he is very recent. Novels and newspapers still talk of the English aristocracy that came over with William the Conqueror. Little of our effective oligarchy is as old as the Reformation; and none of it came over with William the Conqueror. Some of the older English landlords came over with William of Orange; the rest have come by ordinary alien immigration. In the same way we always talk of the Victorian woman (with her smelling salts and sentiment) as the old-fashioned woman. But she really was a quite new-fashioned woman; she considered herself, and was, an advance in delicacy and civilisation upon the coarse and candid Elizabethan woman to whom we are now returning. We are never oppressed by old things; it is recent things that can really oppress. And in accordance with this principle modern England has accepted, as if it were a part of perennial morality, a tenth-rate job of Walpole’s worst days called the Censorship of the Drama. Just as they have supposed the eighteenth-century parvenus to date from Hastings, just as they have supposed the eighteenth-century ladies to date from Eve, so they have supposed the eighteenth-century Censorship to date from Sinai. The origin of the thing was in truth purely political. Its first and principal achievement was to prevent Fielding from writing plays; not at all because the plays were coarse, but because they criticised the Government. Fielding was a free writer; but they did not resent his sexual freedom; the Censor would not have objected if he had torn away the most intimate curtains of decency or rent the last rag from private life. What the Censor disliked was his rending the curtain from public life. There is still much of that spirit in our country; there are no affairs which men seek so much to cover up as public affairs. But the thing was done somewhat more boldly and baldly in Walpole’s day; and the Censorship of plays has its origin, not merely in tyranny, but in a quite trifling and temporary and partisan piece of tyranny; a thing in its nature far more ephemeral, far less essential, than Ship Money. Perhaps its brightest moment was when the office of censor was held by that filthy writer, Colman the younger; and when he gravely refused to license a work by the author of OUR VILLAGE. Few funnier notions can ever have actually been facts than this notion that the restraint and chastity of George Colman saved the English public from the eroticism and obscenity of Miss Mitford.
Such was the play; and such was the power that stopped the play. A private man wrote it; another private man forbade it; nor was there any difference between Mr. Shaw’s authority and Mr. Redford’s, except that Mr. Shaw did defend his action on public grounds and Mr. Redford did not. The dramatist had simply been suppressed by a despot; and what was worse (because it was modern) by a silent and evasive despot; a despot in hiding. People talk about the pride of tyrants; but we at the present day suffer from the modesty of tyrants; from the shyness and the shrinking secrecy of the strong. Shaw’s preface to Mrs. Warren’s Profession was far more fit to be called a public document than the slovenly refusal of the individual official; it had more exactness, more universal application, more authority. Shaw on Redford was far more national and responsible than Redford on Shaw.
The dramatist found in the quarrel one of the important occasions of his life, because the crisis called out something in him which is in many ways his highest quality—righteous indignation. As a mere matter of the art of controversy of course he carried the war into the enemy’s camp at once. He did not linger over loose excuses for licence; he declared at once that the Censor was licentious, while he, Bernard Shaw, was clean. He did not discuss whether a Censorship ought to make the drama moral. He declared that it made the drama immoral. With a fine strategic audacity he attacked the Censor quite as much for what he permitted as for what he prevented. He charged him with encouraging all plays that attracted men to vice and only stopping those which discouraged them from it. Nor was this attitude by any means an idle paradox. Many plays appear (as Shaw pointed out) in which the prostitute and the procuress are practically obvious, and in which they are represented as revelling in beautiful surroundings and basking in brilliant popularity. The crime of Shaw was not that he introduced the Gaiety Girl; that had been done, with little enough decorum, in a hundred musical comedies. The crime of Shaw was that he introduced the Gaiety Girl, but did not represent her life as all gaiety. The pleasures of vice were already flaunted before the playgoers. It was the perils of vice that were carefully concealed from them. The gay adventures, the gorgeous dresses, the champagne and oysters, the diamonds and motor-cars, dramatists were allowed to drag all these dazzling temptations before any silly housemaid in the gallery who was grumbling at her wages. But they were not allowed to warn her of the vulgarity and the nausea, the dreary deceptions and the blasting diseases of that life. MRS. WARREN’S PROFESSION was not up to a sufficient standard of immorality; it was not spicy enough to pass the Censor. The acceptable and the accepted plays were those which made the fall of a woman fashionable and fascinating; for all the world as if the Censor’s profession were the same as Mrs. Warren’s profession.
Such was the angle of Shaw’s energetic attack; and it is not to be denied that there was exaggeration in it, and what is so much worse, omission. The argument might easily be carried too far; it might end with a scene of screaming torture in the Inquisition as a corrective to the too amiable view of a clergyman in THE PRIVATE SECRETARY. But the controversy is definitely worth recording, if only as an excellent example of the author’s aggressive attitude and his love of turning the tables in debate. Moreover, though this point of view involves a potential overstatement, it also involves an important truth. One of the best points urged in the course of it was this, that though vice is punished in conventional drama, the punishment is not really impressive, because it is not inevitable or even probable. It does not arise out of the evil act. Years afterwards Bernard Shaw urged this argument again in connection with his friend Mr. Granville Barker’s play of WASTE, in which the woman dies from an illegal operation. Bernard Shaw said, truly enough, that if she had died from poison or a pistol shot it would have left everyone unmoved, for pistols do not in their nature follow female unchastity. Illegal operations very often do. The punishment was one which might follow the crime, not only in that case, but in many cases. Here, I think, the whole argument might be sufficiently cleared up by saying that the objection to such things on the stage is a purely artistic objection. There is nothing wrong in talking about an illegal operation; there are plenty of occasions when it would be very wrong not to talk about it. But it may easily be just a shade too ugly for the shape of any work of art. There is nothing wrong about being sick; but if Bernard Shaw wrote a play in which all the characters expressed their dislike of animal food by vomiting on the stage, I think we should be justified in saying that the thing was outside, not the laws of morality, but the framework of civilised literature. The instinctive movement of repulsion which everyone has when hearing of the operation in WASTE is not an ethical repulsion at all. But it is an aesthetic repulsion, and a right one.
But I have only dwelt on this particular fighting phase because it leaves us facing the ultimate characteristics which I mentioned first. Bernard Shaw cares nothing for art; in comparison with morals, literally nothing. Bernard Shaw is a Puritan and his work is Puritan work. He has all the essentials of the old, virile and extinct Protestant type. In his work he is as ugly as a Puritan. He is as indecent as a Puritan. He is as full of gross words and sensual facts as a sermon of the seventeenth century. Up to this point of his life indeed hardly anyone would have dreamed of calling him a Puritan; he was called sometimes an anarchist, sometimes a buffoon, sometimes (by the more discerning stupid people) a prig. His attitude towards current problems was felt to be arresting and even indecent; I do not think that anyone thought of connecting it with the old Calvinistic morality. But Shaw, who knew better than the Shavians, was at this moment on the very eve of confessing his moral origin. The next book of plays he produced (including THE DEVIL’S DISCIPLE, CAPTAIN BRASSBOUND’S CONVERSION, and CAESAR AND CLEOPATRA), actually bore the title of PLAYS FOR PURITANS.
The play called THE DEVIL’S DISCIPLE has great merits, but the merits are incidental. Some of its jokes are serious and important, but its general plan can only be called a joke. Almost alone among Bernard Shaw’s plays (except of course such things as HOW HE LIED TO HER HUSBANd and THE ADMIRABLE BASHVILLe) this drama does not turn on any very plain pivot of ethical or philosophical conviction. The artistic idea seems to be the notion of a melodrama in which all the conventional melodramatic situations shall suddenly take unconventional turns. Just where the melodramatic clergyman would show courage he appears to show cowardice; just where the melodramatic sinner would confess his love he confesses his indifference. This is a little too like the Shaw of the newspaper critics rather than the Shaw of reality. There are indeed present in the play two of the writer’s principal moral conceptions. The first is the idea of a great heroic action coming in a sense from nowhere; that is, not coming from any commonplace motive; being born in the soul in naked beauty, coming with its own authority and testifying only to itself. Shaw’s agent does not act towards something, but from something. The hero dies, not because he desires heroism, but because he has it. So in this particular play the Devil’s Disciple finds that his own nature will not permit him to put the rope around another man’s neck; he has no reasons of desire, affection, or even equity; his death is a sort of divine whim. And in connection with this the dramatist introduces another favourite moral; the objection to perpetual playing upon the motive of sex. He deliberately lures the onlooker into the net of Cupid in order to tell him with salutary decision that Cupid is not there at all. Millions of melodramatic dramatists have made a man face death for the woman he loves; Shaw makes him face death for the woman he does not love—merely in order to put woman in her place. He objects to that idolatry of sexualism which makes it the fountain of all forcible enthusiasms; he dislikes the amorous drama which makes the female the only key to the male. He is Feminist in politics, but Anti-feminist in emotion. His key to most problems is, “Ne cherchez pas la femme.”
As has been observed, the incidental felicities of the play are frequent and memorable, especially those connected with the character of General Burgoyne, the real full-blooded, free-thinking eighteenth century gentleman, who was much too much of an aristocrat not to be a liberal. One of the best thrusts in all the Shavian fencing matches is that which occurs when Richard Dudgeon, condemned to be hanged, asks rhetorically why he cannot be shot like a soldier. “Now there you speak like a civilian,” replies General Burgoyne. “Have you formed any conception of the condition of marksmanship in the British Army?” Excellent, too, is the passage in which his subordinate speaks of crushing the enemy in America, and Burgoyne asks him who will crush their enemies in England, snobbery and jobbery and incurable carelessness and sloth. And in one sentence towards the end, Shaw reaches a wider and more genial comprehension of mankind than he shows anywhere else; “it takes all sorts to make a world, saints as well as soldiers.” If Shaw had remembered that sentence on other occasions he would have avoided his mistake about Caesar and Brutus. It is not only true that it takes all sorts to make a world; but the world cannot succeed without its failures. Perhaps the most doubtful point of all in the play is why it is a play for Puritans; except the hideous picture of a Calvinistic home is meant to destroy Puritanism. And indeed in this connection it is constantly necessary to fall back upon the facts of which I have spoken at the beginning of this brief study; it is necessary especially to remember that Shaw could in all probability speak of Puritanism from the inside. In that domestic circle which took him to hear Moody and Sankey, in that domestic circle which was teetotal even when it was intoxicated, in that atmosphere and society Shaw might even have met the monstrous mother in THE DEVIL’S DISCIPLE, the horrible old woman who declares that she has hardened her heart to hate her children, because the heart of man is desperately wicked, the old ghoul who has made one of her children an imbecile and the other an outcast. Such types do occur in small societies drunk with the dismal wine of Puritan determinism. It is possible that there were among Irish Calvinists people who denied that charity was a Christian virtue. It is possible that among Puritans there were people who thought a heart was a kind of heart disease. But it is enough to make one tear one’s hair to think that a man of genius received his first impressions in so small a corner of Europe that he could for a long time suppose that this Puritanism was current among Christian men. The question, however, need not detain us, for the batch of plays contained two others about which it is easier to speak.
The third play in order in the series called PLAYS FOR PURITANS is a very charming one; CAPTAIN BRASSBOUND’S CONVERSION. This also turns, as does so much of the Caesar drama, on the idea of vanity of revenge—the idea that it is too slight and silly a thing for a man to allow to occupy and corrupt his consciousness. It is not, of course, the morality that is new here, but the touch of cold laughter in the core of the morality. Many saints and sages have denounced vengeance. But they treated vengeance as something too great for man. “Vengeance is Mine, saith the Lord; I will repay.” Shaw treats vengeance as something too small for man— a monkey trick he ought to have outlived, a childish storm of tears which he ought to be able to control. In the story in question Captain Brassbound has nourished through his whole erratic existence, racketting about all the unsavoury parts of Africa—a mission of private punishment which appears to him as a mission of holy justice. His mother has died in consequence of a judge’s decision, and Brassbound roams and schemes until the judge falls into his hands. Then a pleasant society lady, Lady Cicely Waynefleet tells him in an easy conversational undertone—a rivulet of speech which ripples while she is mending his coat— that he is making a fool of himself, that his wrong is irrelevant, that his vengeance is objectless, that he would be much better if he flung his morbid fancy away for ever; in short, she tells him he is ruining himself for the sake of ruining a total stranger. Here again we have the note of the economist, the hatred of mere loss. Shaw (one might almost say) dislikes murder, not so much because it wastes the life of the corpse as because it wastes the time of the murderer. If he were endeavouring to persuade one of his moon-lighting fellow-countrymen not to shoot his landlord, I can imagine him explaining with benevolent emphasis that it was not so much a question of losing a life as of throwing away a bullet. But indeed the Irish comparison alone suggests a doubt which wriggles in the recesses of my mind about the complete reliability of the philosophy of Lady Cicely Waynefleet, the complete finality of the moral of CAPTAIN BRASSBOUND’S CONVERSION. Of course, it was very natural in an aristocrat like Lady Cicely Waynefleet to wish to let sleeping dogs lie, especially those whom Mr. Blatchford calls under-dogs. Of course it was natural for her to wish everything to be smooth and sweet-tempered. But I have the obstinate question in the corner of my brain, whether if a few Captain Brassbounds did revenge themselves on judges, the quality of our judges might not materially improve.
When this doubt is once off one’s conscience one can lose oneself in the bottomless beatitude of Lady Cicely Waynefleet, one of the most living and laughing things that her maker has made. I do not know any stronger way of stating the beauty of the character than by saying that it was written specially for Ellen Terry, and that it is, with Beatrice, one of the very few characters in which the dramatist can claim some part of her triumph.
We may now pass to the more important of the plays. For some time Bernard Shaw would seem to have been brooding upon the soul of Julius Caesar. There must always be a strong human curiosity about the soul of Julius Caesar; and, among other things, about whether he had a soul. The conjunction of Shaw and Caesar has about it something smooth and inevitable; for this decisive reason, that Caesar is really the only great man of history to whom the Shaw theories apply. Caesar WAS a Shaw hero. Caesar was merciful without being in the least pitiful; his mercy was colder than justice. Caesar was a conqueror without being in any hearty sense a soldier; his courage was lonelier than fear. Caesar was a demagogue without being a democrat. In the same way Bernard Shaw is a demagogue without being a democrat. If he had tried to prove his principle from any of the other heroes or sages of mankind he would have found it much more difficult. Napoleon achieved more miraculous conquest; but during his most conquering epoch he was a burning boy suicidally in love with a woman far beyond his age. Joan of Arc achieved far more instant and incredible worldly success; but Joan of Arc achieved worldly success because she believed in another world. Nelson was a figure fully as fascinating and dramatically decisive; but Nelson was “romantic”; Nelson was a devoted patriot and a devoted lover. Alexander was passionate; Cromwell could shed tears; Bismarck had some suburban religion; Frederick was a poet; Charlemagne was fond of children. But Julius Caesar attracted Shaw not less by his positive than by his negative enormousness. Nobody can say with certainty that Caesar cared for anything. It is unjust to call Caesar an egoist; for there is no proof that he cared even for Caesar. He may not have been either an atheist or a pessimist. But he may have been; that is exactly the rub. He may have been an ordinary decently good man slightly deficient in spiritual expansiveness. On the other hand, he may have been the incarnation of paganism in the sense that Christ was the incarnation of Christianity. As Christ expressed how great a man can be humble and humane, Caesar may have expressed how great a man can be frigid and flippant. According to most legends Antichrist was to come soon after Christ. One has only to suppose that Antichrist came shortly before Christ; and Antichrist might very well be Caesar.
It is, I think, no injustice to Bernard Shaw to say that he does not attempt to make his Caesar superior except in this naked and negative sense. There is no suggestion, as there is in the Jehovah of the Old Testament, that the very cruelty of the higher being conceals some tremendous and even tortured love. Caesar is superior to other men not because he loves more, but because he hates less. Caesar is magnanimous not because he is warm-hearted enough to pardon, but because he is not warm-hearted enough to avenge. There is no suggestion anywhere in the play that he is hiding any great genial purpose or powerful tenderness towards men. In order to put this point beyond a doubt the dramatist has introduced a soliloquy of Caesar alone with the Sphinx. There if anywhere he would have broken out into ultimate brotherhood or burning pity for the people. But in that scene between the Sphinx and Caesar, Caesar is as cold and as lonely and as dead as the Sphinx.
But whether the Shavian Caesar is a sound ideal or no, there can be little doubt that he is a very fine reality. Shaw has done nothing greater as a piece of artistic creation. If the man is a little like a statue, it is a statue by a great sculptor; a statue of the best period. If his nobility is a little negative in its character, it is the negative darkness of the great dome of night; not as in some “new moralities” the mere mystery of the coal-hole. Indeed, this somewhat austere method of work is very suitable to Shaw when he is serious. There is nothing Gothic about his real genius; he could not build a mediaeval cathedral in which laughter and terror are twisted together in stone, molten by mystical passion. He can build, by way of amusement, a Chinese pagoda; but when he is in earnest, only a Roman temple. He has a keen eye for truth; but he is one of those people who like, as the saying goes, to put down the truth in black and white. He is always girding and jeering at romantics and idealists because they will not put down the truth in black and white. But black and white are not the only two colours in the world. The modern man of science who writes down a fact in black and white is not more but less accurate than the mediaeval monk who wrote it down in gold and scarlet, sea-green and turquoise. Nevertheless, it is a good thing that the more austere method should exist separately, and that some men should be specially good at it. Bernard Shaw is specially good at it; he is pre-eminently a black and white artist.
And as a study in black and white nothing could be better than this sketch of Julius Caesar. He is not so much represented as “bestriding the earth like a Colossus” (which is indeed a rather comic attitude for a hero to stand in), but rather walking the earth with a sort of stern levity, lightly touching the planet and yet spurning it away like a stone. He walks like a winged man who has chosen to fold his wings. There is something creepy even about his kindness; it makes the men in front of him feel as if they were made of glass. The nature of the Caesarian mercy is massively suggested. Caesar dislikes a massacre, not because it is a great sin, but because it is a small sin. It is felt that he classes it with a flirtation or a fit of the sulks; a senseless temporary subjugation of man’s permanent purpose by his passing and trivial feelings. He will plunge into slaughter for a great purpose, just as he plunges into the sea. But to be stung into such action he deems as undignified as to be tipped off the pier. In a singularly fine passage Cleopatra, having hired assassins to stab an enemy, appeals to her wrongs as justifying her revenge, and says, “If you can find one man in all Africa who says that I did wrong, I will be crucified by my own slaves.” “If you can find one man in all the world,” replies Caesar, “who can see that you did wrong, he will either conquer the world as I have done or be crucified by it.” That is the high water mark of this heathen sublimity; and we do not feel it inappropriate, or unlike Shaw, when a few minutes afterwards the hero is saluted with a blaze of swords.
As usually happens in the author’s works, there is even more about Julius Caesar in the preface than there is in the play. But in the preface I think the portrait is less imaginative and more fanciful. He attempts to connect his somewhat chilly type of superman with the heroes of the old fairy tales. But Shaw should not talk about the fairy tales; for he does not feel them from the inside. As I have said, on all this side of historic and domestic traditions Bernard Shaw is weak and deficient. He does not approach them as fairy tales, as if he were four, but as “folk-lore” as if he were forty. And he makes a big mistake about them which he would never have made if he had kept his birthday and hung up his stocking, and generally kept alive inside him the firelight of a home. The point is so peculiarly characteristic of Bernard Shaw, and is indeed so much of a summary of his most interesting assertion and his most interesting error, that it deserves a word by itself, though it is a word which must be remembered in connection with nearly all the other plays.
His primary and defiant proposition is the Calvinistic proposition: that the elect do not earn virtue, but possess it. The goodness of a man does not consist in trying to be good, but in being good. Julius Caesar prevails over other people by possessing more VIRTUS than they; not by having striven or suffered or bought his virtue; not because he has struggled heroically, but because he is a hero. So far Bernard Shaw is only what I have called him at the beginning; he is simply a seventeenth-century Calvinist. Caesar is not saved by works, or even by faith; he is saved because he is one of the elect. Unfortunately for himself, however, Bernard Shaw went back further than the seventeenth century; and professing his opinion to be yet more antiquated, invoked the original legends of mankind. He argued that when the fairy tales gave Jack the Giant Killer a coat of darkness or a magic sword it removed all credit from Jack in the “common moral” sense; he won as Caesar won only because he was superior. I will confess, in passing, to the conviction that Bernard Shaw in the course of his whole simple and strenuous life was never quite so near to hell as at the moment when he wrote down those words. But in this question of fairy tales my immediate point is, not how near he was to hell, but how very far off he was from fairyland. That notion about the hero with a magic sword being the superman with a magic superiority is the caprice of a pedant; no child, boy, or man ever felt it in the story of Jack the Giant Killer. Obviously the moral is all the other way. Jack’s fairy sword and invisible coat are clumsy expedients for enabling him to fight at all with something which is by nature stronger. They are a rough, savage substitute for psychological descriptions of special valour or unwearied patience. But no one in his five wits can doubt that the idea of “Jack the Giant Killer” is exactly the opposite to Shaw’s idea. If it were not a tale of effort and triumph hardly earned it would not be called “Jack the Giant Killer.” If it were a tale of the victory of natural advantages it would be called “Giant the Jack Killer.” If the teller of fairy tales had merely wanted to urge that some beings are born stronger than others he would not have fallen back on elaborate tricks of weapon and costume for conquering an ogre. He would simply have let the ogre conquer. I will not speak of my own emotions in connection with this incredibly caddish doctrine that the strength of the strong is admirable, but not the valour of the weak. It is enough to say that I have to summon up the physical presence of Shaw, his frank gestures, kind eyes, and exquisite Irish voice, to cure me of a mere sensation of contempt. But I do not dwell upon the point for any such purpose; but merely to show how we must be always casting back to those concrete foundations with which we began. Bernard Shaw, as I have said, was never national enough to be domestic; he was never a part of his past; hence when he tries to interpret tradition he comes a terrible cropper, as in this case. Bernard Shaw (I strongly suspect) began to disbelieve in Santa Claus at a discreditably early age. And by this time Santa Claus has avenged himself by taking away the key of all the prehistoric scriptures; so that a noble and honourable artist flounders about like any German professor. Here is a whole fairy literature which is almost exclusively devoted to the unexpected victory of the weak over the strong; and Bernard Shaw manages to make it mean the inevitable victory of the strong over the weak—which, among other things, would not make a story at all. It all comes of that mistake about not keeping his birthday. A man should be always tied to his mother’s apron strings; he should always have a hold on his childhood, and be ready at intervals to start anew from a childish standpoint. Theologically the thing is best expressed by saying, “You must be born again.” Secularly it is best expressed by saying, “You must keep your birthday.” Even if you will not be born again, at least remind yourself occasionally that you were born once.
Some of the incidental wit in the Caesarian drama is excellent although it is upon the whole less spontaneous and perfect than in the previous plays. One of its jests may be mentioned in passing, not merely to draw attention to its failure (though Shaw is brilliant enough to afford many failures) but because it is the best opportunity for mentioning one of the writer’s minor notions to which he obstinately adheres. He describes the Ancient Briton in Caesar’s train as being exactly like a modern respectable Englishman. As a joke for a Christmas pantomime this would be all very well; but one expects the jokes of Bernard Shaw to have some intellectual root, however fantastic the flower. And obviously all historic common sense is against the idea that that dim Druid people, whoever they were, who dwelt in our land before it was lit up by Rome or loaded with varied invasions, were a precise facsimile of the commercial society of Birmingham or Brighton. But it is a part of the Puritan in Bernard Shaw, a part of the taut and high-strung quality of his mind, that he will never admit of any of his jokes that it was only a joke. When he has been most witty he will passionately deny his own wit; he will say something which Voltaire might envy and then declare that he has got it all out of a Blue book. And in connection with this eccentric type of self-denial, we may notice this mere detail about the Ancient Briton. Someone faintly hinted that a blue Briton when first found by Caesar might not be quite like Mr. Broadbent; at the touch Shaw poured forth a torrent of theory, explaining that climate was the only thing that affected nationality; and that whatever races came into the English or Irish climate would become like the English or Irish. Now the modern theory of race is certainly a piece of stupid materialism; it is an attempt to explain the things we are sure of, France, Scotland, Rome, Japan, by means of the things we are not sure of at all, prehistoric conjectures, Celts, Mongols, and Iberians. Of course there is a reality in race; but there is no reality in the theories of race offered by some ethnological professors. Blood, perhaps, is thicker than water; but brains are sometimes thicker than anything. But if there is one thing yet more thick and obscure and senseless than this theory of the omnipotence of race it is, I think, that to which Shaw has fled for refuge from it; this doctrine of the omnipotence of climate. Climate again is something; but if climate were everything, Anglo-Indians would grow more and more to look like Hindoos, which is far from being the case. Something in the evil spirit of our time forces people always to pretend to have found some material and mechanical explanation. Bernard Shaw has filled all his last days with affirmations about the divinity of the non-mechanical part of man, the sacred quality in creation and choice. Yet it never seems to have occurred to him that the true key to national differentiations is the key of the will and not of the environment. It never crosses the modern mind to fancy that perhaps a people is chiefly influenced by how that people has chosen to behave. If I have to choose between race and weather I prefer race; I would rather be imprisoned and compelled by ancestors who were once alive than by mud and mists which never were. But I do not propose to be controlled by either; to me my national history is a chain of multitudinous choices. It is neither blood nor rain that has made England, but hope, the thing that all those dead men have desired. France was not France because she was made to be by the skulls of the Celts or by the sun of Gaul. France was France because she chose.
I have stepped on one side from the immediate subject because this is as good an instance as any we are likely to come across of a certain almost extraneous fault which does deface the work of Bernard Shaw. It is a fault only to be mentioned when we have made the solidity of the merits quite clear. To say that Shaw is merely making game of people is demonstrably ridiculous; at least a fairly systematic philosophy can be traced through all his jokes, and one would not insist on such a unity in all the songs of Mr. Dan Leno. I have already pointed out that the genius of Shaw is really too harsh and earnest rather than too merry and irresponsible. I shall have occasion to point out later that Shaw is, in one very serious sense, the very opposite of paradoxical. In any case if any real student of Shaw says that Shaw is only making a fool of him, we can only say that of that student it is very superfluous for anyone to make a fool. But though the dramatist’s jests are always serious and generally obvious, he is really affected from time to time by a certain spirit of which that climate theory is a case— a spirit that can only be called one of senseless ingenuity. I suppose it is a sort of nemesis of wit; the skidding of a wheel in the height of its speed. Perhaps it is connected with the nomadic nature of his mind. That lack of roots, this remoteness from ancient instincts and traditions is responsible for a certain bleak and heartless extravagance of statement on certain subjects which makes the author really unconvincing as well as exaggerative; satires that are SAUGRENU, jokes that are rather silly than wild, statements which even considered as lies have no symbolic relation to truth. They are exaggerations of something that does not exist. For instance, if a man called Christmas Day a mere hypocritical excuse for drunkenness and gluttony that would be false, but it would have a fact hidden in it somewhere. But when Bernard Shaw says that Christmas Day is only a conspiracy kept up by poulterers and wine merchants from strictly business motives, then he says something which is not so much false as startlingly and arrestingly foolish. He might as well say that the two sexes were invented by jewellers who wanted to sell wedding rings. Or again, take the case of nationality and the unit of patriotism. If a man said that all boundaries between clans, kingdoms, or empires were nonsensical or non-existent, that would be a fallacy, but a consistent and philosophical fallacy. But when Mr. Bernard Shaw says that England matters so little that the British Empire might very well give up these islands to Germany, he has not only got hold of the sow by the wrong ear but the wrong sow by the wrong ear; a mythical sow, a sow that is not there at all. If Britain is unreal, the British Empire must be a thousand times more unreal. It is as if one said, “I do not believe that Michael Scott ever had any existence; but I am convinced, in spite of the absurd legend, that he had a shadow.”
As has been said already, there must be some truth in every popular impression. And the impression that Shaw, the most savagely serious man of his time, is a mere music-hall artist must have reference to such rare outbreaks as these. As a rule his speeches are full, not only of substance, but of substances, materials like pork, mahogany, lead, and leather. There is no man whose arguments cover a more Napoleonic map of detail. It is true that he jokes; but wherever he is he has topical jokes, one might almost say family jokes. If he talks to tailors he can allude to the last absurdity about buttons. If he talks to the soldiers he can see the exquisite and exact humour of the last gun-carriage. But when all his powerful practicality is allowed, there does run through him this erratic levity, an explosion of ineptitude. It is a queer quality in literature. It is a sort of cold extravagance; and it has made him all his enemies.
The Philosopher
I SHOULD suppose that CAESAR AND CLEOPATRA marks about the turning tide of Bernard Shaw’s fortune and fame. Up to this time he had known glory, but never success. He had been wondered at as something brilliant and barren, like a meteor; but no one would accept him as a sun, for the test of a sun is that it can make something grow. Practically speaking the two qualities of a modern drama are, that it should play and that it should pay. It had been proved over and over again in weighty dramatic criticisms, in careful readers’ reports, that the plays of Shaw could never play or pay; that the public did not want wit and the wars of intellect. And just about the time that this had been finally proved, the plays of Bernard Shaw promised to play like CHARLEY’S AUNT and to pay like Colman’s Mustard. It is a fact in which we can all rejoice, not only because it redeems the reputation of Bernard Shaw, but because it redeems the character of the English people. All that is bravest in human nature, open challenge and unexpected wit and angry conviction, are not so very unpopular as the publishers and managers in their motor-cars have been in the habit of telling us. But exactly because we have come to a turning point in the man’s career I propose to interrupt the mere catalogue of his plays and to treat his latest series rather as the proclamations of an acknowledged prophet. For the last plays, especially MAN AND SUPERMAN, are such that his whole position must be re-stated before attacking them seriously.
For two reasons I have called this concluding series of plays not again by the name of “The Dramatist,” but by the general name of “The Philosopher.” The first reason is that given above, that we have come to the time of his triumph and may therefore treat him as having gained complete possession of a pulpit of his own. But there is a second reason: that it was just about this time that he began to create not only a pulpit of his own, but a church and creed of his own. It is a very vast and universal religion; and it is not his fault that he is the only member of it. The plainer way of putting it is this: that here, in the hour of his earthly victory, there dies in him the old mere denier, the mere dynamiter of criticism. In the warmth of popularity he begins to wish to put his faith positively; to offer some solid key to all creation. Perhaps the irony in the situation is this: that all the crowds are acclaiming him as the blasting and hypercritical buffoon, while he himself is seriously rallying his synthetic power, and with a grave face telling himself that it is time he had a faith to preach. His final success as a sort of charlatan coincides with his first grand failures as a theologian.
For this reason I have deliberately called a halt in his dramatic career, in order to consider these two essential points: What did the mass of Englishmen, who had now learnt to admire him, imagine his point of view to be? and second, What did he imagine it to be? or, if the phrase be premature, What did he imagine it was going to be? In his latest work, especially in Man and Superman, Shaw has become a complete and colossal mystic. That mysticism does grow quite rationally out of his older arguments; but very few people ever troubled to trace the connection. In order to do so it is necessary to say what was, at the time of his first success, the public impression of Shaw’s philosophy.
Now it is an irritating and pathetic thing that the three most popular phrases about Shaw are false. Modern criticism, like all weak things, is overloaded with words. In a healthy condition of language a man finds it very difficult to say the right thing, but at last says it. In this empire of journalese a man finds it so very easy to say the wrong thing that he never thinks of saying anything else. False or meaningless phrases lie so ready to his hand that it is easier to use them than not to use them. These wrong terms picked up through idleness are retained through habit, and so the man has begun to think wrong almost before he has begun to think at all. Such lumbering logomachy is always injurious and oppressive to men of spirit, imagination or intellectual honour, and it has dealt very recklessly and wrongly with Bernard Shaw. He has contrived to get about three newspaper phrases tied to his tail; and those newspaper phrases are all and separately wrong. The three superstitions about him, it will be conceded, are generally these: first that he desires “problem plays,” second that he is “paradoxical,” and third that in his dramas as elsewhere he is specially “a Socialist.” And the interesting thing is that when we come to his philosophy, all these three phrases are quite peculiarly inapplicable.
To take the plays first, there is a general disposition to describe that type of intimate or defiant drama which he approves as “the problem play.” Now the serious modern play is, as a rule, the very reverse of a problem play; for there can be no problem unless both points of view are equally and urgently presented. HAMLET really is a problem play because at the end of it one is really in doubt as to whether upon the author’s showing Hamlet is something more than a man or something less. HENRY IV and Henry V are really problem plays; in this sense, that the reader or spectator is really doubtful whether the high but harsh efficiency, valour, and ambition of Henry V are an improvement on his old blackguard camaraderie; and whether he was not a better man when he was a thief. This hearty and healthy doubt is very common in Shakespeare; I mean a doubt that exists in the writer as well as in the reader. But Bernard Shaw is far too much of a Puritan to tolerate such doubts about points which he counts essential. There is no sort of doubt that the young lady in ARMS AND THE MAN is improved by losing her ideals. There is no sort of doubt that Captain Brassbound is improved by giving up the object of his life. But a better case can be found in something that both dramatists have been concerned with; Shaw wrote CAESAR AND CLEOPATRA; Shakespeare wrote ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA and also JULIUS CAESAR. And exactly what annoys Bernard Shaw about Shakespeare’s version is this: that Shakespeare has an open mind or, in other words, that Shakespeare has really written a problem play. Shakespeare sees quite as clearly as Shaw that Brutus is unpractical and ineffectual; but he also sees, what is quite as plain and practical a fact, that these ineffectual men do capture the hearts and influence the policies of mankind. Shaw would have nothing said in favour of Brutus; because Brutus is on the wrong side in politics. Of the actual problem of public and private morality, as it was presented to Brutus, he takes actually no notice at all. He can write the most energetic and outspoken of propaganda plays; but he cannot rise to a problem play. He cannot really divide his mind and let the two parts speak independently to each other. He has never, so to speak, actually split his head in two; though I daresay there are many other people who are willing to do it for him.
Sometimes, especially in his later plays, he allows his clear conviction to spoil even his admirable dialogue, making one side entirely weak, as in an Evangelical tract. I do not know whether in MAJOR BARBARA the young Greek professor was supposed to be a fool. As popular tradition (which I trust more than anything else) declared that he is drawn from a real Professor of my acquaintance, who is anything but a fool, I should imagine not. But in that case I am all the more mystified by the incredibly weak fight which he makes in the play in answer to the elephantine sophistries of Undershaft. It is really a disgraceful case, and almost the only case in Shaw of there being no fair fight between the two sides. For instance, the Professor mentions pity. Mr. Undershaft says with melodramatic scorn, “Pity! the scavenger of the Universe!” Now if any gentleman had said this to me, I should have replied, “If I permit you to escape from the point by means of metaphors, will you tell me whether you disapprove of scavengers? ” Instead of this obvious retort, the miserable Greek professor only says, “Well then, love,” to which Undershaft replies with unnecessary violence that he won’t have the Greek professor’s love, to which the obvious answer of course would be, “How the deuce can you prevent my loving you if I choose to do so?” Instead of this, as far as I remember, that abject Hellenist says nothing at all. I only mention this unfair dialogue, because it marks, I think, the recent hardening, for good or evil, of Shaw out of a dramatist into a mere philosopher, and whoever hardens into a philosopher may be hardening into a fanatic.
And just as there is nothing really problematic in Shaw’s mind, so there is nothing really paradoxical. The meaning of the word paradoxical may indeed be made the subject of argument. In Greek, of course, it simply means something which is against the received opinion; in that sense a missionary remonstrating with South Sea cannibals is paradoxical. But in the much more important world, where words are used and altered in the using, paradox does not mean merely this: it means at least something of which the antinomy or apparent inconsistency is sufficiently plain in the words used, and most commonly of all it means an idea expressed in a form which is verbally contradictory. Thus, for instance, the great saying, “He that shall lose his life, the same shall save it,” is an example of what modern people mean by a paradox. If any learned person should read this book (which seems immeasurably improbable) he can content himself with putting it this way, that the moderns mistakenly say paradox when they should say oxymoron. Ultimately, in any case, it may be agreed that we commonly mean by a paradox some kind of collision between what is seemingly and what is really true.
Now if by paradox we mean truth inherent in a contradiction, as in the saying of Christ that I have quoted, it is a very curious fact that Bernard Shaw is almost entirely without paradox. Moreover, he cannot even understand a paradox. And more than this, paradox is about the only thing in the world that he does not understand. All his splendid vistas and startling suggestions arise from carrying some one clear principle further than it has yet been carried. His madness is all consistency, not inconsistency. As the point can hardly be made clear without examples, let us take one example, the subject of education. Shaw has been all his life preaching to grownup people the profound truth that liberty and responsibility go together; that the reason why freedom is so often easily withheld, is simply that it is a terrible nuisance. This is true, though not the whole truth, of citizens; and so when Shaw comes to children he can only apply to them the same principle that he has already applied to citizens. He begins to play with the Herbert Spencer idea of teaching children by experience; perhaps the most fatuously silly idea that was ever gravely put down in print. On that there is no need to dwell; one has only to ask how the experimental method is to be applied to a precipice; and the theory no longer exists. But Shaw effected a further development, if possible more fantastic. He said that one should never tell a child anything without letting him hear the opposite opinion. That is to say, when you tell Tommy not to hit his sick sister on the temple, you must make sure of the presence of some Nietzscheite professor, who will explain to him that such a course might possibly serve to eliminate the unfit. When you are in the act of telling Susan not to drink out of the bottle labelled “poison,” you must telegraph for a Christian Scientist, who will be ready to maintain that without her own consent it cannot do her any harm. What would happen to a child brought up on Shaw’s principle I cannot conceive; I should think he would commit suicide in his bath. But that is not here the question. The point is that this proposition seems quite sufficiently wild and startling to ensure that its author, if he escapes Hanwell, would reach the front rank of journalists, demagogues, or public entertainers. It is a perfect paradox, if a paradox only means something that makes one jump. But it is not a paradox at all in the sense of a contradiction. It is not a contradiction, but an enormous and outrageous consistency, the one principle of free thought carried to a point to which no other sane man would consent to carry it. Exactly what Shaw does not understand is the paradox; the unavoidable paradox of childhood. Although this child is much better than I, yet I must teach it. Although this being has much purer passions than I, yet I must control it. Although Tommy is quite right to rush towards a precipice, yet he must be stood in the corner for doing it. This contradiction is the only possible condition of having to do with children at all; anyone who talks about a child without feeling this paradox might just as well be talking about a merman. He has never even seen the animal. But this paradox Shaw in his intellectual simplicity cannot see; he cannot see it because it is a paradox. His only intellectual excitement is to carry one idea further and further across the world. It never occurs to him that it might meet another idea, and like the three winds in MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT, they might make a night of it. His only paradox is to pull out one thread or cord of truth longer and longer into waste and fantastic places. He does not allow for that deeper sort of paradox by which two opposite cords of truth become entangled in an inextricable knot. Still less can he be made to realise that it is often this knot which ties safely together the whole bundle of human life.
This blindness to paradox everywhere perplexes his outlook. He cannot understand marriage because he will not understand the paradox of marriage; that the woman is all the more the house for not being the head of it. He cannot understand patriotism, because he will not understand the paradox of patriotism; that one is all the more human for not merely loving humanity. He does not understand Christianity because he will not understand the paradox of Christianity; that we can only really understand all myths when we know that one of them is true. I do not under-rate him for this anti-paradoxical temper; I concede that much of his finest and keenest work in the way of intellectual purification would have been difficult or impossible without it. But I say that here lies the limitation of that lucid and compelling mind; he cannot quite understand life, because he will not accept its contradictions.
Nor is it by any means descriptive of Shaw to call him a Socialist; in so far as that word can be extended to cover an ethical attitude. He is the least social of all Socialists; and I pity the Socialist state that tries to manage him. This anarchism of his is not a question of thinking for himself; every decent man thinks for himself; it would be highly immodest to think for anybody else. Nor is it any instinctive licence or egoism; as I have said before, he is a man of peculiarly acute public conscience. The unmanageable part of him, the fact that he cannot be conceived as part of a crowd or as really and invisibly helping a movement, has reference to another thing in him, or rather to another thing not in him.
The great defect of that fine intelligence is a failure to grasp and enjoy the things commonly called convention and tradition; which are foods upon which all human creatures must feed frequently if they are to live. Very few modern people of course have any idea of what they are. “Convention” is very nearly the same word as “democracy.” It has again and again in history been used as an alternative word to Parliament. So far from suggesting anything stale or sober, the word convention rather conveys a hubbub; it is the coming together of men; every mob is a convention. In its secondary sense it means the common soul of such a crowd, its instinctive anger at the traitor or its instinctive salutation of the flag. Conventions may be cruel, they may be unsuitable, they may even be grossly superstitious or obscene; but there is one thing that they never are. Conventions are never dead. They are always full of accumulated emotions, the piled-up and passionate experiences of many generations asserting what they could not explain. To be inside any true convention, as the Chinese respect for parents or the European respect for children, is to be surrounded by something which whatever else it is is not leaden, lifeless or automatic, something which is taut and tingling with vitality at a hundred points, which is sensitive almost to madness and which is so much alive that it can kill. Now Bernard Shaw has always made this one immense mistake (arising out of that bad progressive education of his), the mistake of treating convention as a dead thing; treating it as if it were a mere physical environment like the pavement or the rain. Whereas it is a result of will; a rain of blessings and a pavement of good intentions. Let it be remembered that I am not discussing in what degree one should allow for tradition; I am saying that men like Shaw do not allow for it at all. If Shaw had found in early life that he was contradicted by Bradshaw’s Railway Guide or even by the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, he would have felt at least that he might be wrong. But if he had found himself contradicted by his father and mother, he would have thought it all the more probable that he was right. If the issue of the last evening paper contradicted him he might be troubled to investigate or explain. That the human tradition of two thousand years contradicted him did not trouble him for an instant. That Marx was not with him was important. That Man was not with him was an irrelevant prehistoric joke. People have talked far too much about the paradoxes of Bernard Shaw. Perhaps his only pure paradox is this almost unconscious one; that he has tended to think that because something has satisfied generations of men it must be untrue.
Shaw is wrong about nearly all the things one learns early in life and while one is still simple. Most human beings start with certain facts of psychology to which the rest of life must be somewhat related. For instance, every man falls in love; and no man falls into free love. When he falls into that he calls it lust, and is always ashamed of it even when he boasts of it. That there is some connection between a love and a vow nearly every human being knows before he is eighteen. That there is a solid and instinctive connection between the idea of sexual ecstasy and the idea of some sort of almost suicidal constancy, this I say is simply the first fact in one’s own psychology; boys and girls know it almost before they know their own language. How far it can be trusted, how it can best be dealt with, all that is another matter. But lovers lust after constancy more than after happiness; if you are in any sense prepared to give them what they ask, then what they ask, beyond all question, is an oath of final fidelity. Lovers may be lunatics; lovers may be children; lovers may be unfit for citizenship and outside human argument; you can take up that position if you will. But lovers do not only desire love; they desire marriage. The root of legal monogamy does not lie (as Shaw and his friends are for ever drearily asserting) in the fact that the man is a mere tyrant and the woman a mere slave. It lies in the fact that if their love for each other is the noblest and freest love conceivable, it can only find its heroic expression in both becoming slaves. I only mention this matter here as a matter which most of us do not need to be taught; for it was the first lesson of life. In after years we may make up what code or compromise about sex we like; but we all know that constancy, jealousy, and the personal pledge are natural and inevitable in sex; we do not feel any surprise when we see them either in a murder or in a valentine. We may or may not see wisdom in early marriages; but we know quite well that wherever the thing is genuine at all, early loves will mean early marriages. But Shaw had not learnt about this tragedy of the sexes, what the rustic ballads of any country on earth would have taught him. He had not learnt, what universal common sense has put into all the folk-lore of the earth, that love cannot be thought of clearly for an instant except as monogamous. The old English ballads never sing the praises of “lovers.” They always sing the praises of “true lovers,” and that is the final philosophy of the question.
The same is true of Mr. Shaw’s refusal to understand the love of the land either in the form of patriotism or of private ownership. It is the attitude of an Irishman cut off from the soil of Ireland, retaining the audacity and even cynicism of the national type, but no longer fed from the roots with its pathos or its experience.
This broader and more brotherly rendering of convention must be applied particularly to the conventions of the drama; since that is necessarily the most democratic of all the arts. And it will be found generally that most of the theatrical conventions rest on a real artistic basis. The Greek Unities, for instance, were not proper objects of the meticulous and trivial imitation of Seneca or Gabriel Harvey. But still less were they the right objects for the equally trivial and far more vulgar impatience of men like Macaulay. That a tale should, if possible, be told of one place or one day or a manageable number of characters is an ideal plainly rooted in an aesthetic instinct. But if this be so with the classical drama, it is yet more certainly so with romantic drama, against the somewhat decayed dignity of which Bernard Shaw was largely in rebellion. There was one point in particular upon which the Ibsenites claimed to have reformed the romantic convention which is worthy of special allusion.
Shaw and all the other Ibsenites were fond of insisting that a defect in the romantic drama was its tendency to end with wedding-bells. Against this they set the modern drama of middle-age, the drama which described marriage itself instead of its poetic preliminaries. Now if Bernard Shaw had been more patient with popular tradition, more prone to think that there might be some sense in its survival, he might have seen this particular problem much more clearly. The old playwrights have left us plenty of plays of marriage and middle-age. OTHELLO is as much about what follows the wedding-bells as THE DOLL’S HOUSE. MACBETH is about a middle-aged couple as much as LITTLE EYOLF. But if we ask ourselves what is the real difference, we shall, I think, find that it can fairly be stated thus. The old tragedies of marriage, though not love stories, are like love stories in this, that they work up to some act or stroke which is irrevocable as marriage is irrevocable; to the fact of death or of adultery.
Now the reason why our fathers did not make marriage, in the middle-aged and static sense, the subject of their plays was a very simple one; it was that a play is a very bad place for discussing that topic. You cannot easily make a good drama out of the success or failure of a marriage, just as you could not make a good drama out of the growth of an oak tree or the decay of an empire. As Polonius very reasonably observed, it is too long. A happy love-affair will make a drama simply because it is dramatic; it depends on an ultimate yes or no. But a happy marriage is not dramatic; perhaps it would be less happy if it were. The essence of a romantic heroine is that she asks herself an intense question; but the essence of a sensible wife is that she is much too sensible to ask herself any questions at all. All the things that make monogamy a success are in their nature undramatic things, the silent growth of an instinctive confidence, the common wounds and victories, the accumulation of customs, the rich maturing of old jokes. Sane marriage is an untheatrical thing; it is therefore not surprising that most modern dramatists have devoted themselves to insane marriage.
To summarise; before touching the philosophy which Shaw has ultimately adopted, we must quit the notion that we know it already and that it is hit off in such journalistic terms as these three. Shaw does not wish to multiply problem plays or even problems. He has such scepticism as is the misfortune of his age; but he has this dignified and courageous quality, that he does not come to ask questions but to answer them. He is not a paradox-monger; he is a wild logician, far too simple even to be called a sophist. He understands everything in life except its paradoxes, especially that ultimate paradox that the very things that we cannot comprehend are the things that we have to take for granted. Lastly, he is not especially social or collectivist. On the contrary, he rather dislikes men in the mass, though he can appreciate them individually. He has no respect for collective humanity in its two great forms; either in that momentary form which we call a mob, or in that enduring form which we call a convention.
The general cosmic theory which can so far be traced through the earlier essays and plays of Bernard Shaw may be expressed in the image of Schopenhauer standing on his head. I cheerfully concede that Schopenhauer looks much nicer in that posture than in his original one, but I can hardly suppose that he feels more comfortable. The substance of the change is this. Roughly speaking, Schopenhauer maintained that life is unreasonable. The intellect, if it could be impartial, would tell us to cease; but a blind partiality, an instinct quite distinct from thought, drives us on to take desperate chances in an essentially bankrupt lottery. Shaw seems to accept this dingy estimate of the rational outlook, but adds a somewhat arresting comment. Schopenhauer had said, “Life is unreasonable; so much the worse for all living things.” Shaw said, “Life is unreasonable; so much the worse for reason.” Life is the higher call, life we must follow. It may be that there is some undetected fallacy in reason itself. Perhaps the whole man cannot get inside his own head any more than he can jump down his own throat. But there is about the need to live, to suffer, and to create that imperative quality which can truly be called supernatural, of whose voice it can indeed be said that it speaks with authority, and not as the scribes.
This is the first and finest item of the original Bernard Shaw creed: that if reason says that life is irrational, life must be content to reply that reason is lifeless; life is the primary thing, and if reason impedes it, then reason must be trodden down into the mire amid the most abject superstitions. In the ordinary sense it would be specially absurd to suggest that Shaw desires man to be a mere animal. For that is always associated with lust or incontinence; and Shaw’s ideals are strict, hygienic, and even, one might say, old-maidish. But there is a mystical sense in which one may say literally that Shaw desires man to be an animal. That is, he desires him to cling first and last to life, to the spirit of animation, to the thing which is common to him and the birds and plants. Man should have the blind faith of a beast: he should be as mystically immutable as a cow, and as deaf to sophistries as a fish. Shaw does not wish him to be a philosopher or an artist; he does not even wish him to be a man, so much as he wishes him to be, in this holy sense, an animal. He must follow the flag of life as fiercely from conviction as all other creatures follow it from instinct.
But this Shavian worship of life is by no means lively. It has nothing in common either with the braver or the baser forms of what we commonly call optimism. It has none of the omnivorous exultation of Walt Whitman or the fiery pantheism of Shelley. Bernard Shaw wishes to show himself not so much as an optimist, but rather as a sort of faithful and contented pessimist. This contradiction is the key to nearly all his early and more obvious contradictions and to many which remain to the end. Whitman and many modern idealists have talked of taking even duty as a pleasure; it seems to me that Shaw takes even pleasure as a duty. In a queer way he seems to see existence as an illusion and yet as an obligation. To every man and woman, bird, beast, and flower, life is a love-call to be eagerly followed. To Bernard Shaw it is merely a military bugle to be obeyed. In short, he fails to feel that the command of Nature (if one must use the anthropomorphic fable of Nature instead of the philosophic term God) can be enjoyed as well as obeyed. He paints life at its darkest and then tells the babe unborn to take the leap in the dark. That is heroic; and to my instinct at least Schopenhauer looks like a pigmy beside his pupil. But it is the heroism of a morbid and almost asphyxiated age. It is awful to think that this world which so many poets have praised has even for a time been depicted as a man-trap into which we may just have the manhood to jump. Think of all those ages through which men have talked of having the courage to die. And then remember that we have actually fallen to talking about having the courage to live.
It is exactly this oddity or dilemma which may be said to culminate in the crowning work of his later and more constructive period, the work in which he certainly attempted, whether with success or not, to state his ultimate and cosmic vision; I mean the play called MAN AND SUPERMAN. In approaching this play we must keep well in mind the distinction recently drawn: that Shaw follows the banner of life, but austerely, not joyously. For him nature has authority, but hardly charm. But before we approach it it is necessary to deal with three things that lead up to it. First it is necessary to speak of what remained of his old critical and realistic method; and then it is necessary to speak of the two important influences which led up to his last and most important change of outlook.
First, since all our spiritual epochs overlap, and a man is often doing the old work while he is thinking of the new, we may deal first with what may be fairly called his last two plays of pure worldly criticism. These are MAJOR BARBARa and JOHN BULL’S OTHER ISLAND. Major Barbara indeed contains a strong religious element; but, when all is said, the whole point of the play is that the religious element is defeated. Moreover, the actual expressions of religion in the play are somewhat unsatisfactory as expressions of religion—or even of reason. I must frankly say that Bernard Shaw always seems to me to use the word God not only without any idea of what it means, but without one moment’s thought about what it could possibly mean. He said to some atheist, “Never believe in a God that you cannot improve on.” The atheist (being a sound theologian) naturally replied that one should not believe in a God whom one could improve on; as that would show that he was not God. In the same style in MAJOR BARBARa the heroine ends by suggesting that she will serve God without personal hope, so that she may owe nothing to God and He owe everything to her. It does not seem to strike her that if God owes everything to her He is not God. These things affect me merely as tedious perversions of a phrase. It is as if you said, “I will never have a father unless I have begotten him.”
But the real sting and substance of MAJOR BARBARA is much more practical and to the point. It expresses not the new spirituality but the old materialism of Bernard Shaw. Almost every one of Shaw’s plays is an expanded epigram. But the epigram is not expanded (as with most people) into a hundred commonplaces. Rather the epigram is expanded into a hundred other epigrams; the work is at least as brilliant in detail as it is in design. But it is generally possible to discover the original and pivotal epigram which is the centre and purpose of the play. It is generally possible, even amid that blinding jewellery of a million jokes, to discover the grave, solemn and sacred joke for which the play itself was written.
The ultimate epigram of MAJOR BARBARA can be put thus. People say that poverty is no crime; Shaw says that poverty is a crime; that it is a crime to endure it, a crime to be content with it, that it is the mother of all crimes of brutality, corruption, and fear. If a man says to Shaw that he is born of poor but honest parents, Shaw tells him that the very word “but” shows that his parents were probably dishonest. In short, he maintains here what he had maintained elsewhere: that what the people at this moment require is not more patriotism or more art or more religion or more morality or more sociology, but simply more money. The evil is not ignorance or decadence or sin or pessimism; the evil is poverty. The point of this particular drama is that even the noblest enthusiasm of the girl who becomes a Salvation Army officer fails under the brute money power of her father who is a modern capitalist. When I have said this it will be clear why this play, fine and full of bitter sincerity as it is, must in a manner be cleared out of the way before we come to talk of Shaw’s final and serious faith. For his serious faith is in the sanctity of human will, in the divine capacity for creation and choice rising higher than environment and doom; and so far as that goes, MAJOR BARBARa is not only apart from his faith but against his faith. MAJOR BARBARa is an account of environment victorious over heroic will. There are a thousand answers to the ethic in MAJOR BARBARa which I should be inclined to offer. I might point out that the rich do not so much buy honesty as curtains to cover dishonesty: that they do not so much buy health as cushions to comfort disease. And I might suggest that the doctrine that poverty degrades the poor is much more likely to be used as an argument for keeping them powerless than as an argument for making them rich. But there is no need to find such answers to the materialistic pessimism of MAJOR BARBARA. The best answer to it is in Shaw’s own best and crowning philosophy, with which we shall shortly be concerned.
JOHN BULL’S OTHER ISLAND represents a realism somewhat more tinged with the later transcendentalism of its author. In one sense, of course, it is a satire on the conventional Englishman, who is never so silly or sentimental as when he sees silliness and sentiment in the Irishman. Broadbent, whose mind is all fog and his morals all gush, is firmly persuaded that he is bringing reason and order among the Irish, whereas in truth they are all smiling at his illusions with the critical detachment of so many devils. There have been many plays depicting the absurd Paddy in a ring of Anglo-Saxons; the first purpose of this play is to depict the absurd Anglo-Saxon in a ring of ironical Paddies. But it has a second and more subtle purpose, which is very finely contrived. It is suggested that when all is said and done there is in this preposterous Englishman a certain creative power which comes from his simplicity and optimism, from his profound resolution rather to live life than to criticise it. I know no finer dialogue of philosophical cross-purposes than that in which Broadbent boasts of his common-sense, and his subtler Irish friend mystifies him by telling him that he, Broadbent, has no common-sense, but only inspiration. The Irishman admits in Broadbent a certain unconscious spiritual force even in his very stupidity. Lord Rosebery coined the very clever phrase “a practical mystic.” Shaw is here maintaining that all practical men are practical mystics. And he is really maintaining also that the most practical of all the practical mystics is the one who is a fool.
There is something unexpected and fascinating about this reversal of the usual argument touching enterprise and the business man; this theory that success is created not by intelligence, but by a certain half-witted and yet magical instinct. For Bernard Shaw, apparently, the forests of factories and the mountains of money are not the creations of human wisdom or even of human cunning; they are rather manifestations of the sacred maxim which declares that God has chosen the foolish things of the earth to confound the wise. It is simplicity and even innocence that has made Manchester. As a philosophical fancy this is interesting or even suggestive; but it must be confessed that as a criticism of the relations of England to Ireland it is open to a strong historical objection. The one weak point in JOHN BULL’S OTHER ISLANd is that it turns on the fact that Broadbent succeeds in Ireland. But as a matter of fact Broadbent has not succeeded in Ireland. If getting what one wants is the test and fruit of this mysterious strength, then the Irish peasants are certainly much stronger than the English merchants; for in spite of all the efforts of the merchants, the land has remained a land of peasants. No glorification of the English practicality as if it were a universal thing can ever get over the fact that we have failed in dealing with the one white people in our power who were markedly unlike ourselves. And the kindness of Broadbent has failed just as much as his common-sense; because he was dealing with a people whose desire and ideal were different from his own. He did not share the Irish passion for small possession in land or for the more pathetic virtues of Christianity. In fact the kindness of Broadbent has failed for the same reason that the gigantic kindness of Shaw has failed. The roots are different; it is like tying the tops of two trees together. Briefly, the philosophy of JOHN BULL’S OTHER ISLAND is quite effective and satisfactory except for this incurable fault: the fact that John Bull’s other island is not John Bull’s.
This clearing off of his last critical plays we may classify as the first of the three facts which lead up to MAN AND SUPERMAN. The second of the three facts may be found, I think, in Shaw’s discovery of Nietzsche. This eloquent sophist has an influence upon Shaw and his school which it would require a separate book adequately to study. By descent Nietzsche was a Pole, and probably a Polish noble; and to say that he was a Polish noble is to say that he was a frail, fastidious, and entirely useless anarchist. He had a wonderful poetic wit; and is one of the best rhetoricians of the modern world. He had a remarkable power of saying things that master the reason for a moment by their gigantic unreasonableness; as, for instance, “Your life is intolerable without immortality; but why should not your life be intolerable?” His whole work is shot through with the pangs and fevers of his physical life, which was one of extreme bad health; and in early middle age his brilliant brain broke down into impotence and darkness. All that was true in his teaching was this: that if a man looks fine on a horse it is so far irrelevant to tell him that he would be more economical on a donkey or more humane on a tricycle. In other words, the mere achievement of dignity, beauty, or triumph is strictly to be called a good thing. I do not know if Nietzsche ever used the illustration; but it seems to me that all that is creditable or sound in Nietzsche could be stated in the derivation of one word, the word “valour.” Valour means VALEUR; it means a value; courage is itself a solid good; it is an ultimate virtue; valour is in itself VALID. In so far as he maintained this Nietzsche was only taking part in that great Protestant game of see-saw which has been the amusement of northern Europe since the sixteenth century. Nietzsche imagined he was rebelling against ancient morality; as a matter of fact he was only rebelling against recent morality, against the half-baked impudence of the utilitarians and the materialists. He thought he was rebelling against Christianity; curiously enough he was rebelling solely against the special enemies of Christianity, against Herbert Spencer and Mr. Edward Clodd. Historic Christianity has always believed in the valour of St. Michael riding in front of the Church Militant; and in an ultimate and absolute pleasure, not indirect or utilitarian, the intoxication of the spirit, the wine of the blood of God.
There are indeed doctrines of Nietzsche that are not Christian, but then, by an entertaining coincidence, they are also not true. His hatred of pity is not Christian, but that was not his doctrine but his disease. Invalids are often hard on invalids. And there is another doctrine of his that is not Christianity, and also (by the same laughable accident) not common-sense; and it is a most pathetic circumstance that this was the one doctrine which caught the eye of Shaw and captured him. He was not influenced at all by the morbid attack on mercy. It would require more than ten thousand mad Polish professors to make Bernard Shaw anything but a generous and compassionate man. But it is certainly a nuisance that the one Nietzsche doctrine which attracted him was not the one Nietzsche doctrine that is human and rectifying. Nietzsche might really have done some good if he had taught Bernard Shaw to draw the sword, to drink wine, or even to dance. But he only succeeded in putting into his head a new superstition, which bids fair to be the chief superstition of the dark ages which are possibly in front of us— I mean the superstition of what is called the Superman.
In one of his least convincing phrases, Nietzsche had said that just as the ape ultimately produced the man, so should we ultimately produce something higher than the man. The immediate answer, of course, is sufficiently obvious: the ape did not worry about the man, so why should we worry about the Superman? If the Superman will come by natural selection, may we leave it to natural selection? If the Superman will come by human selection, what sort of Superman are we to select? If he is simply to be more just, more brave, or more merciful, then Zarathustra sinks into a Sunday-school teacher; the only way we can work for it is to be more just, more brave, and more merciful; sensible advice, but hardly startling. If he is to be anything else than this, why should we desire him, or what else are we to desire? These questions have been many times asked of the Nietzscheites, and none of the Nietzscheites have even attempted to answer them.
The keen intellect of Bernard Shaw would, I think, certainly have seen through this fallacy and verbiage had it not been that another important event about this time came to the help of Nietzsche and established the Superman on his pedestal. It is the third of the things which I have called stepping-stones to MAN AND SUPERMAN, and it is very important. It is nothing less than the break-down of one of the three intellectual supports upon which Bernard Shaw had reposed through all his confident career. At the beginning of this book I have described the three ultimate supports of Shaw as the Irishman, the Puritan, and the Progressive. They are the three legs of the tripod upon which the prophet sat to give the oracle; and one of them broke. Just about this time suddenly, by a mere shaft of illumination, Bernard Shaw ceased to believe in progress altogether.
It is generally implied that it was reading Plato that did it. That philosopher was very well qualified to convey the first shock of the ancient civilisation to Shaw, who had always thought instinctively of civilisation as modern. This is not due merely to the daring splendour of the speculations and the vivid picture of Athenian life, it is due also to something analogous in the personalities of that particular ancient Greek and this particular modern Irishman. Bernard Shaw has much affinity to Plato—in his instinctive elevation of temper, his courageous pursuit of ideas as far as they will go, his civic idealism; and also, it must be confessed, in his dislike of poets and a touch of delicate inhumanity. But whatever influence produced the change, the change had all the dramatic suddenness and completeness which belongs to the conversions of great men. It had been perpetually implied through all the earlier works not only that mankind is constantly improving, but that almost everything must be considered in the light of this fact. More than once he seemed to argue, in comparing the dramatists of the sixteenth with those of the nineteenth century, that the latter had a definite advantage merely because they were of the nineteenth century and not of the sixteenth. When accused of impertinence towards the greatest of the Elizabethans, Bernard Shaw had said, “Shakespeare is a much taller man than I. but I stand on his shoulders”—an epigram which sums up this doctrine with characteristic neatness. But Shaw fell off Shakespeare’s shoulders with a crash. This chronological theory that Shaw stood on Shakespeare’s shoulders logically involved the supposition that Shakespeare stood on Plato’s shoulders. And Bernard Shaw found Plato from his point of view so much more advanced than Shakespeare that he decided in desperation that all three were equal.
Such failure as has partially attended the idea of human equality is very largely due to the fact that no party in the modern state has heartily believed in it. Tories and Radicals have both assumed that one set of men were in essentials superior to mankind. The only difference was that the Tory superiority was a superiority of place; while the Radical superiority is a superiority of time. The great objection to Shaw being on Shakespeare’s shoulders is a consideration for the sensations and personal dignity of Shakespeare. It is a democratic objection to anyone being on anyone else’s shoulders. Eternal human nature refuses to submit to a man who rules merely by right of birth. To rule by right of century is to rule by right of birth. Shaw found his nearest kinsman in remote Athens, his remotest enemies in the closest historical proximity; and he began to see the enormous average and the vast level of mankind. If progress swung constantly between such extremes it could not be progress at all. The paradox was sharp but undeniable; if life had such continual ups and downs, it was upon the whole flat. With characteristic sincerity and love of sensation he had no sooner seen this than he hastened to declare it. In the teeth of all his previous pronouncements he emphasised and re-emphasised in print that man had not progressed at all; that ninety-nine hundredths of a man in a cave were the same as ninety-nine hundredths of a man in a suburban villa.
It is characteristic of him to say that he rushed into print with a frank confession of the failure of his old theory. But it is also characteristic of him that he rushed into print also with a new alternative theory, quite as definite, quite as confident, and, if one may put it so, quite as infallible as the old one. Progress had never happened hitherto, because it had been sought solely through education. Education was rubbish. “Fancy,” said he, “trying to produce a greyhound or a racehorse by education!” The man of the future must not be taught; he must be bred. This notion of producing superior human beings by the methods of the stud-farm had often been urged, though its difficulties had never been cleared up. I mean its practical difficulties; its moral difficulties, or rather impossibilities, for any animal fit to be called a man need scarcely be discussed. But even as a scheme it had never been made clear. The first and most obvious objection to it of course is this: that if you are to breed men as pigs, you require some overseer who is as much more subtle than a man as a man is more subtle than a pig. Such an individual is not easy to find.
It was, however, in the heat of these three things, the decline of his merely destructive realism, the discovery of Nietzsche, and the abandonment of the idea of a progressive education of mankind, that he attempted what is not necessarily his best, but certainly his most important work. The two things are by no means necessarily the same. The most important work of Milton is PARADISE LOST; his best work is LYCIDAS. There are other places in which Shaw’s argument is more fascinating or his wit more startling than in MAN AND SUPERMAN; there are other plays that he has made more brilliant. But I am sure that there is no other play that he wished to make more brilliant. I will not say that he is in this case more serious than elsewhere; for the word serious is a double-meaning and double-dealing word, a traitor in the dictionary. It sometimes means solemn, and it sometimes means sincere. A very short experience of private and public life will be enough to prove that the most solemn people are generally the most insincere. A somewhat more delicate and detailed consideration will show also that the most sincere men are generally not solemn; and of these is Bernard Shaw. But if we use the word serious in the old and Latin sense of the word “grave,” which means weighty or valid, full of substance, then we may say without any hesitation that this is the most serious play of the most serious man alive.
The outline of the play is, I suppose, by this time sufficiently well known. It has two main philosophic motives. The first is that what he calls the life-force (the old infidels called it Nature, which seems a neater word, and nobody knows the meaning of either of them) desires above all things to make suitable marriages, to produce a purer and prouder race, or eventually to produce a Superman. The second is that in this effecting of racial marriages the woman is a more conscious agent than the man. In short, that woman disposes a long time before man proposes. In this play, therefore, woman is made the pursuer and man the pursued. It cannot be denied, I think, that in this matter Shaw is handicapped by his habitual hardness of touch, by his lack of sympathy with the romance of which he writes, and to a certain extent even by his own integrity and right conscience. Whether the man hunts the woman or the woman the man, at least it should be a splendid pagan hunt; but Shaw is not a sporting man. Nor is he a pagan, but a Puritan. He cannot recover the impartiality of paganism which allowed Diana to propose to Endymion without thinking any the worse of her. The result is that while he makes Anne, the woman who marries his hero, a really powerful and convincing woman, he can only do it by making her a highly objectionable woman. She is a liar and a bully, not from sudden fear or excruciating dilemma; she is a liar and a bully in grain; she has no truth or magnanimity in her. The more we know that she is real, the more we know that she is vile. In short, Bernard Shaw is still haunted with his old impotence of the unromantic writer; he cannot imagine the main motives of human life from the inside. We are convinced successfully that Anne wishes to marry Tanner, but in the very process we lose all power of conceiving why Tanner should ever consent to marry Anne. A writer with a more romantic strain in him might have imagined a woman choosing her lover without shamelessness and magnetising him without fraud. Even if the first movement were feminine, it need hardly be a movement like this. In truth, of course, the two sexes have their two methods of attraction, and in some of the happiest cases they are almost simultaneous. But even on the most cynical showing they need not be mixed up. It is one thing to say that the mousetrap is not there by accident. It is another to say (in the face of ocular experience) that the mousetrap runs after the mouse.
But whenever Shaw shows the Puritan hardness or even the Puritan cheapness, he shows something also of the Puritan nobility, of the idea that sacrifice is really a frivolity in the face of a great purpose. The reasonableness of Calvin and his followers will by the mercy of heaven be at last washed away; but their unreasonableness will remain an eternal splendour. Long after we have let drop the fancy that Protestantism was rational it will be its glory that it was fanatical. So it is with Shaw. To make Anne a real woman, even a dangerous woman, he would need to be something stranger and softer than Bernard Shaw. But though I always argue with him whenever he argues, I confess that he always conquers me in the one or two moments when he is emotional.
There is one really noble moment when Anne offers for all her cynical husband-hunting the only defence that is really great enough to cover it. “It will not be all happiness for me. Perhaps death.” And the man rises also at that real crisis, saying, “Oh, that clutch holds and hurts. What have you grasped in me? Is there a father’s heart as well as a mother’s?” That seems to me actually great; I do not like either of the characters an atom more than formerly; but I can see shining and shaking through them at that instant the splendour of the God that made them and of the image of God who wrote their story.
A logician is like a liar in many respects, but chiefly in the fact that he should have a good memory. That cutting and inquisitive style which Bernard Shaw has always adopted carries with it an inevitable criticism. And it cannot be denied that this new theory of the supreme importance of sound sexual union, wrought by any means, is hard logically to reconcile with Shaw’s old diatribes against sentimentalism and operatic romance. If Nature wishes primarily to entrap us into sexual union, then all the means of sexual attraction, even the most maudlin or theatrical, are justified at one stroke. The guitar of the troubadour is as practical as the plough-share of the husbandman. The waltz in the ballroom is as serious as the debate in the parish council. The justification of Anne, as the potential mother of Superman, is really the justification of all the humbugs and sentimentalists whom Shaw had been denouncing as a dramatic critic and as a dramatist since the beginning of his career. It was to no purpose that the earlier Bernard Shaw said that romance was all moonshine. The moonshine that ripens love is now as practical as the sunshine that ripens corn. It was vain to say that sexual chivalry was all rot; it might be as rotten as manure—and also as fertile. It is vain to call first love a fiction; it may be as fictitious as the ink of the cuttle or the doubling of the hare; as fictitious, as efficient, and as indispensable. It is vain to call it a self-deception; Schopenhauer said that all existence was a self-deception; and Shaw’s only further comment seems to be that it is right to be deceived. To MAN AND SUPERMAN, as to all his plays, the author attaches a most fascinating preface at the beginning. But I really think that he ought also to attach a hearty apology at the end; an apology to all the minor dramatists or preposterous actors whom he had cursed for romanticism in his youth. Whenever he objected to an actress for ogling she might reasonably reply, “But this is how I support my friend Anne in her sublime evolutionary effort.” Whenever he laughed at an old-fashioned actor for ranting, the actor might answer, “My exaggeration is not more absurd than the tail of a peacock or the swagger of a cock; it is the way I preach the great fruitful lie of the life-force that I am a very fine fellow.” We have remarked the end of Shaw’s campaign in favour of progress. This ought really to have been the end of his campaign against romance. All the tricks of love that he called artificial become natural; because they become Nature. All the lies of love become truths; indeed they become the Truth.
The minor things of the play contain some thunderbolts of good thinking. Throughout this brief study I have deliberately not dwelt upon mere wit, because in anything of Shaw’s that may be taken for granted. It is enough to say that this play which is full of his most serious quality is as full as any of his minor sort of success. In a more solid sense two important facts stand out: the first is the character of the young American; the other is the character of Straker, the chauffeur. In these Shaw has realised and made vivid two most important facts. First, that America is not intellectually a go-ahead country, but both for good and evil an old-fashioned one. It is full of stale culture and ancestral simplicity, just as Shaw’s young millionaire quotes Macaulay and piously worships his wife. Second, he has pointed out in the character of Straker that there has arisen in our midst a new class that has education without breeding. Straker is the man who has ousted the hansom-cabman, having neither his coarseness nor his kindliness. Great sociological credit is due to the man who has first clearly observed that Straker has appeared. How anybody can profess for a moment to be glad that he has appeared, I do not attempt to conjecture.
Appended to the play is an entertaining though somewhat mysterious document called “The Revolutionist’s Handbook.” It contains many very sound remarks; this, for example, which I cannot too much applaud: “If you hit your child, be sure that you hit him in anger.” If that principle had been properly understood, we should have had less of Shaw’s sociological friends and their meddling with the habits and instincts of the poor. But among the fragments of advice also occurs the following suggestive and even alluring remark: “Every man over forty is a scoundrel.” On the first personal opportunity I asked the author of this remarkable axiom what it meant. I gathered that what it really meant was something like this: that every man over forty had been all the essential use that he was likely to be, and was therefore in a manner a parasite. It is gratifying to reflect that Bernard Shaw has sufficiently answered his own epigram by continuing to pour out treasures both of truth and folly long after this allotted time. But if the epigram might be interpreted in a rather looser style as meaning that past a certain point a man’s work takes on its final character and does not greatly change the nature of its merits, it may certainly be said that with MAN AND SUPERMAN, Shaw reaches that stage. The two plays that have followed it, though of very great interest in themselves, do not require any revaluation of, or indeed any addition to, our summary of his genius and success. They are both in a sense casts back to his primary energies; the first in a controversial and the second in a technical sense. Neither need prevent our saying that the moment when John Tanner and Anne agree that it is doom for him and death for her and life only for the thing unborn, is the peak of his utterance as a prophet.
The two important plays that he has since given us are THE DOCTOR’S DILEMMa and GETTING MARRIED. The first is as regards its most amusing and effective elements a throw-back to his old game of guying the men of science. It was a very good game, and he was an admirable player. The actual story of the DOCTOR’S DILEMMa itself seems to me less poignant and important than the things with which Shaw had lately been dealing. First of all, as has been said, Shaw has neither the kind of justice nor the kind of weakness that goes to make a true problem. We cannot feel the Doctor’s Dilemma, because we cannot really fancy Bernard Shaw being in a dilemma. His mind is both fond of abruptness and fond of finality; he always makes up his mind when he knows the facts and sometimes before. Moreover, this particular problem (though Shaw is certainly, as we shall see, nearer to pure doubt about it than about anything else) does not strike the critic as being such an exasperating problem after all. An artist of vast power and promise, who is also a scamp of vast profligacy and treachery, has a chance of life if specially treated for a special disease. The modern doctors (and even the modern dramatist) are in doubt whether he should be specially favoured because he is aesthetically important or specially disregarded because he is ethically anti-social. They see-saw between the two despicable modern doctrines, one that geniuses should be worshipped like idols and the other that criminals should be merely wiped out like germs. That both clever men and bad men ought to be treated like men does not seem to occur to them. As a matter of fact, in these affairs of life and death one never does think of such distinctions. Nobody does shout out at sea, “Bad citizen over-board!” I should recommend the doctor in his dilemma to do exactly what I am sure any decent doctor would do without any dilemma at all: to treat the man simply as a man, and give him no more and no less favour than he would to anybody else. In short, I am sure a practical physician would drop all these visionary, unworkable modern dreams about type and criminology and go back to the plain business-like facts of the French Revolution and the Rights of Man.
The other play, GETTING MARRIED, is a point in Shaw’s career, but only as a play, not, as usual, as a heresy. It is nothing but a conversation about marriage and one cannot agree or disagree with the view of marriage, because all views are given which are held by anybody, and some (I should think) which are held by nobody. But its technical quality is of some importance in the life of its author. It is worth consideration as a play, because it is not a play at all. It marks the culmination and completeness of that victory of Bernard Shaw over the British public, or rather over their official representatives, of which I have spoken. Shaw had fought a long fight with business men, those incredible people, who assured him that it was useless to have wit without murders, and that a good joke, which is the most popular thing everywhere else, was quite unsalable in the theatrical world. In spite of this he had conquered by his wit and his good dialogue; and by the time of which we now speak he was victorious and secure. All his plays were being produced as a matter of course in England and as a matter of the fiercest fashion and enthusiasm in America and Germany. No one who knows the nature of the man will doubt that under such circumstances his first act would be to produce his wit naked and unashamed. He had been told that he could not support a slight play by mere dialogue. He therefore promptly produced mere dialogue without the slightest play for it to support. Getting Married is no more a play than Cicero’s dialogue DE AMICTIâ, and not half so much a play as Wilson’s NOCTES AMBROSIANAE. But though it is not a play, it was played, and played successfully. Everyone who went into the theatre felt that he was only eavesdropping at an accidental conversation. But the conversation was so sparkling and sensible that he went on eavesdropping. This, I think, as it is the final play of Shaw, is also, and fitly, his final triumph. He is a good dramatist and sometimes even a great dramatist. But the occasions when we get glimpses of him as really a great man are on these occasions when he is utterly undramatic.
From first to last Bernard Shaw has been nothing but a conversationalist. It is not a slur to say so; Socrates was one, and even Christ Himself. He differs from that divine and that human prototype in the fact that, like most modern people, he does to some extent talk in order to find out what he thinks; whereas they knew it beforehand. But he has the virtues that go with the talkative man; one of which is humility. You will hardly ever find a really proud man talkative; he is afraid of talking too much. Bernard Shaw offered himself to the world with only one great qualification, that he could talk honestly and well. He did not speak; he talked to a crowd. He did not write; he talked to a typewriter. He did not really construct a play; he talked through ten mouths or masks instead of through one. His literary power and progress began in casual conversations— and it seems to me supremely right that it should end in one great and casual conversation. His last play is nothing but garrulous talking, that great thing called gossip. And I am happy to say that the play has been as efficient and successful as talk and gossip have always been among the children of men.
Of his life in these later years I have made no pretence of telling even the little that there is to tell. Those who regard him as a mere self-advertising egotist may be surprised to hear that there is perhaps no man of whose private life less could be positively said by an outsider. Even those who know him can make little but a conjecture of what has lain behind this splendid stretch of intellectual self-expression; I only make my conjecture like the rest. I think that the first great turning-point in Shaw’s life (after the early things of which I have spoken, the taint of drink in the teetotal home, or the first fight with poverty) was the deadly illness which fell upon him, at the end of his first flashing career as a Saturday Reviewer. I know it would goad Shaw to madness to suggest that sickness could have softened him. That is why I suggest it. But I say for his comfort that I think it hardened him also; if that can be called hardening which is only the strengthening of our souls to meet some dreadful reality. At least it is certain that the larger spiritual ambitions, the desire to find a faith and found a church, come after that time. I also mention it because there is hardly anything else to mention; his life is singularly free from landmarks, while his literature is so oddly full of surprises. His marriage to Miss Payne-Townsend, which occurred not long after his illness, was one of those quite successful things which are utterly silent. The placidity of his married life may be sufficiently indicated by saying that (as far as I can make out) the most important events in it were rows about the Executive of the Fabian Society. If such ripples do not express a still and lake-like life, I do not know what would. Honestly, the only thing in his later career that can be called an event is the stand made by Shaw at the Fabians against the sudden assault of Mr. H. G. Wells, which, after scenes of splendid exasperations, ended in Wells’ resignation. There was another slight ruffling of the calm when Bernard Shaw said some quite sensible things about Sir Henry Irving. But on the whole we confront the composure of one who has come into his own.
The method of his life has remained mostly unchanged. And there is a great deal of method in his life; I can hear some people murmuring something about method in his madness. He is not only neat and business-like; but, unlike some literary men I know, does not conceal the fact. Having all the talents proper to an author, he delights to prove that he has also all the talents proper to a publisher; or even to a publisher’s clerk. Though many looking at his light brown clothes would call him a Bohemian, he really hates and despises Bohemianism; in the sense that he hates and despises disorder and uncleanness and irresponsibility. All that part of him is peculiarly normal and efficient. He gives good advice; he always answers letters, and answers them in a decisive and very legible hand. He has said himself that the only educational art that he thinks important is that of being able to jump off tram-cars at the proper moment. Though a rigid vegetarian, he is quite regular and rational in his meals; and though he detests sport, he takes quite sufficient exercise. While he has always made a mock of science in theory, he is by nature prone to meddle with it in practice. He is fond of photographing, and even more fond of being photographed. He maintained (in one of his moments of mad modernity) that photography was a finer thing than portrait-painting, more exquisite and more imaginative; he urged the characteristic argument that none of his own photographs were like each other or like him. But he would certainly wash the chemicals off his hands the instant after an experiment; just as he would wash the blood off his hands the instant after a Socialist massacre. He cannot endure stains or accretions; he is of that temperament which feels tradition itself to be a coat of dust; whose temptation it is to feel nothing but a sort of foul accumulation or living disease even in the creeper upon the cottage or the moss upon the grave. So thoroughly are his tastes those of the civilised modern man that if it had not been for the fire in him of justice and anger he might have been the most trim and modern among the millions whom he shocks: and his bicycle and brown hat have been no menace in Brixton. But God sent among those suburbans one who was a prophet as well as a sanitary inspector. He had every qualification for living in a villa—except the necessary indifference to his brethren living in pigsties. But for the small fact that he hates with a sickening hatred the hypocrisy and class cruelty, he would really accept and admire the bathroom and the bicycle and asbestos-stove, having no memory of rivers or of roaring fires. In these things, like Mr. Straker, he is the New Man. But for his great soul he might have accepted modern civilisation; it was a wonderful escape. This man whom men so foolishly call crazy and anarchic has really a dangerous affinity to the fourth-rate perfections of our provincial and Protestant civilisation. He might even have been respectable if he had had less self-respect.
His fulfilled fame and this tone of repose and reason in his life, together with the large circle of his private kindness and the regard of his fellow-artists, should permit us to end the record in a tone of almost patriarchal quiet. If I wished to complete such a picture I could add many touches: that he has consented to wear evening dress; that he has supported the TIMES Book Club; and that his beard has turned grey; the last to his regret, as he wanted it to remain red till they had completed colour-photography. He can mix with the most conservative statesmen; his tone grows continuously more gentle in the matter of religion. It would be easy to end with the lion lying down with the lamb, the wild Irishman tamed or taming everybody, Shaw reconciled to the British public as the British public is certainly largely reconciled to Shaw.
But as I put these last papers together, having finished this rude study, I hear a piece of news. His latest play, The Showing Up of Blanco Posnet, has been forbidden by the Censor. As far as I can discover, it has been forbidden because one of the characters professes a belief in God and states his conviction that God has got him. This is wholesome; this is like one crack of thunder in a clear sky. Not so easily does the prince of this world forgive. Shaw’s religious training and instinct is not mine, but in all honest religion there is something that is hateful to the prosperous compromise of our time. You are free in our time to say that God does not exist; you are free to say that He exists and is evil; you are free to say (like poor old Renan) that He would like to exist if He could. You may talk of God as a metaphor or a mystification; you may water Him down with gallons of long words, or boil Him to the rags of metaphysics; and it is not merely that nobody punishes, but nobody protests. But if you speak of God as a fact, as a thing like a tiger, as a reason for changing one’s conduct, then the modern world will stop you somehow if it can. We are long past talking about whether an unbeliever should be punished for being irreverent. It is now thought irreverent to be a believer. I end where I began: it is the old Puritan in Shaw that jars the modern world like an electric shock. That vision with which I meant to end, that vision of culture and common-sense, of red brick and brown flannel, of the modern clerk broadened enough to embrace Shaw and Shaw softened enough to embrace the clerk, all that vision of a new London begins to fade and alter. The red brick begins to burn red-hot; and the smoke from all the chimneys has a strange smell. I find myself back in the fumes in which I started… . Perhaps I have been misled by small modernities. Perhaps what I have called fastidiousness is a divine fear. Perhaps what I have called coldness is a predestinate and ancient endurance. The vision of the Fabian villas grows fainter and fainter, until I see only a void place across which runs Bunyan’s Pilgrim with his fingers in his ears.
Bernard Shaw has occupied much of his life in trying to elude his followers. The fox has enthusiastic followers, and Shaw seems to regard his in much the same way. This man whom men accuse of bidding for applause seems to me to shrink even from assent. If you agree with Shaw he is very likely to contradict you; I have contradicted Shaw throughout, that is why I come at last almost to agree with him. His critics have accused him of vulgar self-advertisement; in his relation to his followers he seems to me rather marked with a sort of mad modesty. He seems to wish to fly from agreement, to have as few followers as possible. All this reaches back, I think, to the three roots from which this meditation grew. It is partly the mere impatience and irony of the Irishman. It is partly the thought of the Calvinist that the host of God should be thinned rather than thronged; that Gideon must reject soldiers rather than recruit them. And it is partly, alas, the unhappy Progressive trying to be in front of his own religion, trying to destroy his own idol and even to desecrate his own tomb. But from whatever causes, this furious escape from popularity has involved Shaw in some perversities and refinements which are almost mere insincerities, and which make it necessary to disentangle the good he has done from the evil in this dazzling course. I will attempt some summary by stating the three things in which his influence seems to me thoroughly good and the three in which it seems bad. But for the pleasure of ending on the finer note I will speak first of those that seem bad.
The primary respect in which Shaw has been a bad influence is that he has encouraged fastidiousness. He has made men dainty about their moral meals. This is indeed the root of his whole objection to romance. Many people have objected to romance for being too airy and exquisite. Shaw objects to romance for being too rank and coarse. Many have despised romance because it is unreal; Shaw really hates it because it is a great deal too real. Shaw dislikes romance as he dislikes beef and beer, raw brandy or raw beefsteaks. Romance is too masculine for his taste. You will find throughout his criticisms, amid all their truth, their wild justice or pungent impartiality, a curious undercurrent of prejudice upon one point: the preference for the refined rather than the rude or ugly. Thus he will dislike a joke because it is coarse without asking if it is really immoral. He objects to a man sitting down on his hat, whereas the austere moralist should only object to his sitting down on someone else’s hat. This sensibility is barren because it is universal. It is useless to object to man being made ridiculous. Man is born ridiculous, as can easily be seen if you look at him soon after he is born. It is grotesque to drink beer, but it is equally grotesque to drink soda-water; the grotesqueness lies in the act of filling yourself like a bottle through a hole. It is undignified to walk with a drunken stagger; but it is fairly undignified to walk at all, for all walking is a sort of balancing, and there is always in the human being something of a quadruped on its hind legs. I do not say he would be more dignified if he went on all fours; I do not know that he ever is dignified except when he is dead. We shall not be refined till we are refined into dust. Of course it is only because he is not wholly an animal that man sees he is a rum animal; and if man on his hind legs is in an artificial attitude, it is only because, like a dog, he is begging or saying thank you.
Everything important is in that sense absurd from the grave baby to the grinning skull; everything practical is a practical joke. But throughout Shaw’s comedies, curiously enough, there is a certain kicking against this great doom of laughter. For instance, it is the first duty of a man who is in love to make a fool of himself; but Shaw’s heroes always seem to flinch from this, and attempt, in airy, philosophic revenge, to make a fool of the woman first. The attempts of Valentine and Charteris to divide their perceptions from their desires, and tell the woman she is worthless even while trying to win her, are sometimes almost torturing to watch; it is like seeing a man trying to play a different tune with each hand. I fancy this agony is not only in the spectator, but in the dramatist as well. It is Bernard Shaw struggling with his reluctance to do anything so ridiculous as make a proposal. For there are two types of great humorist: those who love to see a man absurd and those who hate to see him absurd. Of the first kind are Rabelais and Dickens; of the second kind are Swift and Bernard Shaw.
So far as Shaw has spread or helped a certain modern reluctance or MAUVAISE HONTE in these grand and grotesque functions of man I think he has definitely done harm. He has much influence among the young men; but it is not an influence in the direction of keeping them young. One cannot imagine him inspiring any of his followers to write a war-song or a drinking-song or a love-song, the three forms of human utterance which come next in nobility to a prayer. It may seem odd to say that the net effect of a man so apparently impudent will be to make men shy. But it is certainly the truth. Shyness is always the sign of a divided soul; a man is shy because he somehow thinks his position at once despicable and important. If he were without humility he would not care; and if he were without pride he would not care. Now the main purpose of Shaw’s theoretic teaching is to declare that we ought to fulfil these great functions of life, that we ought to eat and drink and love. But the main tendency of his habitual criticism is to suggest that all the sentiments, professions, and postures of these things are not only comic but even contemptibly comic, follies and almost frauds. The result would seem to be that a race of young men may arise who do all these things, but do them awkwardly. That which was of old a free and hilarious function becomes an important and embarrassing necessity. Let us endure all the pagan pleasures with a Christian patience. Let us eat, drink, and be serious.
The second of the two points on which I think Shaw has done definite harm is this: that he has (not always or even as a rule intentionally) increased that anarchy of thought which is always the destruction of thought. Much of his early writing has encouraged among the modern youth that most pestilent of all popular tricks and fallacies; what is called the argument of progress. I mean this kind of thing. Previous ages were often, alas, aristocratic in politics or clericalist in religion; but they were always democratic in philosophy; they appealed to man, not to particular men. And if most men were against an idea, that was so far against it. But nowadays that most men are against a thing is thought to be in its favour; it is vaguely supposed to show that some day most men will be for it. If a man says that cows are reptiles, or that Bacon wrote Shakespeare, he can always quote the contempt of his contemporaries as in some mysterious way proving the complete conversion of posterity. The objections to this theory scarcely need any elaborate indication. The final objection to it is that it amounts to this: say anything, however idiotic, and you are in advance of your age. This kind of stuff must be stopped. The sort of democrat who appeals to the babe unborn must be classed with the sort of aristocrat who appeals to his deceased great-grandfather. Both should be sharply reminded that they are appealing to individuals whom they well know to be at a disadvantage in the matter of prompt and witty reply. Now although Bernard Shaw has survived this simple confusion, he has in his time greatly contributed to it. If there is, for instance, one thing that is really rare in Shaw it is hesitation. He makes up his mind quicker than a calculating boy or a county magistrate. Yet on this subject of the next change in ethics he has felt hesitation, and being a strictly honest man has expressed it.
“I know no harder practical question than how much selfishness one ought to stand from a gifted person for the sake of his gifts or on the chance of his being right in the long run. The Superman will certainly come like a thief in the night, and be shot at accordingly; but we cannot leave our property wholly undefended on that account. On the other hand, we cannot ask the Superman simply to add a higher set of virtues to current respectable morals; for he is undoubtedly going to empty a good deal of respectable morality out like so much dirty water, and replace it by new and strange customs, shedding old obligations and accepting new and heavier ones. Every step of his progress must horrify conventional people; and if it were possible for even the most superior man to march ahead all the time, every pioneer of the march towards the Superman would be crucified.”
When the most emphatic man alive, a man unmatched in violent precision of statement, speaks with such avowed vagueness and doubt as this, it is no wonder if all his more weak-minded followers are in a mere whirlpool of uncritical and unmeaning innovation. If the superior person will be apparently criminal, the most probable result is simply that the criminal person will think himself superior. A very slight knowledge of human nature is required in the matter. If the Superman may possibly be a thief, you may bet your boots that the next thief will be a Superman. But indeed the Supermen (of whom I have met many) have generally been more weak in the head than in the moral conduct; they have simply offered the first fancy which occupied their minds as the new morality. I fear that Shaw had a way of encouraging these follies. It is obvious from the passage I have quoted that he has no way of restraining them.
The truth is that all feeble spirits naturally live in the future, because it is featureless; it is a soft job; you can make it what you like. The next age is blank, and I can paint it freely with my favourite colour. It requires real courage to face the past, because the past is full of facts which cannot be got over; of men certainly wiser than we and of things done which we could not do. I know I cannot write a poem as good as LYCIDAS. But it is always easy to say that the particular sort of poetry I can write will be the poetry of the future.
This I call the second evil influence of Shaw: that he has encouraged many to throw themselves for justification upon the shapeless and the unknown. In this, though courageous himself, he has encouraged cowards, and though sincere himself, has helped a mean escape. The third evil in his influence can, I think, be much more shortly dealt with. He has to a very slight extent, but still perceptibly, encouraged a kind of charlatanism of utterance among those who possess his Irish impudence without his Irish virtue. For instance, his amusing trick of self-praise is perfectly hearty and humorous in him; nay, it is even humble; for to confess vanity is itself humble. All that is the matter with the proud is that they will not admit that they are vain. Therefore when Shaw says that he alone is able to write such and such admirable work, or that he has just utterly wiped out some celebrated opponent, I for one never feel anything offensive in the tone, but, indeed, only the unmistakable intonation of a friend’s voice. But I have noticed among younger, harder, and much shallower men a certain disposition to ape this insolent ease and certitude, and that without any fundamental frankness or mirth. So far the influence is bad. Egoism can be learnt as a lesson like any other “ism.” It is not so easy to learn an Irish accent or a good temper. In its lower forms the thing becomes a most unmilitary trick of announcing the victory before one has gained it.
When one has said those three things, one has said, I think, all that can be said by way of blaming Bernard Shaw. It is significant that he was never blamed for any of these things by the Censor. Such censures as the attitude of that official involves may be dismissed with a very light sort of disdain. To represent Shaw as profane or provocatively indecent is not a matter for discussion at all; it is a disgusting criminal libel upon a particularly respectable gentleman of the middle classes, of refined tastes and somewhat Puritanical views. But while the negative defence of Shaw is easy, the just praise of him is almost as complex as it is necessary; and I shall devote the last few pages of this book to a triad corresponding to the last one—to the three important elements in which the work of Shaw has been good as well as great.
In the first place, and quite apart from all particular theories, the world owes thanks to Bernard Shaw for having combined being intelligent with being intelligible. He has popularised philosophy, or rather he has re-popularised it, for philosophy is always popular, except in peculiarly corrupt and oligarchic ages like our own. We have passed the age of the demagogue, the man who has little to say and says it loud. We have come to the age of the mystagogue or don, the man who has nothing to say, but says it softly and impressively in an indistinct whisper. After all, short words must mean something, even if they mean filth or lies; but long words may sometimes mean literally nothing, especially if they are used (as they mostly are in modern books and magazine articles) to balance and modify each other. A plain figure 4, scrawled in chalk anywhere, must always mean something; it must always mean 2 + 2. But the most enormous and mysterious algebraic equation, full of letters, brackets, and fractions, may all cancel out at last and be equal to nothing. When a demagogue says to a mob, “There is the Bank of England, why shouldn’t you have some of that money?” he says something which is at least as honest and intelligible as the figure 4. When a writer in the TIMES remarks, “We must raise the economic efficiency of the masses without diverting anything from those classes which represent the national prosperity and refinement,” then his equation cancels out; in a literal and logical sense his remark amounts to nothing.
There are two kinds of charlatans or people called quacks to-day. The power of the first is that he advertises—and cures. The power of the second is that though he is not learned enough to cure he is much too learned to advertise. The former give away their dignity with a pound of tea; the latter are paid a pound of tea merely for being dignified. I think them the worse quacks of the two. Shaw is certainly of the other sort. Dickens, another man who was great enough to be a demagogue (and greater than Shaw because more heartily a demagogue), puts for ever the true difference between the demagogue and the mystagogue in DR. MARIGOLD: “Except that we’re cheap-jacks and they’re dear-jacks, I don’t see any difference between us.” Bernard Shaw is a great cheap-jack, with plenty of patter and I dare say plenty of nonsense, but with this also (which is not wholly unimportant), with goods to sell. People accuse such a man of self-advertisement. But at least the cheap-jack does advertise his wares, whereas the don or dear-jack advertises nothing except himself. His very silence, nay his very sterility, are supposed to be marks of the richness of his erudition. He is too learned to teach, and sometimes too wise even to talk. St. Thomas Aquinas said: “In auctore auctoritas.” But there is more than one man at Oxford or Cambridge who is considered an authority because he has never been an author.
Against all this mystification both of silence and verbosity Shaw has been a splendid and smashing protest. He has stood up for the fact that philosophy is not the concern of those who pass through Divinity and Greats, but of those who pass through birth and death. Nearly all the most awful and abstruse statements can be put in words of one syllable, from “A child is born” to “A soul is damned.” If the ordinary man may not discuss existence, why should he be asked to conduct it? About concrete matters indeed one naturally appeals to an oligarchy or select class. For information about Lapland I go to an aristocracy of Laplanders; for the ways of rabbits to an aristocracy of naturalists or, preferably, an aristocracy of poachers. But only mankind itself can bear witness to the abstract first principles of mankind, and in matters of theory I would always consult the mob. Only the mass of men, for instance, have authority to say whether life is good. Whether life is good is an especially mystical and delicate question, and, like all such questions, is asked in words of one syllable. It is also answered in words of one syllable, and Bernard Shaw (as also mankind) answers “yes.”
This plain, pugnacious style of Shaw has greatly clarified all controversies. He has slain the polysyllable, that huge and slimy centipede which has sprawled over all the valleys of England like the “loathly worm” who was slain by the ancient knight. He does not think that difficult questions will be made simpler by using difficult words about them. He has achieved the admirable work, never to be mentioned without gratitude, of discussing Evolution without mentioning it. The good work is of course more evident in the case of philosophy than any other region; because the case of philosophy was a crying one. It was really preposterous that the things most carefully reserved for the study of two or three men should actually be the things common to all men. It was absurd that certain men should be experts on the special subject of everything. But he stood for much the same spirit and style in other matters; in economics, for example. There never has been a better popular economist; one more lucid, entertaining, consistent, and essentially exact. The very comicality of his examples makes them and their argument stick in the mind; as in the case I remember in which he said that the big shops had now to please everybody, and were not entirely dependent on the lady who sails in “to order four governesses and five grand pianos.” He is always preaching collectivism; yet he does not very often name it. He does not talk about collectivism, but about cash; of which the populace feel a much more definite need. He talks about cheese, boots, perambulators, and how people are really to live. For him economics really means housekeeping, as it does in Greek. His difference from the orthodox economists, like most of his differences, is very different from the attacks made by the main body of Socialists. The old Manchester economists are generally attacked for being too gross and material. Shaw really attacks them for not being gross or material enough. He thinks that they hide themselves behind long words, remote hypotheses or unreal generalisations. When the orthodox economist begins with his correct and primary formula, “Suppose there is a Man on an Island—” Shaw is apt to interrupt him sharply, saying, “There is a Man in the Street.”
The second phase of the man’s really fruitful efficacy is in a sense the converse of this. He has improved philosophic discussions by making them more popular. But he has also improved popular amusements by making them more philosophic. And by more philosophic I do not mean duller, but funnier; that is more varied. All real fun is in cosmic contrasts, which involve a view of the cosmos. But I know that this second strength in Shaw is really difficult to state and must be approached by explanations and even by eliminations. Let me say at once that I think nothing of Shaw or anybody else merely for playing the daring sceptic. I do not think he has done any good or even achieved any effect simply by asking startling questions. It is possible that there have been ages so sluggish or automatic that anything that woke them up at all was a good thing. It is sufficient to be certain that ours is not such an age. We do not need waking up; rather we suffer from insomnia, with all its results of fear and exaggeration and frightful waking dreams. The modern mind is not a donkey which wants kicking to make it go on. The modern mind is more like a motor-car on a lonely road which two amateur motorists have been just clever enough to take to pieces, but are not quite clever enough to put together again. Under these circumstances kicking the car has never been found by the best experts to be effective. No one, therefore, does any good to our age merely by asking questions—unless he can answer the questions. Asking questions is already the fashionable and aristocratic sport which has brought most of us into the bankruptcy court. The note of our age is a note of interrogation. And the final point is so plain; no sceptical philosopher can ask any questions that may not equally be asked by a tired child on a hot afternoon. “Am I a boy?—Why am I a boy?—Why aren’t I a chair?—What is a chair?” A child will sometimes ask questions of this sort for two hours. And the philosophers of Protestant Europe have asked them for two hundred years.
If that were all that I meant by Shaw making men more philosophic, I should put it not among his good influences but his bad. He did do that to some extent; and so far he is bad. But there is a much bigger and better sense in which he has been a philosopher. He has brought back into English drama all the streams of fact or tendency which are commonly called undramatic. They were there in Shakespeare’s time; but they have scarcely been there since until Shaw. I mean that Shakespeare, being interested in everything, put everything into a play. If he had lately been thinking about the irony and even contradiction confronting us in self-preservation and suicide, he put it all into HAMLET. If he was annoyed by some passing boom in theatrical babies he put that into HAMLET too. He would put anything into HAMLET which he really thought was true, from his favourite nursery ballads to his personal (and perhaps unfashionable) conviction of the Catholic purgatory. There is no fact that strikes one, I think, about Shakespeare, except the fact of how dramatic he could be, so much as the fact of how undramatic he could be.
In this great sense Shaw has brought philosophy back into drama— philosophy in the sense of a certain freedom of the mind. This is not a freedom to think what one likes (which is absurd, for one can only think what one thinks); it is a freedom to think about what one likes, which is quite a different thing and the spring of all thought. Shakespeare (in a weak moment, I think) said that all the world is a stage. But Shakespeare acted on the much finer principle that a stage is all the world. So there are in all Bernard Shaw’s plays patches of what people would call essentially undramatic stuff, which the dramatist puts in because he is honest and would rather prove his case than succeed with his play. Shaw has brought back into English drama that Shakespearian universality which, if you like, you can call Shakespearian irrelevance. Perhaps a better definition than either is a habit of thinking the truth worth telling even when you meet it by accident. In Shaw’s plays one meets an incredible number of truths by accident.
To be up to date is a paltry ambition except in an almanac, and Shaw has sometimes talked this almanac philosophy. Nevertheless there is a real sense in which the phrase may be wisely used, and that is in cases where some stereotyped version of what is happening hides what is really happening from our eyes. Thus, for instance, newspapers are never up to date. The men who write leading articles are always behind the times, because they are in a hurry. They are forced to fall back on their old-fashioned view of things; they have no time to fashion a new one. Everything that is done in a hurry is certain to be antiquated; that is why modern industrial civilisation bears so curious a resemblance to barbarism. Thus when newspapers say that the TIMES is a solemn old Tory paper, they are out of date; their talk is behind the talk in Fleet Street. Thus when newspapers say that Christian dogmas are crumbling, they are out of date; their talk is behind the talk in public-houses. Now in this sense Shaw has kept in a really stirring sense up to date. He has introduced into the theatre the things that no one else had introduced into a theatre—the things in the street outside. The theatre is a sort of thing which proudly sends a hansom-cab across the stage as Realism, while everybody outside is whistling for motor-cabs.
Consider in this respect how many and fine have been Shaw’s intrusions into the theatre with the things that were really going on. Daily papers and daily matinees were still gravely explaining how much modern war depended on gunpowder. ARMS AND THE MAN explained how much modern war depends on chocolate. Every play and paper described the Vicar who was a mild Conservative. CANDIDA caught hold of the modern Vicar who is an advanced Socialist. Numberless magazine articles and society comedies describe the emancipated woman as new and wild. Only YOU NEVER CAN TELL was young enough to see that the emancipated woman is already old and respectable. Every comic paper has caricatured the uneducated upstart. Only the author of MAN AND SUPERMAN knew enough about the modern world to caricature the educated upstart—the man Straker who can quote Beaumarchais, though he cannot pronounce him. This is the second real and great work of Shaw—the letting in of the world on to the stage, as the rivers were let in upon the Augean Stable. He has let a little of the Haymarket into the Haymarket Theatre. He has permitted some whispers of the Strand to enter the Strand Theatre. A variety of solutions in philosophy is as silly as it is in arithmetic, but one may be justly proud of a variety of materials for a solution. After Shaw, one may say, there is nothing that cannot be introduced into a play if one can make it decent, amusing, and relevant. The state of a man’s health, the religion of his childhood, his ear for music, or his ignorance of cookery can all be made vivid if they have anything to do with the subject. A soldier may mention the commissariat as well as the cavalry; and, better still, a priest may mention theology as well as religion. That is being a philosopher; that is bringing the universe on the stage.
Lastly, he has obliterated the mere cynic. He has been so much more cynical than anyone else for the public good that no one has dared since to be really cynical for anything smaller. The Chinese crackers of the frivolous cynics fail to excite us after the dynamite of the serious and aspiring cynic. Bernard Shaw and I (who are growing grey together) can remember an epoch which many of his followers do not know: an epoch of real pessimism. The years from 1885 to 1898 were like the hours of afternoon in a rich house with large rooms; the hours before tea-time. They believed in nothing except good manners; and the essence of good manners is to conceal a yawn. A yawn may be defined as a silent yell. The power which the young pessimist of that time showed in this direction would have astonished anyone but him. He yawned so wide as to swallow the world. He swallowed the world like an unpleasant pill before retiring to an eternal rest. Now the last and best glory of Shaw is that in the circles where this creature was found, he is not. He has not been killed (I don’t know exactly why), but he has actually turned into a Shaw idealist. This is no exaggeration. I meet men who, when I knew them in 1898, were just a little too lazy to destroy the universe. They are now conscious of not being quite worthy to abolish some prison regulations. This destruction and conversion seem to me the mark of something actually great. It is always great to destroy a type without destroying a man. The followers of Shaw are optimists; some of them are so simple as even to use the word. They are sometimes rather pallid optimists, frequently very worried optimists, occasionally, to tell the truth, rather cross optimists: but they [are] not pessimists; they can exult though they cannot laugh. He has at least withered up among them the mere pose of impossibility. Like every great teacher, he has cursed the barren fig-tree. For nothing except that impossibility is really impossible.
I know it is all very strange. From the height of eight hundred years ago, or of eight hundred years hence, our age must look incredibly odd. We call the twelfth century ascetic. We call our own time hedonist and full of praise and pleasure. But in the ascetic age the love of life was evident and enormous, so that it had to be restrained. In an hedonist age pleasure has always sunk low, so that it has to be encouraged. How high the sea of human happiness rose in the Middle Ages, we now only know by the colossal walls that they built to keep it in bounds. How low human happiness sank in the twentieth century our children will only know by these extraordinary modern books, which tell people that it is a duty to be cheerful and that life is not so bad after all. Humanity never produces optimists till it has ceased to produce happy men. It is strange to be obliged to impose a holiday like a fast, and to drive men to a banquet with spears. But this shall be written of our time: that when the spirit who denies besieged the last citadel, blaspheming life itself, there were some, there was one especially, whose voice was heard and whose spear was never broken.
THE END
THE LATER PHASES*
- Specially written for this edition, 1935
SOMEBODY suggested that I should write a series with some such title as “Second Thoughts”; being a reconsideration of old controversies. Whether or no second thoughts are best, I fear they are not always brightest. It does not normally occur to us that the word “revision” contains the blazing word “vision.” And it may be that a vision does not come twice, even if it be only the first impression of a poor little literary gent upon the (sometimes) depressing topic of the literature of his time. But if second thoughts are not always the brightest, it may be maintained that they are generally the broadest. And in making these notes on the later phases of Mr. Bernard Shaw, I know the necessity of breadth; because I have argued with him nearly all my life; and the campaign has always depended on the tactic of outflanking or encirclement, which means being broader than your enemy.
The first joy of conflict is to congratulate Mr. Bernard Shaw on the fact that he is still emphatically not only alive, but kicking. In some cases, as in that of Capitalism, I think he is kicking what thoroughly deserves to be kicked. In other cases, as in that of Catholicism, I think he is kicking against the pricks; like another very controversial person on the road to Damascus. But at least it is delightful, after this stretch of years, to offer oneself to be kicked by one still capable of that all too neglected gesture.
In the same way, I have been asked to add a postscript to my long, argumentative and even abusive book about my friend Mr. Bernard Shaw. I recoiled from it at first with horror; because it seemed to involve two especially terrible conditions. The first was that I should read all Mr. Bernard Shaw’s later works. The second, and far more ghastly duty, was that I should read one of my own earlier works. I am not going to pretend that I have discharged either of these duties in detail. A liar must have a good memory, to remember what he has said; but a bigot, a fanatic, a man fixed in one dogmatic scheme of faith (like Bernard Shaw and myself) need not bother to remember what he has written. He knows that it was all true; because he has not altered his fundamental test of truth. Thus it will be found that politicians anxiously re-read their old speeches; but priests are buoyantly free from the burden of reading their old sermons. Mr. Shaw and I agree that agreement is more practical than appreciation. In other words, we agree that it is worth while to disagree. This is not what is meant by agreeing to differ; because it is agreeing to dispute.
Heaven knows how long ago it is that I wrote this rather crude and juvenile piece of controversy; which Mr. Bernard Shaw, in a typically handsome manner, described by saying, “This book is, as everyone expected it to be, the best critical study I have yet produced.” And the first fact to be hailed with a sort of abstract joy, by all who are interested in Life even if they do not trouble to call it a Life-Force, is the joyful energy and enthusiasm with which Bernard Shaw has taken that long stretch of time in his giant stride. He still achieves the noblest natural triumph of man; which is to find exuberance merely in existence. This is a victory which more than balances all that can be criticised on the merely theoretical side. Bernard Shaw is an old man who is still young; in an age when the young men are most of them very old. There is a real score for his negative eccentricities, when we can still see him making merry over cold water and cabbages, while men who might be his grandsons or great-grandsons are making themselves miserable over cocktails and champagne. In whatever sense we call him a sceptic, nobody could ever call him a pessimist; and he has lived to see a race of youths who are too pessimistic even to call themselves pessimists. That first fact alone must be affirmed to his great glory; whatever may be meant by being a Pacifist in the Great War, he has never been a Defeatist in the Holy War, which has been called the Battle of Life. Hope, hearty conviction, the fighting spirit— these are things not so abounding among the youth of our time, that we can fail to salute them in the chief literary veteran of the age.
The second great quality he always possessed, and has never lost, is this: and it is a paradox. He has largely defended what are called Modern Ideas; and yet he is not dull. The Modern Ideas in question are now nearly two hundred years old, when they are not merely as old as the world; and as they are expressed by everybody else, their dullness is devastating. Shaw has seldom allowed them to be dull; because he has cultivated a certain art or manÅ“uvre, which may be called the Surprise Attack. He does besiege the old castle, whether of conventions or convictions, but he never scales it on the same side as its other enemies. An excellent example of this was the play of St. Joan. What a wilderness of wearisome plays might have littered the world, on the ordinary anti-clerical theme as developed by the ordinary anti-clerical denouncing the clerics who condemn the popular and patriotic heroine. And what a wind of refreshment, scattering all such waste paper, to find one anti-clerical who is clever enough to base his case on defending the clerics, instead of denouncing the clerics. Then he can draw the deduction that clericalism at its best was bound to condemn a heroine; because a heroine was bound to be a heretic. The new argument is quite as fallacious as the old argument; but how bracing a relief to find such a prodigy as a Modernist who really has a new argument! For outside this charming perversity of G. B. S., the Modernists have made the modern world a desert of dusty monotony and dull repetition. Shaw still talks a great deal of nonsense, and some of it I fear serious nonsense; but always something that awakens us with bravado and does not merely send us to sleep with familiarity. Never will you hear that amiable Irish voice saying, with a hundred voices on the platform or over the wireless, “The modern mind has surely outgrown creeds and dogmas as it has outgrown cannibalism and the tyranny of the Stuarts; and institutions not suited to our modern conditions… .” You will never hear it intoning those ancient and almost pathetic words, “When we remember that our ancestors burned witches, that they tolerated negro slavery, until the genius of John Brown and Abraham Lincoln… .” If Bernard Shaw did say anything about the Stuarts or the witches or the negroes, at least it would not be something that ten million men had said before.
As I have lightly and even irresponsibly hinted, I have not the slightest intention of following my hero’s later career step by step, in the manner of a good and faithful biographer. I am much too interested in what he really means to bother myself about everything that he merely says. Even in my old book the biographical and chronological sequence is sufficiently vague; and I shall not in this appendix deal in detail with each of the works which appeared after the date when my book was published. Shaw has done a vast amount of fine work, and had a vast amount of fun, since that date; but none of it seems to me to negative my general view of him, except for those who would disagree with me on the earlier work as much as on the later. In a play like Getting Married he demonstrated that drama can be dramatic, by dialogue rather than action. But that is only another way of saying that public debates are popular. And as mobs of men will go to hear party leaders discussing unreal differences on a platform it is not so strange that they will go to hear a man of genius expressing real differences on the old popular stage. He proved his talent in the trick I have mentioned, that of the surprise attack, by making an attack on marriage come, not from a mere free lover, but from a celibate priest. But he also proved his ignorance of the creed held by the celibate priests. Fanny’s First Play had a certain freshness expressed in its title; but it was not Shaw’s first play nor his last; nor does it mark any very fundamental transition or turning point in his work. The two plays which do represent something real in this way are St. Joan and The Apple-Cart.
The Apple-Cart is important as showing how many million miles he is still ahead of the Progressives; how much more Modern he is than the Modernists. He has realised that the really Modern thing is Monarchy. It does not in the least follow that because it is the modern thing, it is the right thing. I never accepted Democracy merely because it was Modern; and I shall not accept Monarchy for any such unreasonable reason. It may not be very important to be up-to-date; but at least Bernard Shaw in his old age is up-to-date. He understands the political change and challenge of our time. He horrified all the other Socialists by expressing approval of the Fascists. Indeed his last political phase seems to be largely a general loathing of anarchy; and a disposition to accept whatever can reduce it to rational order, whether it be Fascism or Bolshevism. But in The Apple-Cart he brings out many truths that his merely progressive critics were too conventional to see. They missed the fact that the play is a tragedy rather than a comedy The King scores by playing the one piece he really has; which is the King. He hits popular government in its one really weak spot; that it is not popular. But it is a shallow view to suppose that he ends with the vulgarity of victory. He ends fighting against the stars and fates and forces of the modern world like any of the tragic heroes; sed victa Catoni. But Cato fought against Cæsar and this King fought against some thing queer and very different. Here again, Shaw is admirable in seizing a real modern fact. Critics supposed that the Prime Minister was meant merely for a clumsy buffoon with a bad temper. They did not realise that his bad temper was good policy. The King represented the old dignified diplomacy, which was unruffled. The Prime Minister represented the much more secret diplomacy which is ruffled whenever it finds it convenient to be ruffled. That is the point of modern politics; that we are deceived by frankness, and swindled in a heart-to-heart talk. Emotions disguise motives.
I have already mentioned St. Joan, which any atheist might have made a eulogy on the Saint, but only Shaw would have made a defence of the Inquisition. As to his pretence of finding a Protestant in Joan of Arc, I think it sufficient answer to ask him why he did not write about Joanna Southcott. The fact is that we do distinguish between Joan and Joanna; not by whether they used private judgment, but by whether they are judged by history and humanity to have been rightly related to a Last Judgment. If there is nothing external that can judge Joan or Joanna, why then Joanna is just as likely to be right as Joan. If our brightest Bolshie remembers Joan after five hundred years, and forgets Joanna after a hundred years, it is because there is something beyond private judgment; which is public judgment. It is the judgment of the world, if it is not the judgment of the Church. But, as a fact, in the case of St. Joan, the judgment of the Church put itself right centuries before the judgment of the world.
But I do not profess, as I have said, to be doing justice to these particular dramatic triumphs; though the two last mentioned certainly were dramatic triumphs. I am most concerned about works I have not yet mentioned; because I am interested in basic things like theology. And in practice every man is a theologian, even when he is not a theist. The great later work of Shaw is in Back to Methuselah; in which he says men must live three hundred years. And I say that if he did live three hundred years he would be a Catholic.
I see no reason to retract, or even revise, what may be called the basic thesis of this old piece of pre-war journalism; which was that whatever else Mr. Bernard Shaw is, he is an orphan. There is something in the image of that motherless child, his pale face turned pathetically to the moon amid the slow snow-flakes of a Victorian melodrama, which I know would appeal to him in a soothing manner. By this I do not mean to reflect at all on his actual origin in the Dublin middle class; which was highly respectable ; far, far too respectable. That is part of the point; that he was exiled from Ireland in the very act of being born in Ireland. It was precisely because he was born in the Ascendancy Party in Ireland that he was bound to join the Revolutionary Party in England. Where he was born, he was born to be a Unionist; he had to seek a strange land, a very strange land; in which he could be a Revolutionist without being a Nationalist. About the same time, I suppose, another middle-class Dublin man was born, and accepted his Imperial destiny and petered out under the name of “Northcliffe.” Bernard Shaw at least escaped the Calvinist predestination which has ended mostly in a sort of suburban Toryism. He escaped to England, the land of sportsmen, where even revolution has always been a sport. But the result was that he was not really born in either of the two countries. And I should now say more strongly, what I said much more stumblingly, in this old book of mine. He is so alive that we might fancy he would never die. But he still suffers, even down to his splendid old age, from the annoying omission of having never been born.
Never being born might be great fun, if we could really live in those bloodless extravagances, which Bernard Shaw meant to make attractive in Back to Methuselah, and a younger and more advanced writer obviously meant to make repulsive in Brave New World. But as things are in any known state, there is a fallacy in the universal notion of not being born any where. The lost child finds his limitations: only they are worse limitations. The child may forget the family; but the orphan remembers the orphanage. He is not free because he is lost; he is not a cherub surveying the world from the sky. He is either born in a house or in a workhouse; he is either born in a home or in a Home. So the Poor Exile of Erin (under which sentiment figure Mr. Shaw will instantly recognise himself) did in fact begin to accumulate first impressions; and many of them do in fact remain to the last. The trouble is that they were not old impressions of Ireland, but new impressions of England; or rather of the extraordinary gang of new international idealists, cranks and crooks from every country, who always found their favourite club in England. They also were uprooted people: in other words, the Communist Club was very like an orphanage. That, I still think, is the starting-point of Bernard Shaw; and the explanation of most things about him. He did not start from home, but from homelessness. By which I do not mean the homelessness of the poor, for the poor always remember the home they never had. If Mr. Shaw, instead of being the son of solid Protestant parents in the respectable quarter of Dublin, had been the son of peasants evicted from a cottage in Connaught, and sent tramping aimlessly across the whole world, he would have been the greatest of all champions of Domesticity and the Family.
Thus we can only sum up by a paradox or double statement. We may repeat that Bernard Shaw had no traditions; and yet it is traditions that have entangled him and entangle him still. Only they are not the traditions of merely old things. They are the traditions of those horrible old things, that were quite recently new. The lessons normally to be learnt at his mother’s knee he learnt at the knee of the Lady Anarchist, whom I have mentioned in the previous text. I mean seriously that the first things that counted with Bernard Shaw were negative and anarchic things; where for most men the first things at least are positive. We may lose those positive beliefs or affections, especially for a time, but we have had them and I do not believe that George Bernard Shaw ever had them. And the proof of it is that, being one of the most genial and generous men in the world, he still cannot understand them. That was the whole substance of my criticism of Shaw, even in this very crude early criticism; the things which Shaw did not, or apparently could not, understand.
Any Latin, or member of the living and permanent culture of Europe, would sum up all I say in one word; that Shaw has never had Piety. No one, I hope, will entertain the extraordinary idea that Piety means being pious; in the popular sense of religious. Piety is still practised by thousands of French and Italian atheists, and has been praised by great writers like Maurice Barres or even Clemenceau, who had no creed in particular or no creed at all. They had nothing except fathers and mothers. The cult of the land, the cult of the dead, the cult of that most living memory by which the dead are alive, the permanence of all that has made us, that is what the Latins meant by Pietas ; and that is what I meant by the thing from which an Irish Protestant of genius was so tragically cut off. Shaw had really a great deal of Religion in the sense of spirituality: he has Religion but no Piety.
He started with the Prejudices of Progress, so much more cramping than the prejudices of memory, because memory is mixed of a thousand things. The past is infinitely varied; and if we would not draw from one old inspiration, we can draw from another. But the Future is always atrociously simple. We can only predict along lines of mathematical fate; and there is there no liberty except in ignorance. Now, with all the sympathy I feel, I can never see Shaw except as trailing behind him the clanking fetters of certain traditions; which are everything except old. For instance, he cannot believe that a man can believe in a miracle. Why not? There has never been a philosophical answer to that question which really refers to any scheme of contemporary philosophy; and still less of contemporary science. If he really still believes in the Monism of the late Professor Haeckel, I would refer him to his friend Professor Einstein. The whole business of cause and effect, personality and impersonality, even reason and unreason, is all hung up just now, so far as scientific speculation goes, and very much in the old Scriptural sense in which He has hanged the world upon nothing.
We are solemnly reminded still that there are laws of nature, when there are no longer laws even of logic. A philosopher would believe in miracles long before be believed in mathematical contradictions. Only in Mr. Shaw’s youth there were no mathematical contradictions; but there were miracles to be contradicted. He therefore, like a good conservative, goes on contradicting them. The old notion that miracles are impossible was simply a part of the old notion that Materialism was inevitable; though it is no longer inevitable, and hardly even possible. But this sort of prejudice is not imposed on a man by any man older than himself. It is still imposed on him by a man younger than himself, by himself when he was young.
I should still justify, therefore, what I said about his being actually retarded by his revolutionary origins; and especially by having no other real origins. He still stands for all that an advanced young man was supposed to state in the ‘eighties and ‘nineties. And in these matters the advanced young man has not advanced. The other form of Piety, which we call Patriotism, still honestly bewilders him, though he has now seen about two-thirds of Europe reawaken, with much too wild an energy, to reassert the reality of that idea. In his youth, the world was supposed to have left behind all such drums and trumpets; the rising generation was supposed to have survived war like slavery (and equally untruly); yet it has gone beyond even drums and trumpets in that great scientific state which had so large a Socialist Party and has made so careful a study of Bernard Shaw. For all his Futurist generation, the test was the Future; and it is now the Present. In those old days he began by proclaiming Ibsen, and quoting the progressive proverb about the new generation knocking at the door. He hardly expected it to knock entirely with police-clubs and Prussian sabres.
The moral of all this is, I repeat, that he had a less direct vision of the Future for having no direct tradition of the Past. The lesson of Piety is the very simple one; that religion and romance and patriotism are not dead, or even dying; that they are not nonsense, and that nothing is nonsense except the notion that they will die. So far I should completely support the case I made in this book against Mr. Shaw’s depreciation of chivalry or the romantic tradition. There is a case for saying that romance will reappear in a damaging or dangerous form; there is no case at all for saying it will disappear. I mean that there is no case on the cold facts; which prove a perpetual rebirth of the hot fancies. Anybody of course is free to say that it ought to disappear; as I am free to say that the opposite heresy, the dull monomania of Marxism ought to disappear. I only say, as a fact, that the facts which do appear show the world going quite as wild in the romantic as in the realistic direction. This applies, curiously enough, even to many moral and domestic ideas Mr. Shaw would have called romantic. The Roman Matron of Mussolini, and even the German Woman (who does not smoke), is a daughter or granddaughter of Candida or Gloria. She is the real Rising Generation now knocking on the door— and demanding to be let into the Doll’s House.
I would never ask him to confess it, but I think it is true that he and his associates all assumed from the start that the world was sweeping forward on some great evolutionary or revolutionary curve to certain great simplifications, leaving behind already all that could really interrupt such a simplification; moving towards The International; Disarmament; Free Love; and in his case, as in many others, Prohibition and Vegetarianism. It is amusing by the way, that even in tracing this curve of Progress, they cut clean across the curve already made by the last and no less innocent innovators and friends of Progress. The age of Herbert Spencer demanded Free Trade and was horrified at Free Love; the age of Bernard Shaw demanded Free Love and vehemently vetoed Free Trade. Nor have I ever understood why laxity in sex should so often have been coupled with severity in diet. I do not see why a man should be restricted in the matter of his own liquor, and unrestricted in his loves which affected other people’s lives. But the point is that these notions or nostrums, however incongruous, were chained together; and Bernard Shaw, merely as a young Revolutionist, was chained to them; and he is still dragging the whole length of the chain. All these things were supposed to go together, or rather to come together, and they were to come together fairly soon.
In this sweeping social anticipation, there have been two great setbacks; which measure the history of Shaw since the period of which I wrote. One was the Great War, about which he uttered a great many of those splendid half-truths which are his speciality but largely gave a general impression of something that was simply not true. For instance, he said that British and German officers and aristocrats were all of the same sort. He ignored a fact, which all Europe and most of Germany had felt from the first; that the Junker is not merely an aristocrat; and not merely a soldier. He is a Prussian and a peculiar product of one place and time. If he meant that a British officer was as bad as a Prussian Officer, he had a right to his opinion and might in many cases be right. If he meant that a British officer was like a Prussian officer he was quite wrong. There was the same falsifying half-truth in his pose as the practical man, calling a scrap of paper a scrap of paper. In fact, to scrap every scrap of paper, in the way of contract or treaty, would be about the most unpractical action in the world.
But it was from the first the boast of Shaw to be an Opportunist; it was also his boast to be always inopportune. It was his sincere ambition to show that he was the only sensible man in the world; and he has very nobly and heroically earned, through that ambition, the reputation of being out of his senses. It may be worth while to say a word here upon this point of Opportunism, because it was the philosophy with which he actually started, and I noted it in my book in connection with one of his earliest books. With characteristic shyness and modesty, he called it Ibsenism. He also wrote a similar book called The Perfect Wagnerite, but I am sure it really described The Perfect Shavian. But it is a much more interesting point that he began with Opportunism, even while he was moving faster and faster towards Socialism; and it never seems to have struck him that Opportunism is a very extreme form of Individualism. It was the whole point of his Ibsenism that Ibsen could solve any private problem without reference to public or general ideals. A man must do what is best in the particular case; in the private problem. If so, there seems no mortal reason why he should not apply private property to the private problem. He must not bother about conforming to any general ideal. If so, there seems no reason why he should bother about conforming to the Socialist ideal. The fact is that men like Mr. Shaw, by abandoning an internal ideal, were driven to cling to a mere external rule; in the very definite sense of a rule ruling the State. He cast out contemptuously in his youth the idea of an ideal, in the sense of a conscience working from within; and has nothing left except compulsion working from without. That is how he became a State Socialist. As I have remarked elsewhere, he started by saying there is no Golden Rule, and ends by asserting that there must be an Iron Rule.
Here, however, apart from this parenthesis, we follow only a very interesting political career. In the great matter of the War, Shaw was upon one point absolutely and admirably right. He was wrong, as I think, in lumping England along with Prussia, or pretending that the English popular indignation was all hypocrisy; but he was right in one calculation about the English character. He was right in supposing that the popular anger would pass. For the English are a moody and a fickle people; contrasted in that with the Irish, who carry constancy to the point of a mortal sin; the sin of mere hatred. In a few years, all the tales told against the Germans had gone to join the tales told against the Russians in the Crimean War or the French in the Napoleonic War. A strong Pacifist reaction set in; and Shaw had all the benefit of the reaction. Shaw and Wells, in a sense, both treated the thing as The War That Would End War; but Wells because it was right and Shaw because it was wrong. That (I may remark in passing) happens to be an excellent proof of what I say about Shaw being without roots or origin. Wells in many ways is more Pacifist than Shaw; but Wells is English. He is not the son of a cricketer for nothing, nor a man without subconscious loyalties, such as are upheaved by an earthquake like 1914. Therefore he was a practical patriot even in being a theoretical pacifist; and Mr. Britling did make some attempts to see it through. Mr. Shaw was quite content with believing that he could see through it.
Anyhow, nearly everybody was a Pacifist soon after the War. We must forgive our enemies. We must forgive practically everybody except our friends—and especially our Allies. After all, it was just as easy to impute militarism to Frenchmen as to Germans, or to Eskimos for that matter; and it could be quaintly pretended that all French soldiers are black. Well, it seems almost cruel to insist on the sequel. Just when the World was really moving towards the World State, just when everybody agreed that Bernard Shaw had been right in denouncing that war or any war, just when the notion that Prussia is not England and that Junkers were really dangerous was completely covered with the contempt that it deserved— there suddenly appeared the great Second Setback to the huge humanitarian reunion, which would show that everybody was like everybody else, only more so. I remembered, with a melancholy smile, how Mr. Bernard Shaw had endeavoured to prove to my brother that Prussia did not really exist in history; that Frederick the Great and Louis the Fourteenth were very much alike, especially Louis the Fourteenth. And then came the shock that has changed all the politics of the West. Steel Helmets and Storm Troops swept a whole vast civilisation like a storm. The world resounded with the wildest praises of War as War such as have not been heard since barbarous times, if then. And where did this happen? Did it break out in the negro population of Paris ? Was it a feature of the ruthless militarism of Belgium, or of Britain and America and the other Allies? No, the second setback occurred exactly where my brother and I and all our group had always said that such things would occur: in the Prussianised countries that are an alien thing in Christendom. It happened in Germany, in spite of the widespread influence of Mr. Bernard Shaw’s plays.
In short, in that great difference between Mr. Shaw and myself, which grew out of the Great War and developed after my book was written, I never felt any real doubt that I was right and he was wrong; and I feel even less doubt about it now. But I hope I always recognised that he was conspicuously courageous and splendidly sincere; and I often wished that I were in the minority with him, as, during the Boer War, he might well have wished to be in the minority with me. For there is no doubt that he likes being in a minority; and prefers, if possible, to be in a minority of one. I make no apology for having put first this matter of political philosophy and foreign policy. It is the great historical event on which many things will turn; possibly including the merely artistic, ethical and spiritual things, which I will now consider.
There have always been many who said that Shaw could not be taken seriously; that he was too frivolous; but my own instinct has always been that he was too serious. There is nothing Rabelaisian about his laughter; and even in being immoral, he would never be indecent. There is a certain Puritanism even in what many would call his lapses, theoretical or practical, into the philosophy of Nudism. He has given practical provocative expression to a vague but very widespread modern notion that nothing ought to be hidden; whether in the form of being photographed like an artist’s model, or of publishing the love letters of an actress with whom the whole world was in love. These are acts of bad taste; but not of inconsistency and certainly not merely of levity. They are all part of the theory; and a very thin and insufficient theory it is. The Nudist feels the obligation of Nudism rather more earnestly than the normal man feels the obligation of wearing clothes. That is why I never could feel that Shaw’s lapses in this manner were immoralities invalidating respect or friendship. But it is only right to say that his intellectual consistency was a good deal puffed up by vanity. It must be admitted that much of Shaw might be rewritten as Show; in the sense of showing off. The character would not be complete without this almost childish weakness; but again, it has a touch of a childish innocence. There is nothing vicious about Shaw, even when he happens to hold vicious theories about virtue. But I will here pass from the question of his morality to the more important question of his religion.
Shaw’s general creed, or view of the cosmos, he calls Creative Evolution; and it is first necessary to note the genuine value and controversial courage of this distinction. Primarily, he means to distinguish Creative Evolution from Darwinism; which may be called blind or blundering evolution. In the technical terms of the cheap encyclopædia, Shaw upholds Lamarck against Darwin. It is better to say (freeing ourselves for a moment from the modern scientific passion for invoking authority, or the mere names of authorities) that Shaw conceives of will as being an almost divinely directing power in evolution; even if it be not only the divine will, but the human will, or the animal or even vegetable will: some effort resembling will in the worm or even the weed. In this sense he is fully justified in calling his evolution creative; in a sense it would be creative even without a creator. He is also fully justified in calling it a flat contradiction of the involuntary and undetermined evolution of Darwin. For what is now called Determinism means the absence of determination. It does quite coldly and seriously mean that no god, angel, animal or vegetable ever determined to do anything. Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection is confessedly a chapter of accidents. The trouble is that, like something in the novels of his fellow-Victorians, it is also a chapter of coincidences. The hero happening to meet the heroine for the first time at the one moment when he can rescue her from robbers— the mother happening to speak to the one ragged tramp who turns out to be her son and the long-lost heir—these are quite moderate and probable coincidences compared with the coincidence which Darwin demands at every step of his argument; that animals should grow organs which are useful at the moment, while at the same moment they grow organs that will be useful centuries hence; that one accidental oddity should give a creature a complete triumph, when all its other oddities or ordinary qualities are just as likely as not to whelm it in defeat— these are coincidences fitted, not so much for the Victorian novel as for the Victorian melodrama. These facts are being more and more widely recognised in Europe; and the official defence of Darwinism is wearing very thin even in England. It had its most conspicuous collapse in the astonishing incident of the encounter between Sir Arthur Keith and Mr. Belloc. If our public opinion were enlightened about the latest scientific news, that encounter would be recognised as a decisive battle. Mr. Wells had suggested that there was no scientific reaction against Darwin. Mr. Belloc gave him more than a score of scientific names and quotations to the contrary; including one from Vialleton. Mr. Wells seemed to be sufficiently soothed by finding that the printer had misspelt the name of Vialleton on one particular page. He was easily pleased. Sir Arthur Keith did make some attempt to deal with the matter in dispute; and his contribution was a flat contradiction; he said that Vialleton had never said anything of the sort. It was then discovered, to the wonder of the world, that Mr. Belloc, that obscure amateur, was talking about the last and most important book by Vialleton, of which Sir Arthur Keith, that supreme specialist, had never even heard. Our specialists are very fortunate. Reputations are ruined for ever by that sort of thing, when it happens on the Continent.
This business about Creative Evolution, noted in my book under the name and topic of Man and Superman, has since taken a much longer stride in the work called Back to Methuselah. It is a very long stride indeed, for the play lasts for two or three nights, as if to prepare its audience for the practice of living for two or three hundred years. Some have questioned whether so large a slice, however, should be claimed by Mr. Shaw out of our present practical life of three-score years and ten. The play contains some excellent dialogue, as do all the other plays; but it is very unequal, and, what is worse, ultimately unequal to its task. For, with numberless passages of wit, and some passages of eloquence, Bernard Shaw does fail to do either of the two things he is supposed to do. He fails to explain why this unaccountably and ever lastingly unfolding universe, this nothing changing into everything for no reason in particular—he does fail to show why this changing world should be, or should be supposed to be, always changing for the better. And he does most definitely fail to make us feel that it is changing for the better. He may like the notion of a world governed by ghostly Tertiaries, of bloodless Struldbugs who kill people for purely sociological considerations; but as a prospect of improvement for the normally complete human being, there is not much to choose between the Paradise of Shaw and the Inferno of Swift. There is nothing at all to choose between the Paradise of Shaw and the Inferno of Aldous Huxley. But Aldous Huxley is a younger man and therefore not so progressive and revolutionary. As Mr. Arnold Lunn has truly remarked, “Progress is dead; and Brave New World is its epitaph.”
But there is a deeper difficulty than any difference of taste about the chilly charms of an Earthly Paradise apparently situated at the North Pole. It is involved in this whole idea of endless evolutionary change, and it can perhaps best be considered under the particular myth or symbol of the Superman. An intimate disciple of Shaw said to me at the time of the earlier play, “Nietzsche is at least right in one sentence: Man is a thing that has to be surpassed.’ ” I replied, ” In one sense the remark is most Christian and orthodox; but unless you have a permanent standard of good, how do you know when he has been surpassed?” The disciple had apparently never thought of this. Or, to put it shortly, suppose six Supermen appear at once and stand in a row, all quite different and departing from the human type in quite contrary directions. Suppose one is a giant, braver but more brutal than men; another a Hindu saint, milder but more ascetic than men ; another a great poet of pleasure, more joyous but more selfish than men ; and so on through any number of quite contrary examples of superior beings beyond the easy imitation of man. How does the Evolutionist know which of these superior beings is superior to the other superior being? How can he possibly know unless he already has a fixed and unalterable ideal of a superior being; and if he has, then the whole metaphysic of mutability falls to pieces. There is something from the beginning which survives all changes to the end; and it is not enough that there is always a beyond, for beyond it there is no beyond.
Finally, there is a fundamental connection between these stark imaginations of strange births and radiant monsters taking the place of men, and those first fads which remain as mere provincial prejudices; even fads as farcical as that of teetotalism. They are connected by a cosmic conception, perhaps so large as to be almost unconscious, which separates men like Mr. Shaw from the older Christian tradition; against which they think they have rebelled, but of which they have never really thought, and indeed, never really heard. Perhaps the shortest way of stating it is this. The older Christian theology stands out against any such newer theory, and indeed against most other religions, in this definite and defiant feature: that it is the one and only philosophy that has refused to despair of Man.
Now Mr. Shaw’s evolutionism, and nearly everybody else’s, is absolutely rooted in a despair about Man. That is what is picturesquely symbolised by a rather vague and evasive enthusiasm about the Superman. What is really meant by the consolation of the beyond, and the expectation of a superior organism? It is simply that the actual animal called Man is to be treated almost as an extinct animal. He is a fossil walking the streets; he is himself a sort of appendix of the cosmos; a superfluous organ. He is one of those remarkable things in evolution which only survive to prove that they have no survival value. “Man is a thing that has to be surpassed.” Now it follows from this view of the cosmic disease as a sort of astral appendicitis, that the process of improvement must be that particular sort of simplification to which we give the name of Amputation. Things that have always been a part of the human being may be, for all anybody knows, obstacles to the formation of the new and name less and simplified superhuman being. Certainly a man is not a complete man without a nose; but, for anything anybody knows about supermen, they may be better without noses. Noses may be nests for germs; or the noise of the blowing of noses may disturb the delicate nervous organism of that Strong Man of the future, who is to be the master of us all, it will be remembered that Aunt Jobiska, in the rhymes of the learned Mr. Lear, took this view and reasoned in this fashion, saying that “everyone knows that a Pobble is better with out his toes.” Aunt Jobiska is a model evolutionist of this school of thought. It consists in first inventing an unknown figure, about which nobody can even imagine anything, such as a Pobble or a Superman, and then saying arbitrarily that he will not need something which everybody we know of needs very much indeed.
Thus, in the Shavian atmosphere, the philosopher is not trying to get rid of the troubles of men, he is trying to get rid of men because they are the troubles of the philosopher. It is due to Mr. Shaw’s unmatched directness and controversial courage, to say that he very early accepted this reversal of the normal order of means and ends. He most emphatically does not think that the Sabbath was made for Man. He most emphatically does think that Man was made for the Sabbath. And Man having now irrevocably broken the Sabbath, the Superman must create some other sort of Sabbath, even if it be to our eyes as wild as a Witch’s Sabbath. I mean that he did begin very early to say boldly that if the Communist hat would not fit the human head, we must cut off the head and carefully preserve the hat. He did and does hold that if men must really have beef and beer, then we must all set to work to breed a race of gigantic chameleons that can live on light and air. The growth of these dragons is the chief theme of Back to Methuselah. But Mr. Shaw did really take this queer view long before he went back to Methuselah. Where all normal socialists professed fraternity with the working classes, he wrote, “I have never had any feeling about the working-classes except a desire to abolish them, and replace them by sensible people.” It is needless to explain that sensible people are always people who prefer water to wine, cabbages to cutlets, materialism to miracles, and utter subjection to a centralised government to any traditions of human liberty.
Now against all this, as its chief enemy, though he may not know it, stands the old Catholic philosophy of Man. The first and last idea of it is Resurrection, that is the resurrection of the whole of man. It is, as I have said before, a mystical refusal to despair of the original prehistoric monster of that name. It is true that the older creed often demands amputation in the sense of asceticism, as in the text about cutting off the hand to enter Heaven. But the difference is instantly made vivid by the rest of the text, which declares that even such amputation is better than casting the whole body of man into Hell. But the Shavian evolutionist does really want to cast the whole body of man into Chaos. He wants to cast it into the melting-pot, and boil it to nothing, that a new and superior something may at last emerge. This is indeed much more than amputation, it is annihilation. At least it is so for those who still see a sanctity in Man as a potentially complete creature, even if we commonly see him as incomplete. I have concluded upon this point, because it is the crux of the controversy, in what I cannot pretend to be anything but a long series of controversies. Only I understand the crux better than when I began to controvert about it, ave crux, spes unica. We do not believe that man is a mass of mistakes that have to be shed until he has lost everything but shame in the very memory of his manhood. We think they are lower forms and fallen applications of his true powers and instincts, damaged by one great mystical mistake. We do not believe that all property is wrong, though we agree that much money-getting and all money-grabbing is wrong, because we believe that the primary human sense of individual and independent possession is perfectly right. We do not admit that all punishment is wrong, though we warmly agree that all tyranny and mere vindictiveness is wrong, because these are only low and morbid forms of something that is right, whether it be just expiation or even just indignation. We do not admit that all vows of constancy are wrong, though we fully admit that they may be treated wrongly, because we think that even the tragic tradition of them is the remains of the truth concerning a complete and triumphant human love. So the same clue runs through a hundred questions down to trivial questions like the mere forms of festivity or the mere externals of civilised habit. We do not want all fermented liquor abolished because some men are too drunken, any more than we want all clothes abolished because some women are too dressy. For we believe that all that is historic in humanity has its higher forms and its lower forms , and we refuse to prohibit the higher because we happen at some particular place or time to suffer from the lower. But this other school that calls itself Progressive is always Prohibitionist. Marriage must vanish for ever; property must vanish for everybody. The Prohibitionists hoped to produce a younger generation that had never tasted anything but water; the Nudists a generation that had never known any embarrassment in nakedness. For these thinkers there is never anything between abnormality and negation, between abomination and abolition. And it is in vain that we point out that the normal is not only possible but visible, and holds the centre of the stage; that in the central civilisations of the world the abnormalities and abominations have in fact been largely avoided. They are blind to the fact, staring them in the face, that the wine-drinking countries drink very little wine: that the beer-drinking countries drink a remarkably mild beer. For in their hearts they do not believe it is a question of turning human life from abuse to use; it is a question of finding a new use for human life; or rather making it useful to a life that is not human. They are not quite such lunatics as they look, or rather their lunacy is of a larger and more hopeful sort. They do not only want to cut off a man’s legs to cure him of lameness. They really believe that with the loss of his legs he will immediately grow wings—or possibly wheels. This is the great faith which stands facing the ancient faith in the Resurrection of Man, and this sketch is but a small skirmish in the great campaign between those two creeds.
We hear very much in these days of the true essence of true Christianity, and not only, though perhaps most often, from those who are not Christians. But if we really wish to know about it, there was something which is always essential to Christianity, and for a long time was even common to all forms of Christianity. If we will condescend to cast an eye backwards upon those words which are certainly old, and which many rather antiquated sceptics suppose to be antiquated— if we will look at the actual words Redemption and Resurrection and Salvation and the Image of God, we shall see in them quite simply staring us in the face, all that I have said here. It was religion that refused to despair of Man; it is scientific progress and evolution that are already despairing of him. And it is not the Superman but very truly and actually the Son of Man, Who comes in clouds of glory to judge the world.
THE END
Introduction to the First Edition
MOST people either say that they agree with Bernard Shaw or that they do not understand him. I am the only person who understands him, and I do not agree with him.
G. K. C.
Introduzione alla prima edizione
QUASI tutti dicono di essere d’accordo con Bernard Shaw oppure di non capirlo. Io sono l’unica persona che lo capisce, e non sono d’accordo con lui.
G. K. C.
The Problem of a Preface
A PECULIAR difficulty arrests the writer of this rough study at the very start. Many people know Mr. Bernard Shaw chiefly as a man who would write a very long preface even to a very short play. And there is truth in the idea; he is indeed a very prefatory sort of person. He always gives the explanation before the incident; but so, for the matter of that, does the Gospel of St. John. For Bernard Shaw, as for the mystics, Christian and heathen (and Shaw is best described as a heathen mystic), the philosophy of facts is anterior to the facts themselves. In due time we come to the fact, the incarnation; but in the beginning was the Word.
This produces upon many minds an impression of needless preparation and a kind of bustling prolixity. But the truth is that the very rapidity of such a man’s mind makes him seem slow in getting to the point. It is positively because he is quick-witted that he is long-winded. A quick eye for ideas may actually make a writer slow in reaching his goal, just as a quick eye for landscapes might make a motorist slow in reaching Brighton. An original man has to pause at every allusion or simile to re-explain historical parallels, to re-shape distorted words. Any ordinary leader-writer (let us say) might write swiftly and smoothly something like this: “The element of religion in the Puritan rebellion, if hostile to art, yet saved the movement from some of the evils in which the French Revolution involved morality.” Now a man like Mr. Shaw, who has his own views on everything, would be forced to make the sentence long and broken instead of swift and smooth. He would say something like: “The element of religion, as I explain religion, in the Puritan rebellion (which you wholly misunderstand) if hostile to art—that is what I mean by art— may have saved it from some evils (remember my definition of evil) in which the French Revolution—of which I have my own opinion— involved morality, which I will define for you in a minute.” That is the worst of being a really universal sceptic and philosopher; it is such slow work. The very forest of the man’s thoughts chokes up his thoroughfare. A man must be orthodox upon most things, or he will never even have time to preach his own heresy.
Now the same difficulty which affects the work of Bernard Shaw affects also any book about him. There is an unavoidable artistic necessity to put the preface before the play; that is, there is a necessity to say something of what Bernard Shaw’s experience means before one even says what it was. We have to mention what he did when we have already explained why he did it. Viewed superficially, his life consists of fairly conventional incidents, and might easily fall under fairly conventional phrases. It might be the life of any Dublin clerk or Manchester Socialist or London author. If I touch on the man’s life before his work, it will seem trivial; yet taken with his work it is most important. In short, one could scarcely know what Shaw’s doings meant unless one knew what he meant by them. This difficulty in mere order and construction has puzzled me very much. I am going to overcome it, clumsily perhaps, but in the way which affects me as most sincere. Before I write even a slight suggestion of his relation to the stage, I am going to write of three soils or atmospheres out of which that relation grew. In other words, before I write of Shaw I will write of the three great influences upon Shaw. They were all three there before he was born, yet each one of them is himself and a very vivid portrait of him from one point of view. I have called these three traditions: “The Irishman,” “The Puritan,” and “The Progressive.” I do not see how this prefatory theorising is to be avoided; for if I simply said, for instance, that Bernard Shaw was an Irishman, the impression produced on the reader might be remote from my thought and, what is more important, from Shaw’s. People might think, for instance, that I meant that he was “irresponsible.” That would throw out the whole plan of these pages, for if there is one thing that Shaw is not, it is irresponsible. The responsibility in him rings like steel. Or, again, if I simply called him a Puritan, it might mean something about nude statues or “prudes on the prowl.” Or if I called him a Progressive, it might be supposed to mean that he votes for Progressives at the County Council election, which I very much doubt. I have no other course but this: of briefly explaining such matters as Shaw himself might explain them. Some fastidious persons may object to my thus putting the moral in front of the fable. Some may imagine in their innocence that they already understand the word Puritan or the yet more mysterious word Irishman. The only person, indeed, of whose approval I feel fairly certain is Mr. Bernard Shaw himself, the man of many introductions.
Il Problema di una Prefazione
Una PECULIARE difficoltà arresta l’autore di questo rozzo studio fin dall’inizio. Molti conoscono il signor Bernard Shaw principalmente come un uomo capace di scrivere una prefazione molto lunga anche a un dramma molto breve. E vi è verità in questa idea; egli è in effetti un tipo d’uomo assai prefatorio. Egli dà sempre la spiegazione prima del fatto; ma così, del resto, fa anche il Vangelo di San Giovanni. Per Bernard Shaw, come per i mistici, cristiani e pagani (e Shaw si descrive al meglio come un mistico pagano), la filosofia dei fatti è anteriore ai fatti stessi. A tempo debito giungiamo al fatto, all’incarnazione; ma in principio era il Verbo.
Ciò produce in molte menti un’impressione di preparazione superflua e una sorta di affaccendata prolissità. Ma la verità è che la rapidità stessa della mente di un tal uomo lo fa sembrare lento nell’arrivare al punto. È proprio perché è pronto d’ingegno che è prolisso. Un occhio pronto per le idee può in realtà rendere uno scrittore lento a raggiungere la sua meta, proprio come un occhio pronto per i paesaggi potrebbe rendere un automobilista lento a raggiungere Brighton. Un uomo originale deve fermarsi a ogni allusione o similitudine per rispiegare i paralleli storici, per rimodellare le parole distorte. Un qualsiasi ordinario editorialista (diciamo) potrebbe scrivere rapidamente e scorrevolmente qualcosa del genere: «L’elemento di religione nella ribellione puritana, se pur ostile all’arte, salvò tuttavia il movimento da alcuni dei mali in cui la Rivoluzione Francese coinvolse la morale». Ora un uomo come il signor Shaw, che ha le proprie opinioni su ogni cosa, sarebbe costretto a rendere la frase lunga e spezzata anziché rapida e scorrevole. Egli direbbe qualcosa del genere: «L’elemento di religione, come io spiego la religione, nella ribellione puritana (che voi fraintendete del tutto) se pur ostile all’arte—è questo che io intendo per arte—può averla salvata da alcuni mali (ricordate la mia definizione di male) in cui la Rivoluzione Francese—sulla quale ho una mia propria opinione—coinvolse la morale, che vi definirò tra un minuto». Questo è il peggio dell’essere uno scettico e filosofo davvero universale; è un lavoro così lento. La foresta stessa dei pensieri dell’uomo ne ostruisce il passaggio. Un uomo deve essere ortodosso sulla maggior parte delle cose, altrimenti non avrà mai nemmeno il tempo di predicare la propria eresia.
Ora la stessa difficoltà che affligge l’opera di Bernard Shaw affligge anche qualsiasi libro su di lui. Vi è un’inevitabile necessità artistica di mettere la prefazione prima del dramma; vale a dire, vi è la necessità di dire qualcosa di ciò che significa l’esperienza di Bernard Shaw prima ancora di dire che cosa essa fu. Dobbiamo menzionare ciò che egli fece quando abbiamo già spiegato perché lo fece. Vista superficialmente, la sua vita consiste di episodi abbastanza convenzionali, e potrebbe facilmente rientrare in frasi abbastanza convenzionali. Potrebbe essere la vita di un qualsiasi impiegato di Dublino o socialista di Manchester o autore di Londra. Se accenno alla vita dell’uomo prima della sua opera, parrà banale; eppure presa insieme alla sua opera è importantissima. In breve, si potrebbe a stento sapere che cosa significassero le azioni di Shaw a meno di non sapere che cosa egli intendesse con esse. Questa difficoltà di mero ordine e costruzione mi ha molto disorientato. Sto per superarla, goffamente forse, ma nel modo che mi si presenta come il più sincero. Prima di scrivere anche un lieve accenno alla sua relazione con il palcoscenico, scriverò di tre terreni o atmosfere da cui quella relazione crebbe. In altre parole, prima di scrivere di Shaw scriverò delle tre grandi influenze su Shaw. Tutte e tre erano lì prima che egli nascesse, eppure ciascuna di esse è lui stesso e un ritratto assai vivido di lui da un punto di vista. Ho chiamato queste tre tradizioni: «L’Irlandese», «Il Puritano» e «Il Progressista». Non vedo come questo teorizzare prefatorio possa essere evitato; poiché se dicessi semplicemente, per esempio, che Bernard Shaw era un irlandese, l’impressione prodotta sul lettore potrebbe essere remota dal mio pensiero e, ciò che più importa, da quello di Shaw. La gente potrebbe pensare, per esempio, che io intendessi che egli era «irresponsabile». Ciò scombinerebbe l’intero disegno di queste pagine, poiché se c’è una cosa che Shaw non è, è irresponsabile. La responsabilità in lui risuona come acciaio. Oppure, di nuovo, se lo chiamassi semplicemente un puritano, potrebbe significare qualcosa a proposito di statue nude o di «bacchettoni a caccia di scandali». Oppure se lo chiamassi un Progressista, si potrebbe supporre che significhi che egli vota per i Progressisti alle elezioni del Consiglio di Contea, cosa di cui dubito fortemente. Non ho altra via che questa: spiegare brevemente tali questioni come Shaw stesso potrebbe spiegarle. Alcune persone schizzinose possono obiettare al mio mettere così la morale davanti alla favola. Alcuni possono immaginare nella loro innocenza di comprendere già la parola Puritano o la ancor più misteriosa parola Irlandese. L’unica persona, in verità, della cui approvazione mi sento abbastanza certo è il signor Bernard Shaw stesso, l’uomo dalle molte introduzioni.
The Irishman
THE English public has commonly professed, with a kind of pride, that it cannot understand Mr. Bernard Shaw. There are many reasons for it which ought to be adequately considered in such a book as this. But the first and most obvious reason is the mere statement that George Bernard Shaw was born in Dublin in 1856. At least one reason why Englishmen cannot understand Mr. Shaw is that Englishmen have never taken the trouble to understand Irishmen. They will sometimes be generous to Ireland; but never just to Ireland. They will speak to Ireland; they will speak for Ireland; but they will not hear Ireland speak. All the real amiability which most Englishmen undoubtedly feel towards Irishmen is lavished upon a class of Irishmen which unfortunately does not exist. The Irishman of the English farce, with his brogue, his buoyancy, and his tender-hearted irresponsibility, is a man who ought to have been thoroughly pampered with praise and sympathy, if he had only existed to receive them. Unfortunately, all the time that we were creating a comic Irishman in fiction, we were creating a tragic Irishman in fact. Never perhaps has there been a situation of such excruciating cross-purposes even in the three-act farce. The more we saw in the Irishman a sort of warm and weak fidelity, the more he regarded us with a sort of icy anger. The more the oppressor looked down with an amiable pity, the more did the oppressed look down with a somewhat unamiable contempt. But, indeed, it is needless to say that such comic cross-purposes could be put into a play; they have been put into a play. They have been put into what is perhaps the most real of Mr. Bernard Shaw’s plays, John Bull’s Other Island.
It is somewhat absurd to imagine that any one who has not read a play by Mr. Shaw will be reading a book about him. But if it comes to that it is (as I clearly perceive) absurd to be writing a book about Mr. Bernard Shaw at all. It is indefensibly foolish to attempt to explain a man whose whole object through life has been to explain himself. But even in nonsense there is a need for logic and consistency; therefore let us proceed on the assumption that when I say that all Mr. Shaw’s blood and origin may be found in JOHN BULL’S OTHER ISLAND, some reader may answer that he does not know the play. Besides, it is more important to put the reader right about England and Ireland even than to put him right about Shaw. If he reminds me that this is a book about Shaw, I can only assure him that I will reasonably, and at proper intervals, remember the fact.
Mr. Shaw himself said once, “I am a typical Irishman; my family came from Yorkshire.” Scarcely anyone but a typical Irishman could have made the remark. It is in fact a bull, a conscious bull. A bull is only a paradox which people are too stupid to understand. It is the rapid summary of something which is at once so true and so complex that the speaker who has the swift intelligence to perceive it, has not the slow patience to explain it. Mystical dogmas are much of this kind. Dogmas are often spoken of as if they were signs of the slowness or endurance of the human mind. As a matter of fact, they are marks of mental promptitude and lucid impatience. A man will put his meaning mystically because he cannot waste time in putting it rationally. Dogmas are not dark and mysterious; rather a dogma is like a flash of lightning—an instantaneous lucidity that opens across a whole landscape. Of the same nature are Irish bulls; they are summaries which are too true to be consistent. The Irish make Irish bulls for the same reason that they accept Papal bulls. It is because it is better to speak wisdom foolishly, like the Saints, rather than to speak folly wisely, like the Dons.
This is the truth about mystical dogmas and the truth about Irish bulls; it is also the truth about the paradoxes of Bernard Shaw. Each of them is an argument impatiently shortened into an epigram. Each of them represents a truth hammered and hardened, with an almost disdainful violence until it is compressed into a small space, until it is made brief and almost incomprehensible. The case of that curt remark about Ireland and Yorkshire is a very typical one. If Mr. Shaw had really attempted to set out all the sensible stages of his joke, the sentence would have run something like this: “That I am an Irishman is a fact of psychology which I can trace in many of the things that come out of me, my fastidiousness, my frigid fierceness and my distrust of mere pleasure. But the thing must be tested by what comes from me; do not try on me the dodge of asking where I came from, how many batches of three hundred and sixty-five days my family was in Ireland. Do not play any games on me about whether I am a Celt, a word that is dim to the anthropologist and utterly unmeaning to anybody else. Do not start any drivelling discussions about whether the word Shaw is German or Scandinavian or Iberian or Basque. You know you are human; I know I am Irish. I know I belong to a certain type and temper of society; and I know that all sorts of people of all sorts of blood live in that society and by that society; and are therefore Irish. You can take your books of anthropology to hell or to Oxford.” Thus gently, elaborately and at length, Mr. Shaw would have explained his meaning, if he had thought it worth his while. As he did not he merely flung the symbolic, but very complete sentence, “I am a typical Irishman; my family came from Yorkshire.”
What then is the colour of this Irish society of which Bernard Shaw, with all his individual oddity, is yet an essential type? One generalisation, I think, may at least be made. Ireland has in it a quality which caused it (in the most ascetic age of Christianity) to be called the “Land of Saints”; and which still might give it a claim to be called the Land of Virgins. An Irish Catholic priest once said to me, “There is in our people a fear of the passions which is older even than Christianity.” Everyone who has read Shaw’s play upon Ireland will remember the thing in the horror of the Irish girl at being kissed in the public streets. But anyone who knows Shaw’s work will recognize it in Shaw himself. There exists by accident an early and beardless portrait of him which really suggests in the severity and purity of its lines some of the early ascetic pictures of the beardless Christ. However he may shout profanities or seek to shatter the shrines, there is always something about him which suggests that in a sweeter and more solid civilisation he would have been a great saint. He would have been a saint of a sternly ascetic, perhaps of a sternly negative type. But he has this strange note of the saint in him: that he is literally unworldly. Worldliness has no human magic for him; he is not bewitched by rank nor drawn on by conviviality at all. He could not understand the intellectual surrender of the snob. He is perhaps a defective character; but he is not a mixed one. All the virtues he has are heroic virtues. Shaw is like the Venus of Milo; all that there is of him is admirable.
L’Irlandese
IL pubblico inglese ha comunemente dichiarato, con una sorta di orgoglio, di non riuscire a comprendere il signor Bernard Shaw. Ci sono molte ragioni per questo che meriterebbero di essere adeguatamente considerate in un libro come questo. Ma la prima e più ovvia ragione è la semplice constatazione che George Bernard Shaw nacque a Dublino nel 1856. Una ragione, almeno, per cui gli inglesi non riescono a comprendere il signor Shaw è che gli inglesi non si sono mai presi la briga di comprendere gli irlandesi. Talvolta saranno generosi verso l’Irlanda; ma mai giusti verso l’Irlanda. Parleranno all’Irlanda; parleranno per l’Irlanda; ma non ascolteranno l’Irlanda parlare. Tutta la reale amabilità che la maggior parte degli inglesi indubbiamente prova verso gli irlandesi viene profusa su una categoria di irlandesi che purtroppo non esiste. L’irlandese della farsa inglese, con la sua parlata cantilenante, la sua esuberanza e la sua irresponsabilità dal cuore tenero, è un uomo che avrebbe dovuto essere ampiamente viziato di lodi e simpatia, se solo fosse esistito per riceverle. Purtroppo, per tutto il tempo in cui creavamo un irlandese comico nella finzione, creavamo un irlandese tragico nella realtà. Mai forse si è data una situazione di equivoci tanto strazianti persino in una farsa in tre atti. Quanto più vedevamo nell’irlandese una sorta di calda e debole fedeltà, tanto più egli ci guardava con una sorta di gelida ira. Quanto più l’oppressore abbassava lo sguardo con amabile pietà, tanto più l’oppresso abbassava lo sguardo con un disprezzo alquanto poco amabile. Ma, in verità, è superfluo dire che tali comici equivoci potevano essere messi in una commedia; sono stati messi in una commedia. Sono stati messi in quella che è forse la più autentica delle commedie del signor Bernard Shaw, L’altra isola di John Bull.
È alquanto assurdo immaginare che chi non abbia letto una commedia del signor Shaw si metta a leggere un libro su di lui. Ma se è per questo è (come chiaramente percepisco) assurdo scrivere del tutto un libro sul signor Bernard Shaw. È indifendibilmente sciocco tentare di spiegare un uomo il cui intero scopo nella vita è stato spiegare se stesso. Ma anche nell’assurdità c’è bisogno di logica e coerenza; procediamo dunque nell’ipotesi che, quando dico che tutto il sangue e l’origine del signor Shaw si possano trovare in L’ALTRA ISOLA DI JOHN BULL, qualche lettore possa rispondere che non conosce la commedia. Del resto, è più importante mettere il lettore nel giusto riguardo all’Inghilterra e all’Irlanda che non riguardo a Shaw. Se mi ricorda che questo è un libro su Shaw, posso solo assicurargli che, ragionevolmente e a intervalli opportuni, mi ricorderò del fatto.
Il signor Shaw stesso disse una volta: «Sono un tipico irlandese; la mia famiglia veniva dallo Yorkshire.» Quasi nessuno, se non un tipico irlandese, avrebbe potuto fare quest’osservazione. È di fatto un bull, un bull consapevole. Un bull non è che un paradosso che la gente è troppo stupida per comprendere. È il rapido compendio di qualcosa che è al tempo stesso così vero e così complesso che chi parla, avendo la pronta intelligenza di percepirlo, non ha la lenta pazienza di spiegarlo. I dogmi mistici sono in gran parte di questa specie. Dei dogmi si parla spesso come se fossero segni della lentezza o della resistenza della mente umana. In realtà, sono segni di prontezza mentale e di lucida impazienza. Un uomo esprimerà il suo pensiero misticamente perché non può sprecare tempo a esprimerlo razionalmente. I dogmi non sono oscuri e misteriosi; piuttosto un dogma è come un lampo di folgore: una lucidità istantanea che si apre attraverso un intero paesaggio. Della stessa natura sono i bull irlandesi; sono compendi troppo veri per essere coerenti. Gli irlandesi fanno i bull irlandesi per la stessa ragione per cui accettano le bolle papali. Perché è meglio dire saggezza scioccamente, come i Santi, che dire follia saggiamente, come i Dotti.
Questa è la verità sui dogmi mistici e la verità sui bull irlandesi; è anche la verità sui paradossi di Bernard Shaw. Ciascuno di essi è un argomento impazientemente accorciato in un epigramma. Ciascuno di essi rappresenta una verità martellata e indurita, con una violenza quasi sdegnosa, finché non viene compressa in un piccolo spazio, finché non è resa breve e quasi incomprensibile. Il caso di quella brusca osservazione sull’Irlanda e lo Yorkshire è quanto mai tipico. Se il signor Shaw avesse davvero tentato di esporre tutte le sensate fasi della sua battuta, la frase sarebbe corsa press’a poco così: «Che io sia irlandese è un fatto di psicologia che posso rintracciare in molte delle cose che escono da me: la mia schizzinosità, la mia gelida ferocia e la mia diffidenza verso il mero piacere. Ma la cosa va provata da ciò che viene da me; non provate su di me il trucco di chiedere da dove venni, quante infornate di trecentosessantacinque giorni la mia famiglia sia stata in Irlanda. Non fate su di me nessun gioco sul fatto che io sia o meno un celta, parola che è nebulosa per l’antropologo e del tutto priva di senso per chiunque altro. Non avviate nessuna balbettante discussione sul fatto che la parola Shaw sia tedesca o scandinava o iberica o basca. Voi sapete di essere umani; io so di essere irlandese. So di appartenere a un certo tipo e temperamento di società; e so che ogni sorta di persone di ogni sorta di sangue vive in quella società e per quella società; e sono perciò irlandesi. Potete portarvi i vostri libri di antropologia all’inferno o a Oxford.» Così gentilmente, elaboratamente e a lungo il signor Shaw avrebbe spiegato il suo pensiero, se lo avesse ritenuto degno del suo tempo. Poiché non lo fece, si limitò a scagliare la frase simbolica, ma quanto mai completa: «Sono un tipico irlandese; la mia famiglia veniva dallo Yorkshire.»
Qual è dunque il colore di questa società irlandese di cui Bernard Shaw, con tutta la sua individuale stranezza, è pur tuttavia un tipo essenziale? Una generalizzazione, credo, si può almeno fare. L’Irlanda possiede una qualità che la portò (nell’epoca più ascetica del Cristianesimo) a essere chiamata la «Terra dei Santi»; e che potrebbe ancora darle titolo per essere chiamata la Terra delle Vergini. Un prete cattolico irlandese mi disse una volta: «C’è nel nostro popolo una paura delle passioni più antica persino del Cristianesimo.» Chiunque abbia letto la commedia di Shaw sull’Irlanda ricorderà la cosa nell’orrore della ragazza irlandese all’essere baciata per le pubbliche strade. Ma chiunque conosca l’opera di Shaw la riconoscerà in Shaw stesso. Esiste per caso un ritratto giovanile e imberbe di lui che suggerisce davvero, nella severità e purezza delle sue linee, alcune delle antiche immagini ascetiche del Cristo imberbe. Per quanto egli possa gridare profanità o cercare di frantumare i santuari, c’è sempre in lui qualcosa che suggerisce che in una civiltà più dolce e più solida sarebbe stato un grande santo. Sarebbe stato un santo di tipo severamente ascetico, forse severamente negativo. Ma egli ha in sé questa strana nota del santo: che è letteralmente ultraterreno. La mondanità non ha per lui alcuna umana magia; non è affatto stregato dal rango né attirato dalla convivialità. Non riuscirebbe a comprendere la resa intellettuale dello snob. È forse un carattere difettoso; ma non è un carattere mescolato. Tutte le virtù che possiede sono virtù eroiche. Shaw è come la Venere di Milo; tutto ciò che c’è di lui è ammirevole.
But in any case this Irish innocence is peculiar and fundamental in him; and strange as it may sound, I think that his innocence has a great deal to do with his suggestions of sexual revolution. Such a man is comparatively audacious in theory because he is comparatively clean in thought. Powerful men who have powerful passions use much of their strength in forging chains for themselves; they alone know how strong the chains need to be. But there are other souls who walk the woods like Diana, with a sort of wild chastity. I confess I think that this Irish purity a little disables a critic in dealing, as Mr. Shaw has dealt, with the roots and reality of the marriage law. He forgets that those fierce and elementary functions which drive the universe have an impetus which goes beyond itself and cannot always easily be recovered. So the healthiest men may often erect a law to watch them, just as the healthiest sleepers may want an alarum clock to wake them up. However this may be, Bernard Shaw certainly has all the virtues and all the powers that go with this original quality in Ireland. One of them is a sort of awful elegance; a dangerous and somewhat inhuman daintiness of taste which sometimes seems to shrink from matter itself, as though it were mud. Of the many sincere things Mr. Shaw has said he never said a more sincere one than when he stated he was a vegetarian, not because eating meat was bad morality, but because it was bad taste. It would be fanciful to say that Mr. Shaw is a vegetarian because he comes of a race of vegetarians, of peasants who are compelled to accept the simple life in the shape of potatoes. But I am sure that his fierce fastidiousness in such matters is one of the allotropic forms of the Irish purity; it is to the virtue of Father Matthew what a coal is to a diamond. It has, of course, the quality common to all special and unbalanced types of virtue, that you never know where it will stop. I can feel what Mr. Shaw probably means when he says that it is disgusting to feast off dead bodies, or to cut lumps off what was once a living thing. But I can never know at what moment he may not feel in the same way that it is disgusting to mutilate a pear-tree, or to root out of the earth those miserable mandrakes which cannot even groan. There is no natural limit to this rush and riotous gallop of refinement.
But it is not this physical and fantastic purity which I should chiefly count among the legacies of the old Irish morality. A much more important gift is that which all the saints declared to be the reward of chastity: a queer clearness of the intellect, like the hard clearness of a crystal. This certainly Mr. Shaw possesses; in such degree that at certain times the hardness seems rather clearer than the clearness. But so it does in all the most typical Irish characters and Irish attitudes of mind. This is probably why Irishmen succeed so much in such professions as require a certain crystalline realism, especially about results. Such professions are the soldier and the lawyer; these give ample opportunity for crimes but not much for mere illusions. If you have composed a bad opera you may persuade yourself that it is a good one; if you have carved a bad statue you can think yourself better than Michael Angelo. But if you have lost a battle you cannot believe you have won it; if your client is hanged you cannot pretend that you have got him off.
There must be some sense in every popular prejudice, even about foreigners. And the English people certainly have somehow got an impression and a tradition that the Irishman is genial, unreasonable, and sentimental. This legend of the tender, irresponsible Paddy has two roots; there are two elements in the Irish which made the mistake possible. First, the very logic of the Irishman makes him regard war or revolution as extra-logical, an ULTIMA RATIO which is beyond reason. When fighting a powerful enemy he no more worries whether all his charges are exact or all his attitudes dignified than a soldier worries whether a cannon-ball is shapely or a plan of campaign picturesque. He is aggressive; he attacks. He seems merely to be rowdy in Ireland when he is really carrying the war into Africa—or England. A Dublin tradesman printed his name and trade in archaic Erse on his cart. He knew that hardly anybody could read it; he did it to annoy. In his position I think he was quite right. When one is oppressed it is a mark of chivalry to hurt oneself in order to hurt the oppressor. But the English (never having had a real revolution since the Middle Ages) find it very hard to understand this steady passion for being a nuisance, and mistake it for mere whimsical impulsiveness and folly. When an Irish member holds up the whole business of the House of Commons by talking of his bleeding country for five or six hours, the simple English members suppose that he is a sentimentalist. The truth is that he is a scornful realist who alone remains unaffected by the sentimentalism of the House of Commons. The Irishman is neither poet enough nor snob enough to be swept away by those smooth social and historical tides and tendencies which carry Radicals and Labour members comfortably off their feet. He goes on asking for a thing because he wants it; and he tries really to hurt his enemies because they are his enemies. This is the first of the queer confusions which make the hard Irishman look soft. He seems to us wild and unreasonable because he is really much too reasonable to be anything but fierce when he is fighting.
In all this it will not be difficult to see the Irishman in Bernard Shaw. Though personally one of the kindest men in the world, he has often written really in order to hurt; not because he hated any particular men (he is hardly hot and animal enough for that), but because he really hated certain ideas even unto slaying. He provokes; he will not let people alone. One might even say that he bullies, only that this would be unfair, because he always wishes the other man to hit back. At least he always challenges, like a true Green Islander. An even stronger instance of this national trait can be found in another eminent Irishman, Oscar Wilde. His philosophy (which was vile) was a philosophy of ease, of acceptance, and luxurious illusion; yet, being Irish, he could not help putting it in pugnacious and propagandist epigrams. He preached his softness with hard decision; he praised pleasure in the words most calculated to give pain. This armed insolence, which was the noblest thing about him, was also the Irish thing; he challenged all comers. It is a good instance of how right popular tradition is even when it is most wrong, that the English have perceived and preserved this essential trait of Ireland in a proverbial phrase. It IS true that the Irishman says, “Who will tread on the tail of my coat?”
Ma in ogni caso questa innocenza irlandese è in lui peculiare e fondamentale; e per quanto possa suonare strano, penso che la sua innocenza abbia molto a che fare con i suoi suggerimenti di rivoluzione sessuale. Un uomo simile è comparativamente audace in teoria perché è comparativamente puro nel pensiero. Gli uomini potenti che hanno passioni potenti impiegano molta della loro forza a forgiare catene per se stessi; loro soli sanno quanto forti debbano essere le catene. Ma vi sono altre anime che percorrono i boschi come Diana, con una sorta di selvaggia castità. Confesso di ritenere che questa purezza irlandese disabiliti un poco un critico nel trattare, come il signor Shaw ha trattato, le radici e la realtà della legge del matrimonio. Egli dimentica che quelle funzioni fiere ed elementari che muovono l’universo hanno un impeto che va al di là di se stesso e non sempre può essere facilmente recuperato. Così gli uomini più sani possono spesso erigere una legge a sorvegliarli, proprio come i dormienti più sani possono aver bisogno di una sveglia per destarsi. Comunque sia, Bernard Shaw possiede certamente tutte le virtù e tutte le potenze che accompagnano questa qualità originaria dell’Irlanda. Una di esse è una sorta di terribile eleganza; una raffinatezza di gusto pericolosa e alquanto disumana, che a volte sembra rifuggire dalla materia stessa, come se fosse fango. Fra le molte cose sincere che il signor Shaw ha detto, non ne disse mai una più sincera di quando dichiarò di essere vegetariano, non perché mangiar carne fosse cattiva morale, ma perché era cattivo gusto. Sarebbe fantasioso dire che il signor Shaw è vegetariano perché discende da una razza di vegetariani, di contadini costretti ad accettare la vita semplice sotto forma di patate. Ma sono certo che la sua fiera schizzinosità in tali materie è una delle forme allotropiche della purezza irlandese; sta alla virtù di padre Matthew come un carbone sta a un diamante. Ha, naturalmente, la qualità comune a tutti i tipi speciali e squilibrati di virtù, che non si sa mai dove si fermerà. Posso sentire ciò che il signor Shaw probabilmente intende quando dice che è disgustoso banchettare su corpi morti, o tagliare pezzi da ciò che un tempo fu una cosa viva. Ma non potrò mai sapere in quale momento egli non possa sentire allo stesso modo che è disgustoso mutilare un pero, o sradicare dalla terra quelle miserabili mandragore che non sanno nemmeno gemere. Non c’è limite naturale a questa corsa e a questo tumultuoso galoppo del raffinamento.
Ma non è questa purezza fisica e fantastica che dovrei annoverare principalmente fra i lasciti della vecchia morale irlandese. Un dono assai più importante è quello che tutti i santi dichiararono essere il premio della castità: una strana chiarezza dell’intelletto, come la dura chiarezza di un cristallo. Questa il signor Shaw la possiede di certo; in tal misura che in certi momenti la durezza sembra più chiara della chiarezza stessa. Ma così accade in tutti i più tipici caratteri irlandesi e nei più tipici atteggiamenti mentali irlandesi. È probabilmente per questo che gli irlandesi riescono tanto in professioni che richiedono un certo realismo cristallino, specie riguardo ai risultati. Tali professioni sono quella del soldato e quella dell’avvocato; esse offrono ampia occasione di crimini, ma non molta di mere illusioni. Se hai composto una brutta opera puoi persuaderti che sia buona; se hai scolpito una brutta statua puoi crederti migliore di Michelangelo. Ma se hai perso una battaglia non puoi credere di averla vinta; se il tuo cliente è impiccato non puoi fingere di averlo fatto assolvere.
Deve esserci qualche senso in ogni pregiudizio popolare, persino riguardo agli stranieri. E il popolo inglese ha certamente in qualche modo maturato un’impressione e una tradizione secondo cui l’irlandese è gioviale, irragionevole e sentimentale. Questa leggenda del tenero e irresponsabile Paddy ha due radici; vi sono nell’irlandese due elementi che hanno reso possibile l’equivoco. Primo, la logica stessa dell’irlandese lo porta a considerare la guerra o la rivoluzione come extra-logiche, un’ULTIMA RATIO che è al di là della ragione. Quando combatte un nemico potente, non si preoccupa se tutte le sue accuse siano esatte o tutti i suoi atteggiamenti dignitosi, più di quanto un soldato si preoccupi se una palla di cannone sia ben sagomata o un piano di campagna pittoresco. Egli è aggressivo; attacca. Sembra soltanto fare baccano in Irlanda quando in realtà porta la guerra in Africa — o in Inghilterra. Un commerciante di Dublino stampò il proprio nome e mestiere in arcaico erse sul suo carro. Sapeva che quasi nessuno sapeva leggerlo; lo fece per irritare. Al suo posto credo che avesse pienamente ragione. Quando si è oppressi, è segno di cavalleria farsi del male per far male all’oppressore. Ma gli inglesi (non avendo mai avuto una vera rivoluzione dal Medioevo) trovano assai difficile comprendere questa costante passione di essere una seccatura, e la scambiano per mero impulso capriccioso e follia. Quando un deputato irlandese blocca l’intera attività della Camera dei Comuni parlando del suo paese sanguinante per cinque o sei ore, i semplici deputati inglesi suppongono che sia un sentimentalista. La verità è che è uno sprezzante realista che solo resta immune dal sentimentalismo della Camera dei Comuni. L’irlandese non è abbastanza poeta né abbastanza snob per farsi travolgere da quelle lisce maree e tendenze sociali e storiche che portano comodamente via i Radicali e i deputati laburisti. Egli continua a chiedere una cosa perché la vuole; e cerca davvero di far male ai suoi nemici perché sono i suoi nemici. Questa è la prima delle strane confusioni che fanno apparire molle il duro irlandese. Ci sembra selvaggio e irragionevole perché è in realtà troppo ragionevole per essere altro che fiero quando combatte.
In tutto questo non sarà difficile scorgere l’irlandese in Bernard Shaw. Benché personalmente uno degli uomini più gentili del mondo, egli ha spesso scritto davvero allo scopo di far male; non perché odiasse uomini particolari (è a malapena abbastanza caldo e animale per questo), ma perché odiava davvero certe idee fino a volerle uccidere. Egli provoca; non lascia in pace la gente. Si potrebbe persino dire che tiranneggia, se non fosse ingiusto, perché vuole sempre che l’altro reagisca colpendo. Almeno egli sfida sempre, come un vero isolano dell’Isola Verde. Un esempio ancor più forte di questo tratto nazionale si può trovare in un altro eminente irlandese, Oscar Wilde. La sua filosofia (che era vile) era una filosofia della comodità, dell’accettazione e della lussuosa illusione; eppure, essendo irlandese, non poteva fare a meno di esprimerla in epigrammi combattivi e propagandistici. Predicava la sua mollezza con dura decisione; lodava il piacere nelle parole più calcolate a dar dolore. Quest’armata insolenza, che era la cosa più nobile in lui, era anche la cosa irlandese; egli sfidava chiunque si presentasse. È un buon esempio di quanto sia giusta la tradizione popolare persino quando ha più torto, il fatto che gli inglesi abbiano percepito e conservato questo tratto essenziale dell’Irlanda in una frase proverbiale. È VERO che l’irlandese dice: «Chi vuol calpestare la falda del mio cappotto?»
But there is a second cause which creates the English fallacy that the Irish are weak and emotional. This again springs from the very fact that the Irish are lucid and logical. For being logical they strictly separate poetry from prose; and as in prose they are strictly prosaic, so in poetry they are purely poetical. In this, as in one or two other things, they resemble the French, who make their gardens beautiful because they are gardens, but their fields ugly because they are only fields. An Irishman may like romance, but he will say, to use a frequent Shavian phrase, that it is “only romance.” A great part of the English energy in fiction arises from the very fact that their fiction half deceives them. If Rudyard Kipling, for instance, had written his short stories in France, they would have been praised as cool, clever little works of art, rather cruel, and very nervous and feminine; Kipling’s short stories would have been appreciated like Maupassant’s short stories. In England they were not appreciated but believed. They were taken seriously by a startled nation as a true picture of the empire and the universe. The English people made haste to abandon England in favour of Mr. Kipling and his imaginary colonies; they made haste to abandon Christianity in favour of Mr. Kipling’s rather morbid version of Judaism. Such a moral boom of a book would be almost impossible in Ireland, because the Irish mind distinguishes between life and literature. Mr. Bernard Shaw himself summed this up as he sums up so many things in a compact sentence which he uttered in conversation with the present writer, “An Irishman has two eyes.” He meant that with one eye an Irishman saw that a dream was inspiring, bewitching, or sublime, and with the other eye that after all it was a dream. Both the humour and the sentiment of an Englishman cause him to wink the other eye. Two other small examples will illustrate the English mistake. Take, for instance, that noble survival from a nobler age of politics—I mean Irish oratory. The English imagine that Irish politicians are so hot-headed and poetical that they have to pour out a torrent of burning words. The truth is that the Irish are so clear-headed and critical that they still regard rhetoric as a distinct art, as the ancients did. Thus a man makes a speech as a man plays a violin, not necessarily without feeling, but chiefly because he knows how to do it. Another instance of the same thing is that quality which is always called the Irish charm. The Irish are agreeable, not because they are particularly emotional, but because they are very highly civilised. Blarney is a ritual; as much of a ritual as kissing the Blarney Stone.
Lastly, there is one general truth about Ireland which may very well have influenced Bernard Shaw from the first; and almost certainly influenced him for good. Ireland is a country in which the political conflicts are at least genuine; they are about something. They are about patriotism, about religion, or about money: the three great realities. In other words, they are concerned with what commonwealth a man lives in or with what universe a man lives in or with how he is to manage to live in either. But they are not concerned with which of two wealthy cousins in the same governing class shall be allowed to bring in the same Parish Councils Bill; there is no party system in Ireland. The party system in England is an enormous and most efficient machine for preventing political conflicts. The party system is arranged on the same principle as a three-legged race: the principle that union is not always strength and is never activity. Nobody asks for what he really wants. But in Ireland the loyalist is just as ready to throw over the King as the Fenian to throw over Mr. Gladstone; each will throw over anything except the thing that he wants. Hence it happens that even the follies or the frauds of Irish politics are more genuine as symptoms and more honourable as symbols than the lumbering hypocrisies of the prosperous Parliamentarian. The very lies of Dublin and Belfast are truer than the truisms of Westminster. They have an object; they refer to a state of things. There was more honesty, in the sense of actuality, about Piggott’s letters than about the TIMES’ leading articles on them. When Parnell said calmly before the Royal Commission that he had made a certain remark “in order to mislead the House” he proved himself to be one of the few truthful men of his time. An ordinary British statesman would never have made the confession, because he would have grown quite accustomed to committing the crime. The party system itself implies a habit of stating something other than the actual truth. A Leader of the House means a Misleader of the House.
Bernard Shaw was born outside all this; and he carries that freedom upon his face. Whether what he heard in boyhood was violent Nationalism or virulent Unionism, it was at least something which wanted a certain principle to be in force, not a certain clique to be in office. Of him the great Gilbertian generalisation is untrue; he was not born either a little Liberal or else a little Conservative. He did not, like most of us, pass through the stage of being a good party man on his way to the difficult business of being a good man. He came to stare at our general elections as a Red Indian might stare at the Oxford and Cambridge boat-race, blind to all its irrelevant sentimentalities and to some of its legitimate sentiments. Bernard Shaw entered England as an alien, as an invader, as a conqueror. In other words, he entered England as an Irishman.
Ma c’è una seconda causa che crea l’errore inglese che gli irlandesi siano deboli ed emotivi. Anche questa nasce dal fatto stesso che gli irlandesi sono lucidi e logici. Essendo logici, separano rigorosamente poesia e prosa; e come in prosa sono rigorosamente prosaici, così in poesia sono puramente poetici. In questo, come in una o due altre cose, somigliano ai francesi, che rendono i loro giardini belli perché sono giardini, ma i loro campi brutti perché sono solo campi. Un irlandese può amare l’avventura, ma dirà, usando una frase frequente di Shaw, che è “solo avventura.” Gran parte dell’energia inglese nella narrativa nasce dal fatto stesso che la loro narrativa li inganna a metà. Se Rudyard Kipling, per esempio, avesse scritto i suoi racconti brevi in Francia, sarebbero stati lodati come opere d’arte fredde e intelligenti, piuttosto crudeli, molto nervose e femminili; i racconti brevi di Kipling sarebbero stati apprezzati come quelli di Maupassant. In Inghilterra non furono apprezzati ma creduti. Furono presi sul serio da una nazione stupita come un vero ritratto dell’impero e dell’universo. Il popolo inglese si affrettò ad abbandonare l’Inghilterra in favore del signor Kipling e delle sue colonie immaginarie; si affrettò ad abbandonare il cristianesimo in favore della versione piuttosto morbosa di giudaismo del signor Kipling. Un tale successo morale di un libro sarebbe quasi impossibile in Irlanda, perché la mente irlandese distingue tra vita e letteratura. Lo stesso signor Bernard Shaw riassunse questo come riassume tante cose in una frase compatta che pronunciò conversando con il sottoscritto: “Un irlandese ha due occhi.” Voleva dire che con un occhio un irlandese vede che un sogno è ispirato, affascinante o sublime, e con l’altro occhio che dopotutto è un sogno. L’umorismo e il sentimento di un inglese lo portano a strizzare l’altro occhio. Altri due piccoli esempi illustreranno l’errore inglese. Prendiamo, per esempio, quella nobile sopravvivenza da un’età più nobile della politica: intendo l’oratoria irlandese. Gli inglesi immaginano che i politici irlandesi siano così testardi e poetici da dover riversare un torrente di parole ardenti. La verità è che gli irlandesi sono così lucidi e critici da considerare ancora la retorica come un’arte distinta, come facevano gli antichi. Così un uomo fa un discorso come suona un violino, non necessariamente senza sentimento, ma principalmente perché sa farlo. Un altro esempio della stessa cosa è quella qualità che viene sempre chiamata il fascino irlandese. Gli irlandesi sono gradevoli, non perché siano particolarmente emotivi, ma perché sono molto civilizzati. Blarney è un rituale; tanto rituale quanto baciare la pietra di Blarney.
Infine, c’è una verità generale sull’Irlanda che potrebbe aver influenzato fin dall’inizio Bernard Shaw; e quasi certamente l’ha influenzato in modo positivo. L’Irlanda è un paese in cui i conflitti politici sono almeno genuini; riguardano qualcosa. Riguardano il patriottismo, la religione o il denaro: le tre grandi realtà. In altre parole, si occupano di quale commonwealth vive un uomo o di quale universo vive un uomo o di come deve riuscire a vivere in uno dei due. Ma non si occupano di quale dei due cugini ricchi nella stessa classe dirigente debba essere autorizzato a presentare lo stesso disegno di legge sui Consigli Parrocchiali; in Irlanda non esiste un sistema di partito. Il sistema dei partiti in Inghilterra è una macchina enorme e molto efficiente per prevenire i conflitti politici. Il sistema dei partiti è organizzato sullo stesso principio di una corsa a tre gambe: il principio che l’unione non sia sempre forza e non sia mai attività. Nessuno chiede ciò che vuole davvero. Ma in Irlanda il lealista è altrettanto pronto a tradire re come il feniano a tradire Gladstone; ogni uomo tradirà qualsiasi cosa tranne quella che desidera. Perciò accade che anche le follie o le frodi della politica irlandese siano più genuine come sintomi e più onorevoli come simboli delle ipocrisie pesanti del prospero parlamentare. Anche le bugie di Dublino e Belfast sono più vere dei luoghi comuni di Westminster. Hanno uno scopo; si riferiscono a una situazione. C’era più onestà, nel senso di attualità, nelle lettere di Piggott che negli articoli di fondo del TIMES su di esse. Quando Parnell disse con calma davanti alla Commissione Reale che aveva fatto un certo commento “per ingannare la Camera” dimostrò di essere uno degli uomini più veritieri del suo tempo. Uno statista britannico ordinario non avrebbe mai fatto tale confessione, perché si sarebbe abituato a commettere il crimine. Il sistema dei partiti stesso implica l’abitudine di dichiarare qualcosa diverso dalla reale verità. Un Leader della Camera significa un Misleader della Camera.
Bernard Shaw nacque al di fuori di tutto questo; e porta quella libertà scritta in volto. Che cosa abbia sentito nell’infanzia, se un violento nazionalismo o un virulento unionismo, era comunque qualcosa che voleva l’applicazione di un certo principio, non la permanenza al potere di una certa cricca. Su di lui non si applica la grande generalizzazione gilbertiana; non nacque né come un piccolo liberale né come un piccolo conservatore. Non passò, come molti di noi, attraverso la fase in cui si è bravi sostenitori del proprio partito prima di affrontare l’arduo compito di diventare brave persone. Guardò le nostre elezioni generali con lo stesso stupore con cui un indiano d’America potrebbe guardare la regata tra Oxford e Cambridge, cieco davanti a tutte le sue irrilevanti sentimentalità e a molti dei suoi sentimenti legittimi. Bernard Shaw entrò in Inghilterra come uno straniero, un invasore, un conquistatore. In altre parole, entrò in Inghilterra come un irlandese.
The Puritan
IT has been said in the first section that Bernard Shaw draws from his own nation two unquestionable qualities, a kind of intellectual chastity, and the fighting spirit. He is so much of an idealist about his ideals that he can be a ruthless realist in his methods. His soul has (in short) the virginity and the violence of Ireland. But Bernard Shaw is not merely an Irishman; he is not even a typical one. He is a certain separated and peculiar kind of Irishman, which is not easy to describe. Some Nationalist Irishmen have referred to him contemptuously as a “West Briton.” But this is really unfair; for whatever Mr. Shaw’s mental faults may be, the easy adoption of an unmeaning phrase like “Briton” is certainly not one of them. It would be much nearer the truth to put the thing in the bold and bald terms of the old Irish song, and to call him “The anti-Irish Irishman.” But it is only fair to say that the description is far less of a monstrosity than the anti-English Englishman would be; because the Irish are so much stronger in self-criticism. Compared with the constant self-flattery of the English, nearly every Irishman is an anti-Irish Irishman. But here again popular phraseology hits the right word. This fairly educated and fairly wealthy Protestant wedge which is driven into the country at Dublin and elsewhere is a thing not easy superficially to summarise in any term. It cannot be described merely as a minority; for a minority means the part of a nation which is conquered. But this thing means something that conquers, and is not entirely part of a nation. Nor can one even fall back on the phrase of aristocracy. For an aristocracy implies at least some chorus of snobbish enthusiasm; it implies that some at least are willingly led by the leaders, if only towards vulgarity and vice. There is only one word for the minority in Ireland, and that is the word that public phraseology has found; I mean the word “Garrison.” The Irish are essentially right when they talk as if all Protestant Unionists lived inside “The Castle.” They have all the virtues and limitations of a literal garrison in a fort. That is, they are valiant, consistent, reliable in an obvious public sense; but their curse is that they can only tread the flagstones of the courtyard or the cold rock of the ramparts; they have never so much as set their foot upon their native soil.
We have considered Bernard Shaw as an Irishman. The next step is to consider him as an exile from Ireland living in Ireland; that, some people would say, is a paradox after his own heart. But, indeed, such a complication is not really difficult to expound. The great religion and the great national tradition which have persisted for so many centuries in Ireland have encouraged these clean and cutting elements; but they have encouraged many other things which serve to balance them. The Irish peasant has these qualities which are somewhat peculiar to Ireland, a strange purity and a strange pugnacity. But the Irish peasant also has qualities which are common to all peasants, and his nation has qualities that are common to all healthy nations. I mean chiefly the things that most of us absorb in childhood; especially the sense of the supernatural and the sense of the natural; the love of the sky with its infinity of vision, and the love of the soil with its strict hedges and solid shapes of ownership. But here comes the paradox of Shaw; the greatest of all his paradoxes and the one of which he is unconscious. These one or two plain truths which quite stupid people learn at the beginning are exactly the one or two truths which Bernard Shaw may not learn even at the end. He is a daring pilgrim who has set out from the grave to find the cradle. He started from points of view which no one else was clever enough to discover, and he is at last discovering points of view which no one else was ever stupid enough to ignore. This absence of the red-hot truisms of boyhood; this sense that he is not rooted in the ancient sagacities of infancy, has, I think, a great deal to do with his position as a member of an alien minority in Ireland. He who has no real country can have no real home. The average autochthonous Irishman is close to patriotism because he is close to the earth; he is close to domesticity because he is close to the earth; he is close to doctrinal theology and elaborate ritual because he is close to the earth. In short, he is close to the heavens because he is close to the earth. But we must not expect any of these elemental and collective virtues in the man of the garrison. He cannot be expected to exhibit the virtues of a people, but only (as Ibsen would say) of an enemy of the people. Mr. Shaw has no living traditions, no schoolboy tricks, no college customs, to link him with other men. Nothing about him can be supposed to refer to a family feud or to a family joke. He does not drink toasts; he does not keep anniversaries; musical as he is I doubt if he would consent to sing. All this has something in it of a tree with its roots in the air. The best way to shorten winter is to prolong Christmas; and the only way to enjoy the sun of April is to be an April Fool. When people asked Bernard Shaw to attend the Stratford Tercentenary, he wrote back with characteristic contempt: “I do not keep my own birthday, and I cannot see why I should keep Shakespeare’s.” I think that if Mr. Shaw had always kept his own birthday he would be better able to understand Shakespeare’s birthday— and Shakespeare’s poetry.
In conjecturally referring this negative side of the man, his lack of the smaller charities of our common childhood, to his birth in the dominant Irish sect, I do not write without historic memory or reference to other cases. That minority of Protestant exiles which mainly represented Ireland to England during the eighteenth century did contain some specimens of the Irish lounger and even of the Irish blackguard; Sheridan and even Goldsmith suggest the type. Even in their irresponsibility these figures had a touch of Irish tartness and realism; but the type has been too much insisted on to the exclusion of others equally national and interesting. To one of these it is worth while to draw attention. At intervals during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries there has appeared a peculiar kind of Irishman. He is so unlike the English image of Ireland that the English have actually fallen back on the pretence that he was not Irish at all. The type is commonly Protestant; and sometimes seems to be almost anti-national in its acrid instinct for judging itself. Its nationalism only appears when it flings itself with even bitterer pleasure into judging the foreigner or the invader. The first and greatest of such figures was Swift. Thackeray simply denied that Swift was an Irishman, because he was not a stage Irishman. He was not (in the English novelist’s opinion) winning and agreeable enough to be Irish. The truth is that Swift was much too harsh and disagreeable to be English. There is a great deal of Jonathan Swift in Bernard Shaw. Shaw is like Swift, for instance, in combining extravagant fancy with a curious sort of coldness. But he is most like Swift in that very quality which Thackeray said was impossible in an Irishman, benevolent bullying, a pity touched with contempt, and a habit of knocking men down for their own good. Characters in novels are often described as so amiable that they hate to be thanked. It is not an amiable quality, and it is an extremely rare one; but Swift possessed it. When Swift was buried the Dublin poor came in crowds and wept by the grave of the broadest and most freehanded of their benefactors. Swift deserved the public tribute; but he might have writhed and kicked in his grave at the thought of receiving it. There is in G. B. S. something of the same inhumane humanity. Irish history has offered a third instance of this particular type of educated and Protestant Irishman, sincere, unsympathetic, aggressive, alone. I mean Parnell; and with him also a bewildered England tried the desperate dodge of saying that he was not Irish at all. As if any thinkable sensible snobbish law-abiding Englishman would ever have defied all the drawing-rooms by disdaining the House of Commons! Despite the difference between taciturnity and a torrent of fluency there is much in common also between Shaw and Parnell; something in common even in the figures of the two men, in the bony bearded faces with their almost Satanic self-possession. It will not do to pretend that none of these three men belong to their own nation; but it is true that they belonged to one special, though recurring, type of that nation. And they all three have this peculiar mark, that while Nationalists in their various ways they all give to the more genial English one common impression; I mean the impression that they do not so much love Ireland as hate England.
Il Puritano
SI è detto nella prima sezione che Bernard Shaw trae dalla propria nazione due qualità indiscutibili, una sorta di castità intellettuale e lo spirito combattivo. Egli è tanto idealista riguardo ai suoi ideali da poter essere uno spietato realista nei suoi metodi. La sua anima ha (in breve) la verginità e la violenza dell’Irlanda. Ma Bernard Shaw non è soltanto un irlandese; non è nemmeno un irlandese tipico. È un tipo di irlandese particolare e a sé, non facile da descrivere. Alcuni irlandesi nazionalisti si sono riferiti a lui con disprezzo come a un «britanno dell’ovest». Ma questo è davvero ingiusto; perché quali che siano i difetti mentali del signor Shaw, la facile adozione di una frase priva di senso come «britanno» non è certo uno di essi. Sarebbe assai più vicino alla verità esprimere la cosa nei termini schietti e nudi della vecchia canzone irlandese, e chiamarlo «l’irlandese anti-irlandese». Ma è giusto dire che la descrizione è assai meno mostruosa di quanto lo sarebbe l’inglese anti-inglese; perché gli irlandesi sono assai più forti nell’autocritica. Comparato con la costante autolode degli inglesi, quasi ogni irlandese è un irlandese anti-irlandese. Ma anche qui la fraseologia popolare coglie la parola giusta. Questo cuneo protestante, discretamente istruito e discretamente ricco, che è conficcato nel paese a Dublino e altrove, è una cosa non facile da riassumere superficialmente in un qualsiasi termine. Non può essere descritto semplicemente come una minoranza; perché una minoranza significa la parte di una nazione che è conquistata. Ma questa cosa significa qualcosa che conquista, e non è interamente parte di una nazione. Né si può ripiegare sulla parola aristocrazia. Perché un’aristocrazia implica almeno un qualche coro di snobistico entusiasmo; implica che almeno alcuni si lascino volentieri guidare dai capi, non fosse che verso la volgarità e il vizio. C’è una sola parola per la minoranza in Irlanda, ed è la parola che la fraseologia pubblica ha trovato; intendo la parola «Guarnigione». Gli irlandesi hanno essenzialmente ragione quando parlano come se tutti gli unionisti protestanti vivessero dentro «Il Castello». Essi hanno tutte le virtù e i limiti di una guarnigione letterale in una fortezza. Vale a dire, sono valorosi, coerenti, affidabili in un ovvio senso pubblico; ma la loro maledizione è che possono soltanto calpestare le lastre del cortile o la fredda roccia dei bastioni; non hanno mai posato il piede sul loro suolo natio.
Abbiamo considerato Bernard Shaw come un irlandese. Il passo successivo è considerarlo come un esule dall’Irlanda che vive in Irlanda; ciò, direbbe qualcuno, è un paradosso secondo il suo cuore. Ma, in verità, una tale complicazione non è realmente difficile da esporre. La grande religione e la grande tradizione nazionale che sono persistite per tanti secoli in Irlanda hanno incoraggiato questi elementi puliti e taglienti; ma hanno incoraggiato molte altre cose che servono a bilanciarli. Il contadino irlandese ha queste qualità in certo modo peculiari dell’Irlanda, una strana purezza e una strana combattività. Ma il contadino irlandese ha anche qualità comuni a tutti i contadini, e la sua nazione ha qualità comuni a tutte le nazioni sane. Intendo soprattutto le cose che la maggior parte di noi assorbe nell’infanzia; specialmente il senso del soprannaturale e il senso del naturale; l’amore per il cielo con la sua infinità di visione, e l’amore per il suolo con le sue rigide siepi e le sue solide forme di proprietà. Ma qui giunge il paradosso di Shaw; il più grande di tutti i suoi paradossi e quello di cui egli è inconsapevole. Queste una o due semplici verità che la gente più ottusa impara al principio sono esattamente le una o due verità che Bernard Shaw potrebbe non imparare nemmeno alla fine. Egli è un audace pellegrino che è partito dalla tomba per cercare la culla. È partito da punti di vista che nessun altro era abbastanza abile da scoprire, e sta finalmente scoprendo punti di vista che nessun altro fu mai abbastanza stupido da ignorare. Quest’assenza dei roventi luoghi comuni della fanciullezza; questa sensazione di non essere radicato nelle antiche saggezze dell’infanzia, ha, credo, molto a che fare con la sua posizione di membro di una minoranza aliena in Irlanda. Chi non ha una vera patria non può avere una vera casa. L’irlandese autoctono medio è vicino al patriottismo perché è vicino alla terra; è vicino alla domesticità perché è vicino alla terra; è vicino alla teologia dottrinale e all’elaborato rituale perché è vicino alla terra. In breve, è vicino ai cieli perché è vicino alla terra. Ma non dobbiamo aspettarci nessuna di queste virtù elementari e collettive nell’uomo della guarnigione. Non ci si può aspettare che egli mostri le virtù di un popolo, ma solo (come direbbe Ibsen) di un nemico del popolo. Il signor Shaw non ha tradizioni viventi, né scherzi da scolaro, né usanze universitarie che lo colleghino ad altri uomini. Nulla di lui può supporsi riferirsi a una faida di famiglia o a uno scherzo di famiglia. Egli non fa brindisi; non celebra anniversari; per quanto musicale, dubito che acconsentirebbe a cantare. Tutto ciò ha in sé qualcosa di un albero con le radici in aria. Il modo migliore di accorciare l’inverno è prolungare il Natale; e l’unico modo di godersi il sole d’aprile è essere un pesce d’aprile. Quando chiesero a Bernard Shaw di partecipare al Tricentenario di Stratford, egli rispose per iscritto con caratteristico disprezzo: «Non festeggio il mio compleanno, e non vedo perché dovrei festeggiare quello di Shakespeare.» Penso che se il signor Shaw avesse sempre festeggiato il proprio compleanno sarebbe più capace di comprendere il compleanno di Shakespeare — e la poesia di Shakespeare.
Nel riferire congetturalmente questo lato negativo dell’uomo, la sua mancanza delle minori carità della nostra comune infanzia, alla sua nascita nella setta irlandese dominante, non scrivo senza memoria storica né senza riferimento ad altri casi. Quella minoranza di esuli protestanti che rappresentò principalmente l’Irlanda presso l’Inghilterra durante il diciottesimo secolo conteneva davvero alcuni esemplari del bighellone irlandese e persino del mascalzone irlandese; Sheridan e persino Goldsmith suggeriscono il tipo. Persino nella loro irresponsabilità queste figure avevano un tocco di asprezza e realismo irlandese; ma sul tipo si è insistito troppo, a esclusione di altri ugualmente nazionali e interessanti. A uno di questi vale la pena di richiamare l’attenzione. A intervalli, durante il diciottesimo e il diciannovesimo secolo, è apparso un peculiare tipo di irlandese. Egli è tanto dissimile dall’immagine inglese dell’Irlanda che gli inglesi hanno di fatto ripiegato sulla finzione che egli non fosse affatto irlandese. Il tipo è comunemente protestante; e talvolta sembra quasi anti-nazionale nel suo acre istinto di giudicare se stesso. Il suo nazionalismo appare soltanto quando si getta con piacere ancora più amaro a giudicare lo straniero o l’invasore. La prima e più grande di tali figure fu Swift. Thackeray negò semplicemente che Swift fosse un irlandese, perché non era un irlandese da palcoscenico. Non era (nell’opinione del romanziere inglese) abbastanza accattivante e piacevole per essere irlandese. La verità è che Swift era troppo aspro e sgradevole per essere inglese. C’è molto di Jonathan Swift in Bernard Shaw. Shaw è simile a Swift, per esempio, nel combinare una fantasia stravagante con una curiosa sorta di freddezza. Ma è più simile a Swift in quella stessa qualità che Thackeray disse impossibile in un irlandese: la tirannia benevola, una pietà venata di disprezzo, e l’abitudine di atterrare gli uomini per il loro bene. I personaggi dei romanzi sono spesso descritti come tanto amabili da detestare di essere ringraziati. Non è una qualità amabile, ed è quanto mai rara; ma Swift la possedeva. Quando Swift fu sepolto i poveri di Dublino accorsero in folla e piansero presso la tomba del più munifico e generoso dei loro benefattori. Swift meritava il tributo pubblico; ma avrebbe potuto contorcersi e scalciare nella sua tomba al pensiero di riceverlo. C’è in G. B. S. qualcosa della stessa umanità disumana. La storia irlandese ha offerto un terzo esempio di questo particolare tipo di irlandese istruito e protestante, sincero, privo di simpatia, aggressivo, solitario. Intendo Parnell; e con lui pure un’Inghilterra sconcertata tentò il disperato trucco di dire che egli non era affatto irlandese. Come se un qualsiasi immaginabile, sensato, snobistico e ligio alla legge inglese avrebbe mai sfidato tutti i salotti disdegnando la Camera dei Comuni! Nonostante la differenza fra la taciturnità e un torrente di eloquenza, c’è molto in comune anche fra Shaw e Parnell; qualcosa in comune persino nelle figure dei due uomini, nei volti ossuti e barbuti con il loro autocontrollo quasi satanico. Non si può fingere che nessuno di questi tre uomini appartenga alla propria nazione; ma è vero che appartenevano a un tipo speciale, benché ricorrente, di quella nazione. E tutti e tre hanno questo peculiare marchio: che pur essendo nazionalisti nei loro vari modi, danno tutti al più gioviale inglese un’impressione comune; intendo l’impressione che essi non tanto amino l’Irlanda quanto odino l’Inghilterra.
I will not dogmatise upon the difficult question as to whether there is any religious significance in the fact that these three rather ruthless Irishmen were Protestant Irishmen. I incline to think myself that the Catholic Church has added charity and gentleness to the virtues of a people which would otherwise have been too keen and contemptuous, too aristocratic. But however this may be, there can surely be no question that Bernard Shaw’s Protestant education in a Catholic country has made a great deal of difference to his mind. It has affected it in two ways, the first negative and the second positive. It has affected him by cutting him off (as we have said) from the fields and fountains of his real home and history; by making him an Orangeman. And it has affected him by the particular colour of the particular religion which he received; by making him a Puritan.
In one of his numerous prefaces he says, “I have always been on the side of the Puritans in the matter of Art”; and a closer study will, I think, reveal that he is on the side of the Puritans in almost everything. Puritanism was not a mere code of cruel regulations, though some of its regulations were more cruel than any that have disgraced Europe. Nor was Puritanism a mere nightmare, an evil shadow of eastern gloom and fatalism, though this element did enter it, and was as it were the symptom and punishment of its essential error. Something much nobler (even if almost equally mistaken) was the original energy in the Puritan creed. And it must be defined with a little more delicacy if we are really to understand the attitude of G. B. S., who is the greatest of the modern Puritans and perhaps the last.
I should roughly define the first spirit in Puritanism thus. It was a refusal to contemplate God or goodness with anything lighter or milder than the most fierce concentration of the intellect. A Puritan meant originally a man whose mind had no holidays. To use his own favourite phrase, he would let no living thing come between him and his God; an attitude which involved eternal torture for him and a cruel contempt for all the living things. It was better to worship in a barn than in a cathedral for the specific and specified reason that the cathedral was beautiful. Physical beauty was a false and sensual symbol coming in between the intellect and the object of its intellectual worship. The human brain ought to be at every instant a consuming fire which burns through all conventional images until they were as transparent as glass.
This is the essential Puritan idea, that God can only be praised by direct contemplation of Him. You must praise God only with your brain; it is wicked to praise Him with your passions or your physical habits or your gesture or instinct of beauty. Therefore it is wicked to worship by singing or dancing or drinking sacramental wines or building beautiful churches or saying prayers when you are half asleep. We must not worship by dancing, drinking, building or singing; we can only worship by thinking. Our heads can praise God, but never our hands and feet. That is the true and original impulse of the Puritans. There is a great deal to be said for it, and a great deal was said for it in Great Britain steadily for two hundred years. It has gradually decayed in England and Scotland, not because of the advance of modern thought (which means nothing), but because of the slow revival of the mediaeval energy and character in the two peoples. The English were always hearty and humane, and they have made up their minds to be hearty and humane in spite of the Puritans. The result is that Dickens and W. W. Jacobs have picked up the tradition of Chaucer and Robin Hood. The Scotch were always romantic, and they have made up their minds to be romantic in spite of the Puritans. The result is that Scott and Stevenson have picked up the tradition of Bruce, Blind Harry and the vagabond Scottish kings. England has become English again; Scotland has become Scottish again, in spite of the splendid incubus, the noble nightmare of Calvin. There is only one place in the British Islands where one may naturally expect to find still surviving in its fulness the fierce detachment of the true Puritan. That place is the Protestant part of Ireland. The Orange Calvinists can be disturbed by no national resurrection, for they have no nation. In them, if in any people, will be found the rectangular consistency of the Calvinist. The Irish Protestant rioters are at least immeasurably finer fellows than any of their brethren in England. They have the two enormous superiorities: first, that the Irish Protestant rioters really believe in Protestant theology; and second, that the Irish Protestant rioters do really riot. Among these people, if anywhere, should be found the cult of theological clarity combined with barbarous external simplicity. Among these people Bernard Shaw was born.
There is at least one outstanding fact about the man we are studying; Bernard Shaw is never frivolous. He never gives his opinions a holiday; he is never irresponsible even for an instant. He has no nonsensical second self which he can get into as one gets into a dressing-gown; that ridiculous disguise which is yet more real than the real person. That collapse and humorous confession of futility was much of the force in Charles Lamb and in Stevenson. There is nothing of this in Shaw; his wit is never a weakness; therefore it is never a sense of humour. For wit is always connected with the idea that truth is close and clear. Humour, on the other hand, is always connected with the idea that truth is tricky and mystical and easily mistaken. What Charles Lamb said of the Scotchman is far truer of this type of Puritan Irishman; he does not see things suddenly in a new light; all his brilliancy is a blindingly rapid calculation and deduction. Bernard Shaw never said an indefensible thing; that is, he never said a thing that he was not prepared brilliantly to defend. He never breaks out into that cry beyond reason and conviction, that cry of Lamb when he cried, “We would indict our dreams!” or of Stevenson, “Shall we never shed blood?” In short he is not a humorist, but a great wit, almost as great as Voltaire. Humour is akin to agnosticism, which is only the negative side of mysticism. But pure wit is akin to Puritanism; to the perfect and painful consciousness of the final fact in the universe. Very briefly, the man who sees the consistency in things is a wit—and a Calvinist. The man who sees the inconsistency in things is a humorist—and a Catholic. However this may be, Bernard Shaw exhibits all that is purest in the Puritan; the desire to see truth face to face even if it slay us, the high impatience with irrelevant sentiment or obstructive symbol; the constant effort to keep the soul at its highest pressure and speed. His instincts upon all social customs and questions are Puritan. His favourite author is Bunyan.
Non voglio dogmatizzare sulla difficile questione se vi sia un qualche significato religioso nel fatto che questi tre irlandesi piuttosto spietati fossero irlandesi protestanti. Personalmente propendo a pensare che la Chiesa Cattolica abbia aggiunto carità e mitezza alle virtù di un popolo che altrimenti sarebbe stato troppo acuto e sprezzante, troppo aristocratico. Ma comunque sia, non può esserci certo dubbio che l’educazione protestante di Bernard Shaw in un paese cattolico abbia fatto una grande differenza per la sua mente. L’ha influenzata in due modi, il primo negativo e il secondo positivo. L’ha influenzata tagliandolo fuori (come abbiamo detto) dai campi e dalle sorgenti della sua vera casa e della sua vera storia; facendone un orangista. E l’ha influenzata con il particolare colore della particolare religione che egli ricevette; facendone un puritano.
In una delle sue numerose prefazioni egli dice: «Sono sempre stato dalla parte dei puritani in materia d’Arte»; e uno studio più attento rivelerà, credo, che egli è dalla parte dei puritani in quasi ogni cosa. Il Puritanesimo non era un mero codice di crudeli regolamenti, benché alcuni dei suoi regolamenti fossero più crudeli di qualsiasi altro che abbia disonorato l’Europa. Né il Puritanesimo era un mero incubo, un’ombra malefica di cupezza e fatalismo orientali, benché quest’elemento vi entrasse davvero, e fosse per così dire il sintomo e la punizione del suo errore essenziale. Qualcosa di assai più nobile (anche se quasi ugualmente errato) era l’energia originaria del credo puritano. E va definita con un poco più di delicatezza se davvero vogliamo comprendere l’atteggiamento di G. B. S., che è il più grande dei puritani moderni e forse l’ultimo.
Definirei grosso modo così il primo spirito del Puritanesimo. Era un rifiuto di contemplare Dio o la bontà con qualcosa di più leggero o mite della più fiera concentrazione dell’intelletto. Un puritano significava in origine un uomo la cui mente non aveva vacanze. Per usare la sua frase preferita, egli non avrebbe lasciato che alcuna cosa vivente si frapponesse fra lui e il suo Dio; un atteggiamento che comportava per lui un tormento eterno e un crudele disprezzo per tutte le cose viventi. Era meglio adorare in un granaio che in una cattedrale per la specifica e precisa ragione che la cattedrale era bella. La bellezza fisica era un simbolo falso e sensuale che si frapponeva fra l’intelletto e l’oggetto del suo culto intellettuale. Il cervello umano doveva essere in ogni istante un fuoco divorante che ardeva attraverso tutte le immagini convenzionali finché non fossero trasparenti come vetro.
Questa è l’idea puritana essenziale: che Dio può essere lodato solo con la contemplazione diretta di Lui. Devi lodare Dio solo con il tuo cervello; è malvagio lodarlo con le tue passioni o le tue abitudini fisiche o il tuo gesto o istinto di bellezza. Perciò è malvagio adorare cantando o danzando o bevendo vini sacramentali o costruendo belle chiese o recitando preghiere quando si è mezzo addormentati. Non dobbiamo adorare danzando, bevendo, costruendo o cantando; possiamo adorare solo pensando. Le nostre teste possono lodare Dio, ma mai le nostre mani e i nostri piedi. Questo è il vero e originario impulso dei puritani. C’è molto da dire in suo favore, e molto fu detto in suo favore in Gran Bretagna costantemente per duecento anni. È gradualmente decaduto in Inghilterra e in Scozia, non a causa dell’avanzata del pensiero moderno (che non significa nulla), ma a causa del lento risveglio dell’energia e del carattere medievale nei due popoli. Gli inglesi furono sempre cordiali e umani, e hanno deciso di essere cordiali e umani a dispetto dei puritani. Il risultato è che Dickens e W. W. Jacobs hanno raccolto la tradizione di Chaucer e di Robin Hood. Gli scozzesi furono sempre romantici, e hanno deciso di essere romantici a dispetto dei puritani. Il risultato è che Scott e Stevenson hanno raccolto la tradizione di Bruce, di Blind Harry e dei vagabondi re scozzesi. L’Inghilterra è tornata inglese; la Scozia è tornata scozzese, a dispetto dello splendido incubo, del nobile incubo di Calvino. C’è un solo luogo nelle Isole Britanniche dove ci si può naturalmente aspettare di trovare ancora sopravvissuto nella sua pienezza il fiero distacco del vero puritano. Quel luogo è la parte protestante dell’Irlanda. I calvinisti orangisti non possono essere turbati da alcuna resurrezione nazionale, perché non hanno nazione. In loro, se in qualche popolo, si troverà la rettangolare coerenza del calvinista. I rivoltosi protestanti irlandesi sono almeno incommensurabilmente compagni più validi di qualunque loro confratello in Inghilterra. Essi hanno le due enormi superiorità: primo, che i rivoltosi protestanti irlandesi credono davvero nella teologia protestante; e secondo, che i rivoltosi protestanti irlandesi si rivoltano davvero. Fra questa gente, se in qualche luogo, dovrebbe trovarsi il culto della chiarezza teologica combinato con una barbarica semplicità esteriore. Fra questa gente Bernard Shaw nacque.
C’è almeno un fatto lampante riguardo all’uomo che stiamo studiando; Bernard Shaw non è mai frivolo. Non concede mai una vacanza alle sue opinioni; non è mai irresponsabile nemmeno per un istante. Non ha alcun assurdo secondo io in cui possa infilarsi come ci si infila in una vestaglia; quel ridicolo travestimento che è tuttavia più reale della persona reale. Quel crollo e quell’umoristica confessione di futilità furono gran parte della forza in Charles Lamb e in Stevenson. Non c’è nulla di questo in Shaw; il suo spirito non è mai una debolezza; perciò non è mai un senso dell’umorismo. Poiché lo spirito è sempre legato all’idea che la verità sia vicina e chiara. L’umorismo, d’altra parte, è sempre legato all’idea che la verità sia insidiosa e mistica e facilmente fraintendibile. Ciò che Charles Lamb disse dello scozzese è assai più vero di questo tipo di irlandese puritano; egli non vede le cose all’improvviso in una nuova luce; tutta la sua brillantezza è un calcolo e una deduzione accecantemente rapidi. Bernard Shaw non disse mai una cosa indifendibile; vale a dire, non disse mai una cosa che non fosse pronto a difendere brillantemente. Egli non prorompe mai in quel grido al di là della ragione e della convinzione, in quel grido di Lamb quando gridò: «Vorremmo incriminare i nostri sogni!», o di Stevenson: «Non verseremo mai sangue?» In breve egli non è un umorista, ma un grande spirito, quasi grande quanto Voltaire. L’umorismo è affine all’agnosticismo, che non è che il lato negativo del misticismo. Ma il puro spirito è affine al Puritanesimo; alla perfetta e dolorosa consapevolezza del fatto ultimo dell’universo. Assai brevemente, l’uomo che vede la coerenza nelle cose è uno spirito arguto — e un calvinista. L’uomo che vede l’incoerenza nelle cose è un umorista — e un cattolico. Comunque sia, Bernard Shaw mostra tutto ciò che è più puro nel puritano; il desiderio di vedere la verità faccia a faccia anche se dovesse ucciderci, l’alta impazienza verso il sentimento irrilevante o il simbolo ingombrante; il costante sforzo di tenere l’anima alla sua massima pressione e velocità. I suoi istinti su tutte le usanze e le questioni sociali sono puritani. Il suo autore preferito è Bunyan.
But along with what was inspiring and direct in Puritanism Bernard Shaw has inherited also some of the things that were cumbersome and traditional. If ever Shaw exhibits a prejudice it is always a Puritan prejudice. For Puritanism has not been able to sustain through three centuries that native ecstasy of the direct contemplation of truth; indeed it was the whole mistake of Puritanism to imagine for a moment that it could. One cannot be serious for three hundred years. In institutions built so as to endure for ages you must have relaxation, symbolic relativity and healthy routine. In eternal temples you must have frivolity. You must “be at ease in Zion” unless you are only paying it a flying visit.
By the middle of the nineteenth century this old austerity and actuality in the Puritan vision had fallen away into two principal lower forms. The first is a sort of idealistic garrulity upon which Bernard Shaw has made fierce and on the whole fruitful war. Perpetual talk about righteousness and unselfishness, about things that should elevate and things which cannot but degrade, about social purity and true Christian manhood, all poured out with fatal fluency and with very little reference to the real facts of anybody’s soul or salary—into this weak and lukewarm torrent has melted down much of that mountainous ice which sparkled in the seventeenth century, bleak indeed, but blazing. The hardest thing of the seventeenth century bids fair to be the softest thing of the twentieth.
Of all this sentimental and deliquescent Puritanism Bernard Shaw has always been the antagonist; and the only respect in which it has soiled him was that he believed for only too long that such sloppy idealism was the whole idealism of Christendom and so used “idealist” itself as a term of reproach. But there were other and negative effects of Puritanism which he did not escape so completely. I cannot think that he has wholly escaped that element in Puritanism which may fairly bear the title of the taboo. For it is a singular fact that although extreme Protestantism is dying in elaborate and over-refined civilisation, yet it is the barbaric patches of it that live longest and die last. Of the creed of John Knox the modern Protestant has abandoned the civilised part and retained only the savage part. He has given up that great and systematic philosophy of Calvinism which had much in common with modern science and strongly resembles ordinary and recurrent determinism. But he has retained the accidental veto upon cards or comic plays, which Knox only valued as mere proof of his people’s concentration on their theology. All the awful but sublime affirmations of Puritan theology are gone. Only savage negations remain; such as that by which in Scotland on every seventh day the creed of fear lays his finger on all hearts and makes an evil silence in the streets.
By the middle of the nineteenth century when Shaw was born this dim and barbaric element in Puritanism, being all that remained of it, had added another taboo to its philosophy of taboos; there had grown up a mystical horror of those fermented drinks which are part of the food of civilised mankind. Doubtless many persons take an extreme line on this matter solely because of some calculation of social harm; many, but not all and not even most. Many people think that paper money is a mistake and does much harm. But they do not shudder or snigger when they see a cheque-book. They do not whisper with unsavoury slyness that such and such a man was “seen” going into a bank. I am quite convinced that the English aristocracy is the curse of England, but I have not noticed either in myself or others any disposition to ostracise a man simply for accepting a peerage, as the modern Puritans would certainly ostracise him (from any of their positions of trust) for accepting a drink. The sentiment is certainly very largely a mystical one, like the sentiment about the seventh day. Like the Sabbath, it is defended with sociological reasons; but those reasons can be simply and sharply tested. If a Puritan tells you that all humanity should rest once a week, you have only to propose that they should rest on Wednesday. And if a Puritan tells you that he does not object to beer but to the tragedies of excess in beer, simply propose to him that in prisons and workhouses (where the amount can be absolutely regulated) the inmates should have three glasses of beer a day. The Puritan cannot call that excess; but he will find something to call it. For it is not the excess he objects to, but the beer. It is a transcendental taboo, and it is one of the two or three positive and painful prejudices with which Bernard Shaw began. A similar severity of outlook ran through all his earlier attitude towards the drama; especially towards the lighter or looser drama. His Puritan teachers could not prevent him from taking up theatricals, but they made him take theatricals seriously. All his plays were indeed “plays for Puritans.” All his criticisms quiver with a refined and almost tortured contempt for the indulgencies of ballet and burlesque, for the tights and the DOUBLE ENTENTE. He can endure lawlessness but not levity. He is not repelled by the divorces and the adulteries as he is by the “splits.” And he has always been foremost among the fierce modern critics who ask indignantly, “Why do you object to a thing full of sincere philosophy like THE WILD DUCk while you tolerate a mere dirty joke like THE SPRING CHICKEN?” I do not think he has ever understood what seems to me the very sensible answer of the man in the street, “I laugh at the dirty joke of THE SPRING CHICKEN because it is a joke. I criticise the philosophy of THE WILD DUCk because it is a philosophy.”
Shaw does not do justice to the democratic ease and sanity on this subject; but indeed, whatever else he is, he is not democratic. As an Irishman he is an aristocrat, as a Calvinist he is a soul apart; he drew the breath of his nostrils from a land of fallen principalities and proud gentility, and the breath of his spirit from a creed which made a wall of crystal around the elect. The two forces between them produced this potent and slender figure, swift, scornful, dainty and full of dry magnanimity; and it only needed the last touch of oligarchic mastery to be given by the overwhelming oligarchic atmosphere of our present age. Such was the Puritan Irishman who stepped out into the world. Into what kind of world did he step?
Ma insieme a ciò che nel Puritanesimo era ispirante e diretto, Bernard Shaw ha ereditato anche alcune delle cose che erano ingombranti e tradizionali. Se mai Shaw mostra un pregiudizio, è sempre un pregiudizio puritano. Perché il Puritanesimo non è stato capace di sostenere per tre secoli quell’estasi nativa della contemplazione diretta della verità; anzi fu l’intero errore del Puritanesimo immaginare anche solo per un momento di poterlo fare. Non si può essere seri per trecento anni. In istituzioni costruite per durare intere epoche bisogna avere rilassamento, relatività simbolica e sana routine. Nei templi eterni bisogna avere la frivolezza. Bisogna «star comodi in Sion», a meno che non le si stia solo facendo una visita di passaggio.
Verso la metà del diciannovesimo secolo quest’antica austerità e attualità nella visione puritana era decaduta in due principali forme inferiori. La prima è una sorta di garrula loquacità idealistica contro cui Bernard Shaw ha mosso una guerra fiera e nel complesso fruttuosa. Perpetue chiacchiere sulla rettitudine e l’altruismo, sulle cose che dovrebbero elevare e le cose che non possono che degradare, sulla purezza sociale e la vera virilità cristiana, tutto riversato con fatale scioltezza e con assai scarso riferimento ai fatti reali dell’anima o dello stipendio di chicchessia — in questo debole e tiepido torrente si è sciolta gran parte di quel montagnoso ghiaccio che scintillava nel diciassettesimo secolo, tetro sì, ma fiammeggiante. La cosa più dura del diciassettesimo secolo promette di essere la cosa più molle del ventesimo.
Di tutto questo Puritanesimo sentimentale e deliquescente Bernard Shaw è sempre stato l’antagonista; e l’unico aspetto in cui esso lo ha macchiato è che egli credette fin troppo a lungo che tale sdolcinato idealismo fosse l’intero idealismo della Cristianità, e così usò «idealista» stesso come termine di biasimo. Ma vi furono altri e negativi effetti del Puritanesimo a cui egli non sfuggì così completamente. Non posso credere che sia sfuggito interamente a quell’elemento del Puritanesimo che può giustamente portare il titolo di tabù. Perché è un fatto singolare che, benché il protestantesimo estremo stia morendo nelle civiltà elaborate e ultra-raffinate, siano tuttavia le sue chiazze barbariche a vivere più a lungo e a morire per ultime. Del credo di John Knox il protestante moderno ha abbandonato la parte civilizzata e ha mantenuto solo la parte selvaggia. Ha rinunciato a quella grande e sistematica filosofia del calvinismo che aveva molto in comune con la scienza moderna e assomiglia fortemente all’ordinario e ricorrente determinismo. Ma ha mantenuto l’accidentale veto sulle carte o sulle commedie comiche, che Knox apprezzava solo come mera prova della concentrazione del suo popolo sulla teologia. Tutte le tremende ma sublimi affermazioni della teologia puritana sono scomparse. Restano solo selvagge negazioni; come quella per cui in Scozia, ogni settimo giorno, il credo della paura posa il suo dito su tutti i cuori e crea un malefico silenzio nelle strade.
Verso la metà del diciannovesimo secolo, quando Shaw nacque, quest’oscuro e barbarico elemento del Puritanesimo, essendo tutto ciò che ne rimaneva, aveva aggiunto un altro tabù alla sua filosofia di tabù; era cresciuto un mistico orrore per quelle bevande fermentate che sono parte del cibo dell’umanità civilizzata. Senza dubbio molte persone assumono una posizione estrema su questa materia unicamente per qualche calcolo del danno sociale; molte, ma non tutte e nemmeno la maggior parte. Molti pensano che la carta moneta sia un errore e faccia molto male. Ma non rabbrividiscono né sogghignano quando vedono un libretto di assegni. Non bisbigliano con sgradevole malizia che questo o quell’uomo è stato «visto» entrare in una banca. Sono pienamente convinto che l’aristocrazia inglese sia la maledizione dell’Inghilterra, ma non ho notato né in me né in altri alcuna disposizione a ostracizzare un uomo semplicemente per aver accettato un titolo nobiliare, come i puritani moderni lo ostracizzerebbero certamente (da qualsiasi loro posizione di fiducia) per aver accettato da bere. Il sentimento è certamente in gran parte mistico, come il sentimento riguardo al settimo giorno. Come il Sabato, viene difeso con ragioni sociologiche; ma quelle ragioni possono essere verificate in modo semplice e netto. Se un puritano ti dice che tutta l’umanità dovrebbe riposare una volta a settimana, non hai che da proporre che riposino di mercoledì. E se un puritano ti dice che non ha nulla contro la birra ma contro le tragedie dell’eccesso di birra, proponigli semplicemente che nelle prigioni e negli ospizi (dove la quantità può essere regolata in modo assoluto) i ricoverati abbiano tre bicchieri di birra al giorno. Il puritano non potrà chiamarlo eccesso; ma troverà qualcosa con cui chiamarlo. Perché non è all’eccesso che si oppone, ma alla birra. È un tabù trascendentale, ed è uno dei due o tre pregiudizi positivi e dolorosi con cui Bernard Shaw cominciò. Una simile severità di sguardo percorreva tutto il suo primo atteggiamento verso il teatro; specialmente verso il teatro più leggero o più licenzioso. I suoi maestri puritani non poterono impedirgli di dedicarsi al teatro, ma gli fecero prendere il teatro sul serio. Tutte le sue commedie furono davvero «commedie per puritani». Tutte le sue critiche fremono di un raffinato e quasi tormentato disprezzo per le indulgenze del balletto e della farsa, per le calzamaglie e il DOPPIO SENSO. Egli può sopportare l’illegalità ma non la leggerezza. Non è respinto dai divorzi e dagli adultèri quanto lo è dalle «spaccate». E si è sempre trovato in prima fila fra i fieri critici moderni che domandano indignati: «Perché ti opponi a una cosa piena di sincera filosofia come L’ANATRA SELVATICA mentre tolleri una mera barzelletta sporca come THE SPRING CHICKEN?» Non credo che egli abbia mai compreso quella che a me pare la sensatissima risposta dell’uomo della strada: «Rido della barzelletta sporca di THE SPRING CHICKEN perché è una barzelletta. Critico la filosofia de L’ANATRA SELVATICA perché è una filosofia.»
Shaw non rende giustizia all’agio e alla sanità democratica su questo tema; ma in verità, qualunque altra cosa egli sia, non è democratico. Come irlandese è un aristocratico, come calvinista è un’anima a sé; egli trasse il respiro delle sue narici da una terra di principati caduti e di orgogliosa nobiltà, e il respiro del suo spirito da un credo che eresse un muro di cristallo attorno agli eletti. Le due forze, insieme, produssero questa figura potente ed esile, rapida, sprezzante, delicata e piena di arida magnanimità; e mancava solo l’ultimo tocco di padronanza oligarchica, che sarebbe stato dato dalla schiacciante atmosfera oligarchica della nostra epoca presente. Tale era il puritano irlandese che uscì nel mondo. In che genere di mondo mise piede?
The Progressive
IT is now partly possible to justify the Shavian method of putting the explanations before the events. I can now give a fact or two with a partial certainty at least that the reader will give to the affairs of Bernard Shaw something of the same kind of significance which they have for Bernard Shaw himself. Thus, if I had simply said that Shaw was born in Dublin the average reader might exclaim, “Ah yes—a wild Irishman, gay, emotional and untrustworthy.” The wrong note would be struck at the start. I have attempted to give some idea of what being born in Ireland meant to the man who was really born there. Now therefore for the first time I may be permitted to confess that Bernard Shaw was, like other men, born. He was born in Dublin on the 26th of July, 1856.
Just as his birth can only be appreciated through some vision of Ireland, so his family can only be appreciated by some realisation of the Puritan. He was the youngest son of one George Carr Shaw, who had been a civil servant and was afterwards a somewhat unsuccessful business man. If I had merely said that his family was Protestant (which in Ireland means Puritan) it might have been passed over as a quite colourless detail. But if the reader will keep in mind what has been said about the degeneration of Calvinism into a few clumsy vetoes, he will see in its full and frightful significance such a sentence as this which comes from Shaw himself: “My father was in theory a vehement teetotaller, but in practice often a furtive drinker.” The two things of course rest upon exactly the same philosophy; the philosophy of the taboo. There is a mystical substance, and it can give monstrous pleasures or call down monstrous punishments. The dipsomaniac and the abstainer are not only both mistaken, but they both make the same mistake. They both regard wine as a drug and not as a drink. But if I had mentioned that fragment of family information without any ethical preface, people would have begun at once to talk nonsense about artistic heredity and Celtic weakness, and would have gained the general impression that Bernard Shaw was an Irish wastrel and the child of Irish wastrels. Whereas it is the whole point of the matter that Bernard Shaw comes of a Puritan middle-class family of the most solid respectability; and the only admission of error arises from the fact that one member of that Puritan family took a particularly Puritan view of strong drink. That is, he regarded it generally as a poison and sometimes as a medicine, if only a mental medicine. But a poison and a medicine are very closely akin, as the nearest chemist knows; and they are chiefly akin in this; that no one will drink either of them for fun. Moreover, medicine and a poison are also alike in this; that no one will by preference drink either of them in public. And this medical or poisonous view of alcohol is not confined to the one Puritan to whose failure I have referred, it is spread all over the whole of our dying Puritan civilisation. For instance, social reformers have fired a hundred shots against the public-house; but never one against its really shameful feature. The sign of decay is not in the public-house, but in the private bar; or rather the row of five or six private bars, into each of which a respectable dipsomaniac can go in solitude, and by indulging his own half-witted sin violate his own half-witted morality. Nearly all these places are equipped with an atrocious apparatus of ground-glass windows which can be so closed that they practically conceal the face of the buyer from the seller. Words cannot express the abysses of human infamy and hateful shame expressed by that elaborate piece of furniture. Whenever I go into a public-house, which happens fairly often, I always carefully open all these apertures and then leave the place, in every way refreshed.
In other ways also it is necessary to insist not only on the fact of an extreme Protestantism, but on that of the Protestantism of a garrison; a world where that religious force both grew and festered all the more for being at once isolated and protected. All the influences surrounding Bernard Shaw in boyhood were not only Puritan, but such that no non-Puritan force could possibly pierce or counteract. He belonged to that Irish group which, according to Catholicism, has hardened its heart, which, according to Protestantism has hardened its head, but which, as I fancy, has chiefly hardened its hide, lost its sensibility to the contact of the things around it. In reading about his youth, one forgets that it was passed in the island which is still one flame before the altar of St. Peter and St. Patrick. The whole thing might be happening in Wimbledon. He went to the Wesleyan Connexional School. He went to hear Moody and Sankey. “I was,” he writes, “wholly unmoved by their eloquence; and felt bound to inform the public that I was, on the whole, an atheist. My letter was solemnly printed in PUBLIC OPINION, to the extreme horror of my numerous aunts and uncles.” That is the philosophical atmosphere; those are the religious postulates. It could never cross the mind of a man of the Garrison that before becoming an atheist he might stroll into one of the churches of his own country, and learn something of the philosophy that had satisfied Dante and Bossuet, Pascal and Descartes.
In the same way I have to appeal to my theoretic preface at this third point of the drama of Shaw’s career. On leaving school he stepped into a secure business position which he held steadily for four years and which he flung away almost in one day. He rushed even recklessly to London; where he was quite unsuccessful and practically starved for six years. If I had mentioned this act on the first page of this book it would have seemed to have either the simplicity of a mere fanatic or else to cover some ugly escapade of youth or some quite criminal looseness of temperament. But Bernard Shaw did not act thus because he was careless, but because he was ferociously careful, careful especially of the one thing needful. What was he thinking about when he threw away his last halfpence and went to a strange place; what was he thinking about when he endured hunger and small-pox in London almost without hope? He was thinking of what he has ever since thought of, the slow but sure surge of the social revolution; you must read into all those bald sentences and empty years what I shall attempt to sketch in the third section. You must read the revolutionary movement of the later nineteenth century, darkened indeed by materialism and made mutable by fear and free thought, but full of awful vistas of an escape from the curse of Adam.
Il Progressista
ORA è in parte possibile giustificare il metodo shaviano di porre le spiegazioni prima degli eventi. Posso ora fornire un fatto o due con una parziale certezza, almeno, che il lettore darà alle vicende di Bernard Shaw qualcosa dello stesso genere di significato che esse hanno per Bernard Shaw stesso. Così, se avessi semplicemente detto che Shaw nacque a Dublino, il lettore medio potrebbe esclamare: «Ah sì — un irlandese selvaggio, gaio, emotivo e inaffidabile.» La nota sbagliata sarebbe stata suonata fin dal principio. Ho tentato di dare qualche idea di che cosa significasse nascere in Irlanda per l’uomo che vi nacque davvero. Ora dunque, per la prima volta, mi sia permesso di confessare che Bernard Shaw, come gli altri uomini, nacque. Nacque a Dublino il 26 luglio 1856.
Proprio come la sua nascita può essere apprezzata solo attraverso una qualche visione dell’Irlanda, così la sua famiglia può essere apprezzata solo attraverso una qualche comprensione del puritano. Egli era il figlio più giovane di un certo George Carr Shaw, che era stato un funzionario pubblico e fu poi un uomo d’affari alquanto malriuscito. Se avessi soltanto detto che la sua famiglia era protestante (il che in Irlanda significa puritana), la cosa avrebbe potuto essere sorvolata come un dettaglio del tutto incolore. Ma se il lettore terrà a mente ciò che è stato detto sulla degenerazione del calvinismo in pochi goffi veti, egli vedrà in tutto il suo pieno e spaventoso significato una frase come questa che viene da Shaw stesso: «Mio padre era in teoria un veemente astemio, ma in pratica spesso un bevitore di nascosto.» Le due cose naturalmente poggiano esattamente sulla stessa filosofia; la filosofia del tabù. C’è una sostanza mistica, ed essa può dare mostruosi piaceri o richiamare mostruose punizioni. Il dipsomane e l’astinente non solo hanno entrambi torto, ma commettono entrambi lo stesso errore. Entrambi considerano il vino come una droga e non come una bevanda. Ma se avessi menzionato quel frammento di informazione familiare senza alcuna premessa etica, la gente avrebbe cominciato subito a dire sciocchezze sull’ereditarietà artistica e la debolezza celtica, e avrebbe ricavato l’impressione generale che Bernard Shaw fosse uno scapestrato irlandese e il figlio di scapestrati irlandesi. Mentre è tutto il punto della faccenda che Bernard Shaw provenga da una famiglia puritana della classe media della più solida rispettabilità; e l’unica ammissione di errore nasce dal fatto che un membro di quella famiglia puritana assunse una veduta particolarmente puritana sulle bevande forti. Vale a dire, lo considerava in generale un veleno e talvolta una medicina, se non altro una medicina mentale. Ma un veleno e una medicina sono molto affini, come sa il più vicino farmacista; e sono affini soprattutto in questo: che nessuno berrà l’uno o l’altra per divertimento. Inoltre, la medicina e un veleno si assomigliano anche in questo: che nessuno, per scelta, berrà l’una o l’altro in pubblico. E questa veduta medica o velenosa dell’alcol non è limitata all’unico puritano al cui fallimento mi sono riferito, è diffusa in tutta la nostra morente civiltà puritana. Per esempio, i riformatori sociali hanno sparato cento colpi contro l’osteria; ma mai uno contro il suo tratto davvero vergognoso. Il segno della decadenza non è nell’osteria pubblica, ma nel bar privato; o meglio nella fila di cinque o sei bar privati, in ognuno dei quali un rispettabile dipsomane può entrare in solitudine, e, indulgendo al proprio scemo peccato, violare la propria scema morale. Quasi tutti questi luoghi sono attrezzati con un atroce apparato di finestre a vetro smerigliato che possono essere chiuse in modo da celare praticamente il volto del compratore al venditore. Le parole non possono esprimere gli abissi di umana infamia e di odiosa vergogna espressi da quell’elaborato pezzo di arredamento. Ogni volta che entro in un’osteria, cosa che accade abbastanza spesso, apro sempre con cura tutte queste aperture e poi lascio il locale, ristorato sotto ogni riguardo.
Anche sotto altri aspetti è necessario insistere non solo sul fatto di un protestantesimo estremo, ma su quello del protestantesimo di una guarnigione; un mondo in cui quella forza religiosa insieme crebbe e imputridì tanto più per essere al tempo stesso isolata e protetta. Tutte le influenze che circondavano Bernard Shaw nella fanciullezza non erano soltanto puritane, ma tali che nessuna forza non puritana potesse in alcun modo penetrarle o contrastarle. Egli apparteneva a quel gruppo irlandese che, secondo il cattolicesimo, ha indurito il proprio cuore, che, secondo il protestantesimo, ha indurito la propria testa, ma che, a mio avviso, ha soprattutto indurito la propria pelle, perdendo la sensibilità al contatto delle cose che lo circondano. Leggendo della sua giovinezza, si dimentica che essa trascorse nell’isola che è ancora una sola fiamma davanti all’altare di san Pietro e san Patrizio. L’intera faccenda potrebbe accadere a Wimbledon. Egli frequentò la Scuola Connessionale Wesleyana. Andò ad ascoltare Moody e Sankey. «Rimasi», scrive, «del tutto insensibile alla loro eloquenza; e mi sentii obbligato a informare il pubblico che ero, nel complesso, ateo. La mia lettera fu solennemente stampata su PUBLIC OPINION, con estremo orrore delle mie numerose zie e dei miei numerosi zii.» Questa è l’atmosfera filosofica; questi sono i postulati religiosi. Non potrebbe mai attraversare la mente di un uomo della Guarnigione l’idea che, prima di diventare ateo, egli potesse fare una passeggiata in una delle chiese del proprio paese, e imparare qualcosa della filosofia che aveva soddisfatto Dante e Bossuet, Pascal e Descartes.
Allo stesso modo devo appellarmi alla mia prefazione teorica a questo terzo punto del dramma della carriera di Shaw. Lasciata la scuola, egli entrò in una sicura posizione d’affari che tenne costantemente per quattro anni e che gettò via quasi in un solo giorno. Si precipitò persino avventatamente a Londra; dove ebbe assai poco successo e praticamente patì la fame per sei anni. Se avessi menzionato quest’atto sulla prima pagina di questo libro, sarebbe sembrato avere o la semplicità di un mero fanatico oppure coprire qualche brutta bravata giovanile o qualche del tutto criminale sregolatezza di temperamento. Ma Bernard Shaw non agì così perché fosse incurante, ma perché era ferocemente accorto, accorto specialmente della sola cosa necessaria. A che cosa pensava quando gettò via gli ultimi mezzo-penny e andò in un luogo sconosciuto; a che cosa pensava quando sopportò la fame e il vaiolo a Londra quasi senza speranza? Pensava a ciò a cui da allora ha sempre pensato, la lenta ma sicura ondata della rivoluzione sociale; dovete leggere in tutte quelle nude frasi e in quegli anni vuoti ciò che tenterò di abbozzare nella terza sezione. Dovete leggervi il movimento rivoluzionario del più tardo diciannovesimo secolo, oscurato sì dal materialismo e reso mutevole dalla paura e dal libero pensiero, ma pieno di tremende prospettive di una fuga dalla maledizione di Adamo.
Bernard Shaw happened to be born in an epoch, or rather at the end of an epoch, which was in its way unique in the ages of history. The nineteenth century was not unique in the success or rapidity of its reforms or in their ultimate cessation; but it was unique in the peculiar character of the failure which followed the success. The French Revolution was an enormous act of human realisation; it has altered the terms of every law and the shape of every town in Europe; but it was by no means the only example of a strong and swift period of reform. What was really peculiar about the Republican energy was this, that it left behind it, not an ordinary reaction but a kind of dreary, drawn out and utterly unmeaning hope. The strong and evident idea of reform sank lower and lower until it became the timid and feeble idea of progress. Towards the end of the nineteenth century there appeared its two incredible figures; they were the pure Conservative and the pure Progressive; two figures which would have been overwhelmed with laughter by any other intellectual commonwealth of history. There was hardly a human generation which could not have seen the folly of merely going forward or merely standing still; of mere progressing or mere conserving. In the coarsest Greek Comedy we might have a joke about a man who wanted to keep what he had, whether it was yellow gold or yellow fever. In the dullest mediaeval morality we might have a joke about a progressive gentleman who, having passed heaven and come to purgatory, decided to go further and fare worse. The twelfth and thirteenth centuries were an age of quite impetuous progress; men made in one rush, roads, trades, synthetic philosophies, parliaments, university settlements, a law that could cover the world and such spires as had never struck the sky. But they would not have said that they wanted progress, but that they wanted the road, the parliaments, and the spires. In the same way the time from Richelieu to the Revolution was upon the whole a time of conservation, often of harsh and hideous conservation; it preserved tortures, legal quibbles, and despotism. But if you had asked the rulers they would not have said that they wanted conservation; but that they wanted the torture and the despotism. The old reformers and the old despots alike desired definite THINGS, powers, licenses, payments, vetoes, and permissions. Only the modern progressive and the modern conservative have been content with two words.
Other periods of active improvement have died by stiffening at last into some routine. Thus the Gothic gaiety of the thirteenth century stiffening into the mere Gothic ugliness of the fifteenth. Thus the mighty wave of the Renaissance, whose crest was lifted to heaven, was touched by a wintry witchery of classicism and frozen for ever before it fell. Alone of all such movements the democratic movement of the last two centuries has not frozen, but loosened and liquefied. Instead of becoming more pedantic in its old age, it has grown more bewildered. By the analogy of healthy history we ought to have gone on worshipping the republic and calling each other citizen, with increasing seriousness until some other part of the truth broke into our republican temple. But in fact we have turned the freedom of democracy into a mere scepticism, destructive of everything, including democracy itself. It is none the less destructive because it is, so to speak, an optimistic scepticism—or, as I have said, a dreary hope. It was none the better because the destroyers were always talking about the new vistas and enlightenments which their new negations opened to us. The republican temple, like any other strong building, rested on certain definite limits and supports. But the modern man inside it went on indefinitely knocking holes in his own house and saying that they were windows. The result is not hard to calculate: the moral world was pretty well all windows and no house by the time that Bernard Shaw arrived on the scene.
Then there entered into full swing that great game of which he soon became the greatest master. A progressive or advanced person was now to mean not a man who wanted democracy, but a man who wanted something newer than democracy. A reformer was to be, not a man who wanted a parliament or a republic, but a man who wanted anything that he hadn’t got. The emancipated man must cast a weird and suspicious eye round him at all the institutions of the world, wondering which of them was destined to die in the next few centuries. Each one of them was whispering to himself, “What can I alter?”
This quite vague and varied discontent probably did lead to the revelation of many incidental wrongs and to much humane hard work in certain holes and corners. It also gave birth to a great deal of quite futile and frantic speculation, which seemed destined to take away babies from women, or to give votes to tom-cats. But it had an evil in it much deeper and more psychologically poisonous than any superficial absurdities. There was in this thirst to be “progressive” a subtle sort of double-mindedness and falsity. A man was so eager to be in advance of his age that he pretended to be in advance of himself. Institutions that his wholesome nature and habit fully accepted he had to sneer at as old-fashioned, out of a servile and snobbish fear of the future. Out of the primal forests, through all the real progress of history, man had picked his way obeying his human instinct, or (in the excellent phrase) following his nose. But now he was trying, by violent athletic exertions, to get in front of his nose.
Into this riot of all imaginary innovations Shaw brought the sharp edge of the Irishman and the concentration of the Puritan, and thoroughly thrashed all competitors in the difficult art of being at once modern and intelligent. In twenty twopenny controversies he took the revolutionary side, I fear in most cases because it was called revolutionary. But the other revolutionists were abruptly startled by the presentation of quite rational and ingenious arguments on their own side. The dreary thing about most new causes is that they are praised in such very old terms. Every new religion bores us with the same stale rhetoric about closer fellowship and the higher life. No one ever approximately equalled Bernard Shaw in the power of finding really fresh and personal arguments for these recent schemes and creeds. No one ever came within a mile of him in the knack of actually producing a new argument for a new philosophy. I give two instances to cover the kind of thing I mean. Bernard Shaw (being honestly eager to put himself on the modern side in everything) put himself on the side of what is called the feminist movement; the proposal to give the two sexes not merely equal social privileges, but identical. To this it is often answered that women cannot be soldiers; and to this again the sensible feminists answer that women run their own kind of physical risk, while the silly feminists answer that war is an outworn barbaric thing which women would abolish. But Bernard Shaw took the line of saying that women had been soldiers, in all occasions of natural and unofficial war, as in the French Revolution. That has the great fighting value of being an unexpected argument; it takes the other pugilist’s breath away for one important instant. To take the other case, Mr. Shaw has found himself, led by the same mad imp of modernity, on the side of the people who want to have phonetic spelling. The people who want phonetic spelling generally depress the world with tireless and tasteless explanations of how much easier it would be for children or foreign bagmen if “height” were spelt “hite.” Now children would curse spelling whatever it was, and we are not going to permit foreign bagmen to improve Shakespeare. Bernard Shaw charged along quite a different line; he urged that Shakespeare himself believed in phonetic spelling, since he spelt his own name in six different ways. According to Shaw, phonetic spelling is merely a return to the freedom and flexibility of Elizabethan literature. That, again, is exactly the kind of blow the old speller does not expect. As a matter of fact there is an answer to both the ingenuities I have quoted. When women have fought in revolutions they have generally shown that it was not natural to them, by their hysterical cruelty and insolence; it was the men who fought in the Revolution; it was the women who tortured the prisoners and mutilated the dead. And because Shakespeare could sing better than he could spell, it does not follow that his spelling and ours ought to be abruptly altered by a race that has lost all instinct for singing. But I do not wish to discuss these points; I only quote them as examples of the startling ability which really brought Shaw to the front; the ability to brighten even our modern movements with original and suggestive thoughts.
Bernard Shaw si trovò a nascere in un’epoca, o piuttosto alla fine di un’epoca, che era a suo modo unica fra le età della storia. Il diciannovesimo secolo non fu unico per il successo o la rapidità delle sue riforme né per la loro definitiva cessazione; ma fu unico per il peculiare carattere del fallimento che seguì al successo. La Rivoluzione Francese fu un enorme atto di realizzazione umana; ha alterato i termini di ogni legge e la forma di ogni città in Europa; ma non fu affatto l’unico esempio di un periodo forte e rapido di riforma. Ciò che era davvero peculiare dell’energia repubblicana era questo: che essa lasciò dietro di sé, non un’ordinaria reazione, ma una sorta di tetra, prolungata e del tutto insensata speranza. La forte ed evidente idea di riforma sprofondò sempre più in basso finché non divenne la timida e fiacca idea di progresso. Verso la fine del diciannovesimo secolo apparvero le sue due incredibili figure; erano il puro Conservatore e il puro Progressista; due figure che sarebbero state travolte dalle risate da qualsiasi altra comunità intellettuale della storia. Non c’è stata quasi una generazione umana che non avrebbe saputo vedere la follia del mero andare avanti o del mero star fermi; del mero progredire o del mero conservare. Nella più rozza Commedia greca potremmo avere una battuta su un uomo che voleva conservare ciò che aveva, fosse esso oro giallo o febbre gialla. Nella più insulsa moralità medievale potremmo avere una battuta su un gentiluomo progressista che, avendo oltrepassato il paradiso ed essendo giunto al purgatorio, decise di spingersi più in là e trovarsi peggio. Il dodicesimo e il tredicesimo secolo furono un’età di progresso quanto mai impetuoso; gli uomini fecero in un solo slancio strade, mestieri, filosofie sintetiche, parlamenti, insediamenti universitari, una legge che poteva coprire il mondo e guglie quali mai avevano trafitto il cielo. Ma non avrebbero detto di volere il progresso, bensì di volere la strada, i parlamenti e le guglie. Allo stesso modo il tempo da Richelieu alla Rivoluzione fu nel complesso un tempo di conservazione, spesso di aspra e orrida conservazione; esso conservò torture, cavilli legali e dispotismo. Ma se aveste interrogato i governanti, non avrebbero detto di volere la conservazione; bensì di volere la tortura e il dispotismo. I vecchi riformatori e i vecchi despoti desideravano ugualmente COSE precise, poteri, licenze, pagamenti, veti e permessi. Solo il progressista moderno e il conservatore moderno si sono accontentati di due parole.
Altri periodi di attivo miglioramento sono morti irrigidendosi alla fine in qualche routine. Così l’allegria gotica del tredicesimo secolo si irrigidì nella mera bruttezza gotica del quindicesimo. Così la possente onda del Rinascimento, la cui cresta si levò fino al cielo, fu toccata da una invernale stregoneria di classicismo e congelata per sempre prima di ricadere. Solo fra tutti questi movimenti, il movimento democratico degli ultimi due secoli non si è congelato, ma si è sciolto e liquefatto. Invece di diventare più pedante nella sua vecchiaia, è diventato più sconcertato. Per analogia con la storia sana avremmo dovuto continuare ad adorare la repubblica e a chiamarci l’un l’altro cittadino, con crescente serietà, finché qualche altra parte della verità non irrompesse nel nostro tempio repubblicano. Ma in realtà abbiamo trasformato la libertà della democrazia in un mero scetticismo, distruttivo di ogni cosa, compresa la democrazia stessa. Non è per questo meno distruttivo per il fatto di essere, per così dire, uno scetticismo ottimistico — o, come ho detto, una tetra speranza. Non era per questo migliore per il fatto che i distruttori parlavano sempre delle nuove prospettive e dei nuovi lumi che le loro nuove negazioni ci aprivano. Il tempio repubblicano, come ogni altro solido edificio, poggiava su certi limiti e sostegni precisi. Ma l’uomo moderno al suo interno continuava indefinitamente a praticare buchi nella propria casa dicendo che erano finestre. Il risultato non è difficile da calcolare: il mondo morale era pressoché tutto finestre e niente casa nel tempo in cui Bernard Shaw giunse sulla scena.
Allora entrò in pieno svolgimento quel grande gioco di cui egli divenne presto il più grande maestro. Una persona progressista o avanzata doveva ora significare non un uomo che voleva la democrazia, ma un uomo che voleva qualcosa di più nuovo della democrazia. Un riformatore doveva essere non un uomo che voleva un parlamento o una repubblica, ma un uomo che voleva qualsiasi cosa non avesse. L’uomo emancipato doveva gettare uno sguardo strano e sospettoso attorno a sé su tutte le istituzioni del mondo, chiedendosi quale di esse fosse destinata a morire nei prossimi secoli. Ciascuno di loro sussurrava fra sé: «Che cosa posso alterare?»
Questo scontento quanto mai vago e vario condusse probabilmente alla rivelazione di molti torti incidentali e a molto umano e duro lavoro in certi angoli e cantucci. Diede anche i natali a una gran quantità di speculazione del tutto futile e frenetica, che sembrava destinata a togliere i bambini alle donne, o a dare il voto ai gattoni. Ma conteneva un male assai più profondo e assai più psicologicamente velenoso di qualsiasi superficiale assurdità. C’era in questa sete di essere «progressisti» una sottile sorta di doppiezza mentale e di falsità. Un uomo era così ansioso di essere in anticipo sulla propria epoca da fingere di essere in anticipo su se stesso. Istituzioni che la sua sana natura e la sua abitudine pienamente accettavano, egli doveva deriderle come antiquate, per una servile e snobistica paura del futuro. Fuori dalle foreste primeve, attraverso tutto il reale progresso della storia, l’uomo si era aperto la via obbedendo al suo istinto umano, ovvero (nell’eccellente frase) seguendo il proprio naso. Ma ora egli tentava, con violenti sforzi atletici, di portarsi davanti al proprio naso.
In questo tumulto di tutte le innovazioni immaginarie Shaw portò il tagliente filo dell’irlandese e la concentrazione del puritano, e sbaragliò a fondo tutti i concorrenti nella difficile arte di essere al tempo stesso moderno e intelligente. In venti controversie da due soldi egli prese la parte rivoluzionaria, temo nella maggior parte dei casi perché veniva chiamata rivoluzionaria. Ma gli altri rivoluzionari furono bruscamente sorpresi dalla presentazione di argomenti quanto mai razionali e ingegnosi dalla loro stessa parte. La cosa tetra della maggior parte delle nuove cause è che vengono lodate in termini quanto mai vecchi. Ogni nuova religione ci annoia con la stessa trita retorica sulla più stretta fratellanza e sulla vita superiore. Nessuno mai eguagliò neppure lontanamente Bernard Shaw nella capacità di trovare argomenti davvero freschi e personali per questi recenti schemi e credi. Nessuno mai gli si avvicinò a un miglio nell’abilità di produrre effettivamente un nuovo argomento per una nuova filosofia. Do due esempi per illustrare il genere di cosa che intendo. Bernard Shaw (essendo onestamente ansioso di mettersi dalla parte moderna in ogni cosa) si mise dalla parte di ciò che si chiama il movimento femminista; la proposta di dare ai due sessi non soltanto uguali privilegi sociali, ma identici. A ciò si risponde spesso che le donne non possono essere soldati; e a questo di nuovo le femministe sensate rispondono che le donne corrono il proprio genere di rischio fisico, mentre le femministe sciocche rispondono che la guerra è una cosa barbarica e superata che le donne abolirebbero. Ma Bernard Shaw prese la linea di dire che le donne erano state soldati, in tutte le occasioni di guerra naturale e non ufficiale, come nella Rivoluzione Francese. Ciò ha il grande valore combattivo di essere un argomento inaspettato; toglie il fiato all’altro pugile per un istante importante. Per prendere l’altro caso, il signor Shaw si è trovato, guidato dallo stesso folle demonietto della modernità, dalla parte di coloro che vogliono l’ortografia fonetica. Coloro che vogliono l’ortografia fonetica generalmente deprimono il mondo con instancabili e insipide spiegazioni di quanto sarebbe più facile per i bambini o per i commessi viaggiatori stranieri se «height» si scrivesse «hite». Ora, i bambini malediranno l’ortografia qualunque essa sia, e non permetteremo a commessi viaggiatori stranieri di migliorare Shakespeare. Bernard Shaw caricò lungo tutta un’altra linea; sostenne che Shakespeare stesso credeva nell’ortografia fonetica, poiché scriveva il proprio nome in sei modi diversi. Secondo Shaw, l’ortografia fonetica non è che un ritorno alla libertà e alla flessibilità della letteratura elisabettiana. Anche questo è esattamente il genere di colpo che il vecchio ortografo non si aspetta. In realtà c’è una risposta a entrambe le ingegnosità che ho citato. Quando le donne hanno combattuto nelle rivoluzioni hanno generalmente mostrato che ciò non era loro naturale, con la loro isterica crudeltà e insolenza; furono gli uomini a combattere nella Rivoluzione; furono le donne a torturare i prigionieri e a mutilare i morti. E poiché Shakespeare sapeva cantare meglio di quanto sapesse scrivere, non ne consegue che la sua ortografia e la nostra debbano essere bruscamente alterate da una razza che ha perduto ogni istinto per il canto. Ma non desidero discutere questi punti; li cito soltanto come esempi della sorprendente abilità che davvero portò Shaw in prima fila; l’abilità di ravvivare persino i nostri movimenti moderni con pensieri originali e suggestivi.
But while Bernard Shaw pleasantly surprised innumerable cranks and revolutionists by finding quite rational arguments for them, he surprised them unpleasantly also by discovering something else. He discovered a turn of argument or trick of thought which has ever since been the plague of their lives, and given him in all assemblies of their kind, in the Fabian Society or in the whole Socialist movement, a fantastic but most formidable domination. This method may be approximately defined as that of revolutionising the revolutionists by turning their rationalism against their remaining sentimentalism. But definition leaves the matter dark unless we give one or two examples. Thus Bernard Shaw threw himself as thoroughly as any New Woman into the cause of the emancipation of women. But while the New Woman praised woman as a prophetess, the new man took the opportunity to curse her and kick her as a comrade. For the others sex equality meant the emancipation of women, which allowed them to be equal to men. For Shaw it mainly meant the emancipation of men, which allowed them to be rude to women. Indeed, almost every one of Bernard Shaw’s earlier plays might be called an argument between a man and a woman, in which the woman is thumped and thrashed and outwitted until she admits that she is the equal of her conqueror. This is the first case of the Shavian trick of turning on the romantic rationalists with their own rationalism. He said in substance, “If we are democrats, let us have votes for women; but if we are democrats, why on earth should we have respect for women?” I take one other example out of many. Bernard Shaw was thrown early into what may be called the cosmopolitan club of revolution. The Socialists of the S. D. F. call it “L’Internationale,” but the club covers more than Socialists. It covers many who consider themselves the champions of oppressed nationalities— Poland, Finland, and even Ireland; and thus a strong nationalist tendency exists in the revolutionary movement. Against this nationalist tendency Shaw set himself with sudden violence. If the flag of England was a piece of piratical humbug, was not the flag of Poland a piece of piratical humbug too? If we hated the jingoism of the existing armies and frontiers, why should we bring into existence new jingo armies and new jingo frontiers? All the other revolutionists fell in instinctively with Home Rule for Ireland. Shaw urged, in effect, that Home Rule was as bad as Home Influences and Home Cooking, and all the other degrading domesticities that began with the word “Home.” His ultimate support of the South African war was largely created by his irritation against the other revolutionists for favouring a nationalist resistance. The ordinary Imperialists objected to Pro-Boers because they were anti-patriots. Bernard Shaw objected to Pro-Boers because they were pro-patriots.
But among these surprise attacks of G. B. S., these turnings of scepticism against the sceptics, there was one which has figured largely in his life; the most amusing and perhaps the most salutary of all these reactions. The “progressive” world being in revolt against religion had naturally felt itself allied to science; and against the authority of priests it would perpetually hurl the authority of scientific men. Shaw gazed for a few moments at this new authority, the veiled god of Huxley and Tyndall, and then with the greatest placidity and precision kicked it in the stomach. He declared to the astounded progressives around him that physical science was a mystical fake like sacerdotalism; that scientists, like priests, spoke with authority because they could not speak with proof or reason; that the very wonders of science were mostly lies, like the wonders of religion. “When astronomers tell me”, he says somewhere, “that a star is so far off that its light takes a thousand years to reach us, the magnitude of the lie seems to me inartistic.” The paralysing impudence of such remarks left everyone quite breathless; and even to this day this particular part of Shaw’s satiric war has been far less followed up than it deserves. For there was present in it an element very marked in Shaw’s controversies; I mean that his apparent exaggerations are generally much better backed up by knowledge than would appear from their nature. He can lure his enemy on with fantasies and then overwhelm him with facts. Thus the man of science, when he read some wild passage in which Shaw compared Huxley to a tribal soothsayer grubbing in the entrails of animals, supposed the writer to be a mere fantastic whom science could crush with one finger. He would therefore engage in a controversy with Shaw about (let us say) vivisection, and discover to his horror that Shaw really knew a great deal about the subject, and could pelt him with expert witnesses and hospital reports. Among the many singular contradictions in a singular character, there is none more interesting than this combination of exactitude and industry in the detail of opinions with audacity and a certain wildness in their outline.
This great game of catching revolutionists napping, of catching the unconventional people in conventional poses, of outmarching and outmanoeuvring progressives till they felt like conservatives, of undermining the mines of Nihilists till they felt like the House of Lords, this great game of dishing the anarchists continued for some time to be his most effective business. It would be untrue to say that he was a cynic; he was never a cynic, for that implies a certain corrupt fatigue about human affairs, whereas he was vibrating with virtue and energy. Nor would it be fair to call him even a sceptic, for that implies a dogma of hopelessness and definite belief in unbelief. But it would be strictly just to describe him at this time, at any rate, as a merely destructive person. He was one whose main business was, in his own view, the pricking of illusions, the stripping away of disguises, and even the destruction of ideals. He was a sort of anti-confectioner whose whole business it was to take the gilt off the gingerbread.
Ma mentre Bernard Shaw sorprendeva piacevolmente innumerevoli visionari e rivoluzionari trovando per loro argomenti del tutto razionali, li sorprese anche sgradevolmente scoprendo qualcos’altro. Egli scoprì una piega dell’argomentazione o un artificio del pensiero che da allora è stato il flagello della loro vita, e gli ha dato in tutte le assemblee del loro genere, nella Società Fabiana o nell’intero movimento socialista, una dominazione fantastica ma quanto mai formidabile. Questo metodo può essere approssimativamente definito come quello di rivoluzionare i rivoluzionari volgendo il loro razionalismo contro il loro sentimentalismo residuo. Ma la definizione lascia oscura la faccenda a meno che non se ne diano uno o due esempi. Così Bernard Shaw si gettò tanto interamente quanto qualsiasi Donna Nuova nella causa dell’emancipazione delle donne. Ma mentre la Donna Nuova lodava la donna come profetessa, l’uomo nuovo colse l’occasione per maledirla e prenderla a calci come compagna. Per gli altri l’uguaglianza dei sessi significava l’emancipazione delle donne, che permetteva loro di essere uguali agli uomini. Per Shaw significava principalmente l’emancipazione degli uomini, che permetteva loro di essere sgarbati con le donne. Invero, quasi ognuna delle prime commedie di Bernard Shaw potrebbe dirsi una disputa tra un uomo e una donna, in cui la donna è battuta e bastonata e beffata finché non ammette di essere l’uguale del suo conquistatore. Questo è il primo caso dell’artificio shaviano di rivolgersi contro i romantici razionalisti con il loro stesso razionalismo. Egli disse in sostanza: «Se siamo democratici, diamo il voto alle donne; ma se siamo democratici, perché diamine dovremmo avere rispetto per le donne?». Prendo un altro esempio tra molti. Bernard Shaw fu gettato presto in ciò che può chiamarsi il circolo cosmopolita della rivoluzione. I socialisti della S. D. F. lo chiamano «L’Internationale», ma il circolo comprende più dei soli socialisti. Comprende molti che si considerano i campioni delle nazionalità oppresse — la Polonia, la Finlandia, e persino l’Irlanda; e così una forte tendenza nazionalista esiste nel movimento rivoluzionario. Contro questa tendenza nazionalista Shaw si schierò con improvvisa violenza. Se la bandiera dell’Inghilterra era un pezzo di piratesca ciarlataneria, non era anche la bandiera della Polonia un pezzo di piratesca ciarlataneria? Se odiavamo il bellicismo degli eserciti e delle frontiere esistenti, perché dovremmo far nascere nuovi eserciti bellicosi e nuove frontiere bellicose? Tutti gli altri rivoluzionari si accodarono istintivamente all’Home Rule per l’Irlanda. Shaw sostenne, in sostanza, che l’Home Rule era altrettanto pessima delle Home Influences e della Home Cooking, e di tutte le altre degradanti domesticità che cominciavano con la parola «Home». Il suo ultimo appoggio alla guerra sudafricana fu in gran parte generato dalla sua irritazione contro gli altri rivoluzionari per aver favorito una resistenza nazionalista. Gli imperialisti ordinari obiettavano ai filoboeri perché erano antipatriottici. Bernard Shaw obiettava ai filoboeri perché erano propatriottici.
Ma tra questi attacchi a sorpresa di G. B. S., questi rivolgimenti dello scetticismo contro gli scettici, ve ne fu uno che ha avuto larga parte nella sua vita; il più divertente e forse il più salutare di tutte queste reazioni. Il mondo «progressista», essendo in rivolta contro la religione, si era naturalmente sentito alleato della scienza; e contro l’autorità dei preti scagliava perpetuamente l’autorità degli uomini di scienza. Shaw fissò per qualche istante questa nuova autorità, il dio velato di Huxley e Tyndall, e poi con la più grande placidità e precisione le assestò un calcio nello stomaco. Egli dichiarò agli sbalorditi progressisti intorno a lui che la scienza fisica era una montatura mistica come il sacerdotalismo; che gli scienziati, al pari dei preti, parlavano con autorità perché non potevano parlare con prove o ragione; che le meraviglie stesse della scienza erano per lo più menzogne, come le meraviglie della religione. «Quando gli astronomi mi dicono», dice da qualche parte, «che una stella è così lontana che la sua luce impiega mille anni a giungere a noi, la grandezza della menzogna mi pare inartistica». La paralizzante impudenza di simili osservazioni lasciava tutti quanti senza fiato; e ancor oggi questa particolare parte della guerra satirica di Shaw è stata seguita assai meno di quanto meriti. Poiché in essa era presente un elemento assai marcato nelle controversie di Shaw; intendo dire che le sue apparenti esagerazioni sono generalmente molto meglio suffragate dalla conoscenza di quanto apparirebbe dalla loro natura. Egli sa attirare il suo nemico con fantasie e poi sopraffarlo con fatti. Così l’uomo di scienza, quando leggeva qualche passo sfrenato in cui Shaw paragonava Huxley a un indovino tribale che fruga nelle viscere degli animali, supponeva che lo scrittore fosse un mero fantasista che la scienza avrebbe potuto schiacciare con un dito. Egli s’impegnava perciò in una controversia con Shaw su (poniamo) la vivisezione, e scopriva con suo orrore che Shaw sapeva davvero moltissimo dell’argomento, e poteva tempestarlo di testimoni esperti e di rapporti d’ospedale. Tra le molte singolari contraddizioni di un singolare carattere, non ve n’è alcuna più interessante di questa combinazione di esattezza e diligenza nel dettaglio delle opinioni con l’audacia e una certa sfrenatezza nel loro contorno.
Questo gran gioco di cogliere i rivoluzionari a dormire, di cogliere le persone anticonvenzionali in pose convenzionali, di sopravanzare e superare in manovra i progressisti finché non si sentivano conservatori, di minare le mine dei nichilisti finché non si sentivano la Camera dei Lord, questo gran gioco di scompigliare gli anarchici continuò per qualche tempo a essere la sua occupazione più efficace. Sarebbe falso dire che egli fosse un cinico; non fu mai un cinico, poiché ciò implica una certa corrotta stanchezza riguardo alle faccende umane, mentre egli vibrava di virtù ed energia. Né sarebbe giusto chiamarlo persino uno scettico, poiché ciò implica un dogma di disperazione e una precisa fede nell’incredulità. Ma sarebbe strettamente giusto descriverlo in questo periodo, quantomeno, come una persona meramente distruttiva. Era uno la cui principale occupazione era, a suo stesso avviso, il pungere le illusioni, lo strappar via i travestimenti, e persino la distruzione degli ideali. Era una sorta di anti-pasticciere il cui intero mestiere era di togliere la doratura al panpepato.
Now I have no particular objection to people who take the gilt off the gingerbread; if only for this excellent reason, that I am much fonder of gingerbread than I am of gilt. But there are some objections to this task when it becomes a crusade or an obsession. One of them is this: that people who have really scraped the gilt off gingerbread generally waste the rest of their lives in attempting to scrape the gilt off gigantic lumps of gold. Such has too often been the case of Shaw. He can, if he likes, scrape the romance off the armaments of Europe or the party system of Great Britain. But he cannot scrape the romance off love or military valour, because it is all romance, and three thousand miles thick. It cannot, I think, be denied that much of Bernard Shaw’s splendid mental energy has been wasted in this weary business of gnawing at the necessary pillars of all possible society. But it would be grossly unfair to indicate that even in his first and most destructive stage he uttered nothing except these accidental, if arresting, negations. He threw his whole genius heavily into the scale in favour of two positive projects or causes of the period. When we have stated these we have really stated the full intellectual equipment with which he started his literary life.
I have said that Shaw was on the insurgent side in everything; but in the case of these two important convictions he exercised a solid power of choice. When he first went to London he mixed with every kind of revolutionary society, and met every kind of person except the ordinary person. He knew everybody, so to speak, except everybody. He was more than once a momentary apparition among the respectable atheists. He knew Bradlaugh and spoke on the platforms of that Hall of Science in which very simple and sincere masses of men used to hail with shouts of joy the assurance that they were not immortal. He retains to this day something of the noise and narrowness of that room; as, for instance, when he says that it is contemptible to have a craving for eternal life. This prejudice remains in direct opposition to all his present opinions, which are all to the effect that it is glorious to desire power, consciousness, and vitality even for one’s self. But this old secularist tag, that it is selfish to save one’s soul, remains with him long after he has practically glorified selfishness. It is a relic of those chaotic early days. And just as he mingled with the atheists he mingled with the anarchists, who were in the eighties a much more formidable body than now, disputing with the Socialists on almost equal terms the claim to be the true heirs of the Revolution. Shaw still talks entertainingly about this group. As far as I can make out, it was almost entirely female. When a book came out called A GIRL AMONG THE ANARCHISTS, G. B. S. was provoked to a sort of explosive reminiscence. “A girl among the anarchists!” he exclaimed to his present biographer; “if they had said ‘A man among the anarchists’ it would have been more of an adventure.” He is ready to tell other tales of this eccentric environment, most of which does not convey an impression of a very bracing atmosphere. That revolutionary society must have contained many high public ideals, but also a fair number of low private desires. And when people blame Bernard Shaw for his pitiless and prosaic coldness, his cutting refusal to reverence or admire, I think they should remember this riff-raff of lawless sentimentalism against which his common-sense had to strive, all the grandiloquent “comrades” and all the gushing “affinities,” all the sweetstuff sensuality and senseless sulking against law. If Bernard Shaw became a little too fond of throwing cold water upon prophecies or ideals, remember that he must have passed much of his youth among cosmopolitan idealists who wanted a little cold water in every sense of the word.
Upon two of these modern crusades he concentrated, and, as I have said, he chose them well. The first was broadly what was called the Humanitarian cause. It did not mean the cause of humanity, but rather, if anything, the cause of everything else. At its noblest it meant a sort of mystical identification of our life with the whole life of nature. So a man might wince when a snail was crushed as if his toe were trodden on; so a man might shrink when a moth shrivelled as if his own hair had caught fire. Man might be a network of exquisite nerves running over the whole universe, a subtle spider’s web of pity. This was a fine conception; though perhaps a somewhat severe enforcement of the theological conception of the special divinity of man. For the humanitarians certainly asked of humanity what can be asked of no other creature; no man ever required a dog to understand a cat or expected the cow to cry for the sorrows of the nightingale.
Hence this sense has been strongest in saints of a very mystical sort; such as St. Francis who spoke of Sister Sparrow and Brother Wolf. Shaw adopted this crusade of cosmic pity but adopted it very much in his own style, severe, explanatory, and even unsympathetic. He had no affectionate impulse to say “Brother Wolf”; at the best he would have said “Citizen Wolf,” like a sound republican. In fact, he was full of healthy human compassion for the sufferings of animals; but in phraseology he loved to put the matter unemotionally and even harshly. I was once at a debating club at which Bernard Shaw said that he was not a humanitarian at all, but only an economist, that he merely hated to see life wasted by carelessness or cruelty. I felt inclined to get up and address to him the following lucid question: “If when you spare a herring you are only being oikonomikal, for what oikos are you being nomikal?” But in an average debating club I thought this question might not be quite clear; so I abandoned the idea. But certainly it is not plain for whom Bernard Shaw is economising if he rescues a rhinoceros from an early grave. But the truth is that Shaw only took this economic pose from his hatred of appearing sentimental. If Bernard Shaw killed a dragon and rescued a princess of romance, he would try to say “I have saved a princess” with exactly the same intonation as “I have saved a shilling.” He tries to turn his own heroism into a sort of superhuman thrift. He would thoroughly sympathise with that passage in his favourite dramatic author in which the Button Moulder tells Peer Gynt that there is a sort of cosmic housekeeping; that God Himself is very economical, “and that is why He is so well to do.”
Ora, non ho alcuna particolare obiezione contro chi toglie la doratura al panpepato; se non altro per questa eccellente ragione, che sono assai più affezionato al panpepato che alla doratura. Ma vi sono alcune obiezioni a questo compito quando esso diventa una crociata o un’ossessione. Una di esse è questa: che le persone che hanno davvero raschiato la doratura dal panpepato sprecano generalmente il resto della loro vita nel tentativo di raschiare la doratura da giganteschi blocchi d’oro. Tale è stato troppo spesso il caso di Shaw. Egli può, se vuole, raschiare il romanticismo dagli armamenti d’Europa o dal sistema dei partiti della Gran Bretagna. Ma non può raschiare il romanticismo dall’amore o dal valore militare, perché è tutto romanticismo, e spesso tremila miglia. Non si può, credo, negare che molta della splendida energia mentale di Bernard Shaw sia stata sprecata in questo tedioso affare di rosicchiare i necessari pilastri di ogni società possibile. Ma sarebbe grossolanamente ingiusto lasciar intendere che persino nella sua prima e più distruttiva fase egli non abbia pronunciato nulla tranne queste accidentali, per quanto avvincenti, negazioni. Egli gettò tutto il suo genio con peso sul piatto della bilancia in favore di due progetti o cause positive del periodo. Quando li avremo enunciati avremo davvero enunciato l’intero corredo intellettuale con cui egli iniziò la sua vita letteraria.
Ho detto che Shaw era dalla parte degli insorti in ogni cosa; ma nel caso di queste due importanti convinzioni egli esercitò un solido potere di scelta. Quando andò per la prima volta a Londra si mescolò con ogni sorta di società rivoluzionaria, e incontrò ogni sorta di persona tranne la persona ordinaria. Conosceva tutti, per così dire, tranne tutti. Fu più di una volta un’apparizione momentanea tra i rispettabili atei. Conosceva Bradlaugh e parlò dalle tribune di quella Hall of Science in cui masse d’uomini semplicissime e sincere solevano salutare con grida di gioia la certezza di non essere immortali. Conserva ancor oggi qualcosa del frastuono e della ristrettezza di quella stanza; come, per esempio, quando dice che è spregevole avere una brama di vita eterna. Questo pregiudizio permane in diretta opposizione a tutte le sue attuali opinioni, che sono tutte nel senso che è glorioso desiderare potere, coscienza e vitalità persino per il proprio sé. Ma questa vecchia formula secolarista, che è egoistico salvare la propria anima, permane in lui molto dopo che ha praticamente glorificato l’egoismo. È una reliquia di quei caotici primi giorni. E proprio come si mescolava con gli atei, si mescolava con gli anarchici, che negli anni Ottanta erano un corpo assai più formidabile di adesso, contendendo ai socialisti quasi alla pari la pretesa di essere i veri eredi della Rivoluzione. Shaw parla ancora spassosamente di questo gruppo. Per quanto riesco a capire, era quasi interamente femminile. Quando uscì un libro intitolato UNA RAGAZZA TRA GLI ANARCHICI, G. B. S. fu provocato a una sorta di esplosiva reminiscenza. «Una ragazza tra gli anarchici!» esclamò al suo attuale biografo; «se avessero detto “Un uomo tra gli anarchici” sarebbe stato più di un’avventura». Egli è pronto a raccontare altre storie di questo eccentrico ambiente, la maggior parte delle quali non trasmette l’impressione di un’atmosfera molto tonificante. Quella società rivoluzionaria doveva contenere molti alti ideali pubblici, ma anche un buon numero di bassi desideri privati. E quando si biasima Bernard Shaw per la sua spietata e prosaica freddezza, per il suo tagliente rifiuto di riverire o ammirare, credo si dovrebbe ricordare questa marmaglia di sentimentalismo senza legge contro cui il suo buon senso dovette lottare, tutti i magniloquenti «compagni» e tutte le stucchevoli «affinità», tutta la sensualità sdolcinata e l’insensato imbronciarsi contro la legge. Se Bernard Shaw divenne un po’ troppo incline a gettare acqua fredda sulle profezie o sugli ideali, si ricordi che egli deve aver trascorso gran parte della sua giovinezza tra idealisti cosmopoliti che avevano bisogno di un po’ d’acqua fredda in ogni senso della parola.
Su due di queste moderne crociate egli si concentrò, e, come ho detto, le scelse bene. La prima era, in senso ampio, ciò che si chiamava la causa umanitaria. Non significava la causa dell’umanità, ma piuttosto, semmai, la causa di tutto il resto. Nel suo aspetto più nobile significava una sorta di mistica identificazione della nostra vita con l’intera vita della natura. Così un uomo poteva trasalire quando una lumaca veniva schiacciata come se gli fosse pestato l’alluce; così un uomo poteva rabbrividire quando una falena si raggrinziva come se i propri capelli avessero preso fuoco. L’uomo poteva essere una rete di nervi squisiti che percorrevano l’intero universo, una sottile ragnatela di pietà. Era una bella concezione; benché forse un’imposizione alquanto severa della concezione teologica della speciale divinità dell’uomo. Poiché gli umanitari chiedevano certamente all’umanità ciò che non si può chiedere ad alcun’altra creatura; nessun uomo pretese mai che un cane comprendesse un gatto o si aspettò che la vacca piangesse per i dolori dell’usignolo.
Perciò questo senso è stato più forte nei santi di tipo assai mistico; come san Francesco che parlava di Sorella Passera e Fratello Lupo. Shaw adottò questa crociata di cosmica pietà ma la adottò molto a modo suo, severo, esplicativo e persino privo di simpatia. Non aveva alcun affettuoso impulso a dire «Fratello Lupo»; nel migliore dei casi avrebbe detto «Cittadino Lupo», come un buon repubblicano. In effetti, era pieno di sana umana compassione per le sofferenze degli animali; ma nella fraseologia amava esporre la faccenda senza emozione e persino aspramente. Ero una volta a un circolo di dibattito in cui Bernard Shaw disse che non era affatto un umanitario, ma soltanto un economista, che semplicemente detestava vedere la vita sprecata per negligenza o crudeltà. Mi sentii inclinato ad alzarmi e a rivolgergli la seguente lucida domanda: «Se, quando risparmiate un’aringa, siete solo oikonomikos, per quale oikos siete nomikos?». Ma in un ordinario circolo di dibattito pensai che questa domanda potesse non essere del tutto chiara; così abbandonai l’idea. Ma certamente non è chiaro per chi Bernard Shaw stia economizzando se salva un rinoceronte da una prematura tomba. Ma la verità è che Shaw assunse questa posa economica solo per il suo odio di apparire sentimentale. Se Bernard Shaw uccidesse un drago e salvasse una principessa da romanzo, cercherebbe di dire «Ho salvato una principessa» con esattamente la stessa intonazione di «Ho risparmiato uno scellino». Egli cerca di tramutare il proprio eroismo in una sorta di sovrumana parsimonia. Simpatizzerebbe pienamente con quel passo del suo autore drammatico prediletto in cui il Fonditore di Bottoni dice a Peer Gynt che c’è una sorta di cosmica economia domestica; che Dio stesso è assai parsimonioso, «ed è per questo che se la passa così bene».
This combination of the widest kindness and consideration with a consistent ungraciousness of tone runs through all Shaw’s ethical utterance, and is nowhere more evident than in his attitude towards animals. He would waste himself to a white-haired shadow to save a shark in an aquarium from inconvenience or to add any little comforts to the life of a carrion-crow. He would defy any laws or lose any friends to show mercy to the humblest beast or the most hidden bird. Yet I cannot recall in the whole of his works or in the whole of his conversation a single word of any tenderness or intimacy with any bird or beast. It was under the influence of this high and almost superhuman sense of duty that he became a vegetarian; and I seem to remember that when he was lying sick and near to death at the end of his SATURDAY REVIEW career he wrote a fine fantastic article, declaring that his hearse ought to be drawn by all the animals that he had not eaten. Whenever that evil day comes there will be no need to fall back on the ranks of the brute creation; there will be no lack of men and women who owe him so much as to be glad to take the place of the animals; and the present writer for one will be glad to express his gratitude as an elephant. There is no doubt about the essential manhood and decency of Bernard Shaw’s instincts in such matters. And quite apart from the vegetarian controversy, I do not doubt that the beasts also owe him much. But when we come to positive things (and passions are the only truly positive things) that obstinate doubt remains which remains after all eulogies of Shaw. That fixed fancy sticks to the mind; that Bernard Shaw is a vegetarian more because he dislikes dead beasts than because he likes live ones.
It was the same with the other great cause to which Shaw more politically though not more publicly committed himself. The actual English people, without representation in Press or Parliament, but faintly expressed in public-houses and music-halls, would connect Shaw (so far as they have heard of him) with two ideas; they would say first that he was a vegetarian, and second that he was a Socialist. Like most of the impressions of the ignorant, these impressions would be on the whole very just. My only purpose here is to urge that Shaw’s Socialism exemplifies the same trait of temperament as his vegetarianism. This book is not concerned with Bernard Shaw as a politician or a sociologist, but as a critic and creator of drama. I will therefore end in this chapter all that I have to say about Bernard Shaw as a politician or a political philosopher. I propose here to dismiss this aspect of Shaw: only let it be remembered, once and for all, that I am here dismissing the most important aspect of Shaw. It is as if one dismissed the sculpture of Michael Angelo and went on to his sonnets. Perhaps the highest and purest thing in him is simply that he cares more for politics than for anything else; more than for art or for philosophy. Socialism is the noblest thing for Bernard Shaw; and it is the noblest thing in him. He really desires less to win fame than to bear fruit. He is an absolute follower of that early sage who wished only to make two blades of grass grow instead of one. He is a loyal subject of Henri Quatre, who said that he only wanted every Frenchman to have a chicken in his pot on Sunday; except, of course, that he would call the repast cannibalism. But CAETERIS PARIBUs he thinks more of that chicken than of the eagle of the universal empire; and he is always ready to support the grass against the laurel.
Yet by the nature of this book the account of the most important Shaw, who is the Socialist, must be also the most brief. Socialism (which I am not here concerned either to attack or defend) is, as everyone knows, the proposal that all property should be nationally owned that it may be more decently distributed. It is a proposal resting upon two principles, unimpeachable as far as they go: first, that frightful human calamities call for immediate human aid; second, that such aid must almost always be collectively organised. If a ship is being wrecked, we organise a lifeboat; if a house is on fire, we organise a blanket; if half a nation is starving, we must organise work and food. That is the primary and powerful argument of the Socialist, and everything that he adds to it weakens it. The only possible line of protest is to suggest that it is rather shocking that we have to treat a normal nation as something exceptional, like a house on fire or a shipwreck. But of such things it may be necessary to speak later. The point here is that Shaw behaved towards Socialism just as he behaved towards vegetarianism; he offered every reason except the emotional reason, which was the real one. When taxed in a DAILY NEWs discussion with being a Socialist for the obvious reason that poverty was cruel, he said this was quite wrong; it was only because poverty was wasteful. He practically professed that modern society annoyed him, not so much like an unrighteous kingdom, but rather like an untidy room. Everyone who knew him knew, of course, that he was full of a proper brotherly bitterness about the oppression of the poor. But here again he would not admit that he was anything but an Economist.
In thus setting his face like flint against sentimental methods of argument he undoubtedly did one great service to the causes for which he stood. Every vulgar anti-humanitarian, every snob who wants monkeys vivisected or beggars flogged has always fallen back upon stereotyped phrases like “maudlin” and “sentimental,” which indicated the humanitarian as a man in a weak condition of tears. The mere personality of Shaw has shattered those foolish phrases for ever. Shaw the humanitarian was like Voltaire the humanitarian, a man whose satire was like steel, the hardest and coolest of fighters, upon whose piercing point the wretched defenders of a masculine brutality wriggled like worms.
Questa combinazione della più ampia bontà e premura con una costante scortesia di tono attraversa tutta l’espressione etica di Shaw, e in nessun luogo è più evidente che nel suo atteggiamento verso gli animali. Si consumerebbe fino a diventare un’ombra dai capelli bianchi pur di risparmiare a uno squalo in un acquario un fastidio, o di aggiungere qualche piccola comodità alla vita di una cornacchia. Sfiderebbe qualsiasi legge o perderebbe qualsiasi amico pur di mostrare misericordia alla più umile bestia o al più nascosto degli uccelli. Eppure non riesco a ricordare, in tutta la sua opera o in tutta la sua conversazione, una sola parola di tenerezza o di intimità verso un qualsiasi uccello o bestia. Fu sotto l’influenza di questo alto e quasi sovrumano senso del dovere che egli divenne vegetariano; e mi pare di ricordare che, mentre giaceva malato e vicino alla morte al termine della sua carriera alla SATURDAY REVIEW, scrisse un bell’articolo fantastico, dichiarando che il suo carro funebre avrebbe dovuto essere trainato da tutti gli animali che non aveva mangiato. Quando verrà quel giorno funesto non ci sarà bisogno di ripiegare sulle schiere della creazione bruta; non mancheranno uomini e donne che gli devono tanto da essere lieti di prendere il posto degli animali; e chi qui scrive, per parte sua, sarà lieto di esprimere la propria gratitudine in veste di elefante. Non c’è alcun dubbio circa l’essenziale virilità e decenza degli istinti di Bernard Shaw in tali materie. E del tutto a prescindere dalla controversia vegetariana, non dubito che anche le bestie gli debbano molto. Ma quando veniamo alle cose positive (e le passioni sono le uniche cose veramente positive) rimane quell’ostinato dubbio che rimane dopo tutti gli elogi di Shaw. Quella fissa fantasia si attacca alla mente: che Bernard Shaw è vegetariano più perché detesta le bestie morte che perché ama quelle vive.
Fu lo stesso con l’altra grande causa alla quale Shaw si impegnò più politicamente, benché non più pubblicamente. Il popolo inglese reale, senza rappresentanza nella Stampa o in Parlamento, ma debolmente espresso nelle osterie e nei music-hall, collegherebbe Shaw (per quanto ne abbia sentito parlare) a due idee: direbbe anzitutto che era vegetariano, e in secondo luogo che era socialista. Come la maggior parte delle impressioni degli ignoranti, queste impressioni sarebbero nel complesso assai giuste. Il mio unico scopo qui è insistere sul fatto che il socialismo di Shaw esemplifica lo stesso tratto di temperamento del suo vegetarianismo. Questo libro non si occupa di Bernard Shaw come politico o sociologo, ma come critico e creatore di teatro. Concluderò dunque in questo capitolo tutto ciò che ho da dire su Bernard Shaw come politico o filosofo politico. Mi propongo qui di congedare questo aspetto di Shaw: soltanto si ricordi, una volta per tutte, che sto qui congedando l’aspetto più importante di Shaw. È come se si congedasse la scultura di Michael Angelo per passare ai suoi sonetti. Forse la cosa più alta e più pura in lui è semplicemente che gli sta più a cuore la politica di qualsiasi altra cosa; più dell’arte o della filosofia. Il socialismo è la cosa più nobile per Bernard Shaw; ed è la cosa più nobile in lui. Egli desidera davvero meno conquistare la fama che portare frutto. È un seguace assoluto di quell’antico saggio che desiderava soltanto far crescere due fili d’erba al posto di uno. È un leale suddito di Enrico Quarto, il quale diceva di volere soltanto che ogni francese avesse un pollo nella sua pentola la domenica; salvo, naturalmente, che egli chiamerebbe cannibalismo quel pasto. Ma CAETERIS PARIBUS egli pensa più a quel pollo che all’aquila dell’impero universale; ed è sempre pronto a sostenere l’erba contro l’alloro.
Eppure, per la natura stessa di questo libro, il resoconto dello Shaw più importante, che è il Socialista, dev’essere anche il più breve. Il socialismo (che qui non mi propongo né di attaccare né di difendere) è, come tutti sanno, la proposta che tutta la proprietà sia posseduta nazionalmente affinché possa essere distribuita più decentemente. È una proposta che poggia su due princìpi, inattaccabili per quanto si estendono: primo, che spaventose calamità umane esigono un immediato soccorso umano; secondo, che tale soccorso dev’essere quasi sempre organizzato collettivamente. Se una nave sta facendo naufragio, organizziamo una scialuppa di salvataggio; se una casa è in fiamme, organizziamo una coperta; se metà di una nazione muore di fame, dobbiamo organizzare lavoro e cibo. Questo è l’argomento primario e potente del socialista, e tutto ciò che egli vi aggiunge lo indebolisce. L’unica possibile linea di protesta è suggerire che è piuttosto scioccante dover trattare una nazione normale come qualcosa di eccezionale, come una casa in fiamme o un naufragio. Ma di tali cose potrà essere necessario parlare più avanti. Il punto qui è che Shaw si comportò verso il socialismo proprio come si era comportato verso il vegetarianismo; offriva ogni ragione tranne la ragione emotiva, che era quella vera. Quando, in una discussione sul DAILY NEWS, gli venne rimproverato di essere socialista per l’ovvia ragione che la povertà era crudele, egli rispose che ciò era del tutto errato; era soltanto perché la povertà era dispendiosa. Praticamente professava che la società moderna lo infastidiva, non tanto come un regno iniquo, quanto piuttosto come una stanza in disordine. Chiunque lo conoscesse sapeva, naturalmente, che era pieno di una giusta amarezza fraterna riguardo all’oppressione dei poveri. Ma anche qui non voleva ammettere di essere altro che un Economista.
Nel volgere così il suo volto come selce contro i metodi sentimentali di argomentazione, egli rese senza dubbio un grande servizio alle cause per cui si batteva. Ogni volgare anti-umanitario, ogni snob che vuole le scimmie vivisezionate o i mendicanti fustigati, ha sempre ripiegato su frasi stereotipate come «lacrimoso» e «sentimentale», che indicavano l’umanitario come un uomo in una debole condizione di lacrime. La sola personalità di Shaw ha frantumato per sempre quelle sciocche frasi. Shaw l’umanitario era come Voltaire l’umanitario, un uomo la cui satira era come l’acciaio, il più duro e freddo dei combattenti, sulla cui punta penetrante i miserabili difensori di una brutalità maschile si contorcevano come vermi.
In this quarrel one cannot wish Shaw even an inch less contemptuous, for the people who call compassion “sentimentalism” deserve nothing but contempt. In this one does not even regret his coldness; it is an honourable contrast to the blundering emotionalism of the jingoes and flagellomaniacs. The truth is that the ordinary anti-humanitarian only manages to harden his heart by having already softened his head. It is the reverse of sentimental to insist that a nigger is being burned alive; for sentimentalism must be the clinging to pleasant thoughts. And no one, not even a Higher Evolutionist, can think a nigger burned alive a pleasant thought. The sentimental thing is to warm your hands at the fire while denying the existence of the nigger, and that is the ruling habit in England, as it has been the chief business of Bernard Shaw to show. And in this the brutalitarians hate him not because he is soft, but because he is hard, because he is not to be softened by conventional excuses; because he looks hard at a thing—and hits harder. Some foolish fellow of the Henley-Whibley reaction wrote that if we were to be conquerors we must be less tender and more ruthless. Shaw answered with really avenging irony, “What a light this principle throws on the defeat of the tender Dervish, the compassionate Zulu, and the morbidly humane Boxer at the hands of the hardy savages of England, France, and Germany.” In that sentence an idiot is obliterated and the whole story of Europe told; but it is immensely stiffened by its ironic form. In the same way Shaw washed away for ever the idea that Socialists were weak dreamers, who said that things might be only because they wished them to be. G. B. S. in argument with an individualist showed himself, as a rule, much the better economist and much the worse rhetorician. In this atmosphere arose a celebrated Fabian Society, of which he is still the leading spirit—a society which answered all charges of impracticable idealism by pushing both its theoretic statements and its practical negotiations to the verge of cynicism. Bernard Shaw was the literary expert who wrote most of its pamphlets. In one of them, among such sections as Fabian Temperance Reform, Fabian Education and so on, there was an entry gravely headed “Fabian Natural Science,” which stated that in the Socialist cause light was needed more than heat.
Thus the Irish detachment and the Puritan austerity did much good to the country and to the causes for which they were embattled. But there was one thing they did not do; they did nothing for Shaw himself in the matter of his primary mistakes and his real limitation. His great defect was and is the lack of democratic sentiment. And there was nothing democratic either in his humanitarianism or his Socialism. These new and refined faiths tended rather to make the Irishman yet more aristocratic, the Puritan yet more exclusive. To be a Socialist was to look down on all the peasant owners of the earth, especially on the peasant owners of his own island. To be a Vegetarian was to be a man with a strange and mysterious morality, a man who thought the good lord who roasted oxen for his vassals only less bad than the bad lord who roasted the vassals. None of these advanced views could the common people hear gladly; nor indeed was Shaw specially anxious to please the common people. It was his glory that he pitied animals like men; it was his defect that he pitied men only too much like animals. Foulon said of the democracy, “Let them eat grass.” Shaw said, “Let them eat greens.” He had more benevolence, but almost as much disdain. “I have never had any feelings about the English working classes,” he said elsewhere, “except a desire to abolish them and replace them by sensible people.” This is the unsympathetic side of the thing; but it had another and much nobler side, which must at least be seriously recognised before we pass on to much lighter things.
Bernard Shaw is not a democrat; but he is a splendid republican. The nuance of difference between those terms precisely depicts him. And there is after all a good deal of dim democracy in England, in the sense that there is much of a blind sense of brotherhood, and nowhere more than among old-fashioned and even reactionary people. But a republican is a rare bird, and a noble one. Shaw is a republican in the literal and Latin sense; he cares more for the Public Thing than for any private thing. The interest of the State is with him a sincere thirst of the soul, as it was in the little pagan cities. Now this public passion, this clean appetite for order and equity, had fallen to a lower ebb, had more nearly disappeared altogether, during Shaw’s earlier epoch than at any other time. Individualism of the worst type was on the top of the wave; I mean artistic individualism, which is so much crueller, so much blinder and so much more irrational even than commercial individualism. The decay of society was praised by artists as the decay of a corpse is praised by worms. The aesthete was all receptiveness, like the flea. His only affair in this world was to feed on its facts and colours, like a parasite upon blood. The ego was the all; and the praise of it was enunciated in madder and madder rhythms by poets whose Helicon was absinthe and whose Pegasus was the nightmare. This diseased pride was not even conscious of a public interest, and would have found all political terms utterly tasteless and insignificant. It was no longer a question of one man one vote, but of one man one universe.
I have in my time had my fling at the Fabian Society, at the pedantry of schemes, the arrogance of experts; nor do I regret it now. But when I remember that other world against which it reared its bourgeois banner of cleanliness and common sense, I will not end this chapter without doing it decent honour. Give me the drain pipes of the Fabians rather than the panpipes of the later poets; the drain pipes have a nicer smell. Give me even that businesslike benevolence that herded men like beasts rather than that exquisite art which isolated them like devils; give me even the suppression of “Zaeo” rather than the triumph of “Salome.” And if I feel such a confession to be due to those Fabians who could hardly have been anything but experts in any society, such as Mr. Sidney Webb or Mr. Edward Pease, it is due yet more strongly to the greatest of the Fabians. Here was a man who could have enjoyed art among the artists, who could have been the wittiest of all the FLâNEURS; who could have made epigrams like diamonds and drunk music like wine. He has instead laboured in a mill of statistics and crammed his mind with all the most dreary and the most filthy details, so that he can argue on the spur of the moment about sewing-machines or sewage, about typhus fever or twopenny tubes. The usual mean theory of motives will not cover the case; it is not ambition, for he could have been twenty times more prominent as a plausible and popular humorist. It is the real and ancient emotion of the SALUS POPULI, almost extinct in our oligarchical chaos; nor will I for one, as I pass on to many matters of argument or quarrel, neglect to salute a passion so implacable and so pure.
In questa disputa non si può desiderare che Shaw sia nemmeno di un pollice meno sprezzante, perché la gente che chiama compassione “sentimentalismo” non merita altro che disprezzo. In questo caso non ci si rammarica nemmeno della sua freddezza; è un onorevole contrasto all’emozionalismo goffo degli ultrapatrioti e dei flagellomaniaci. La verità è che l’antiumanitario medio riesce ad indurire il cuore solo perché ha già ammorbidito la testa. È l’esatto contrario del sentimentalismo insistere sul fatto che un negro viene bruciato vivo, perché il sentimentalismo deve essere l’attaccamento a pensieri piacevoli. E nessuno, nemmeno un evoluzionista superiore, può considerare piacevole l’idea di un negro arso vivo. La cosa sentimentale è riscaldarsi le mani al fuoco negando l’esistenza del negro, e questa è l’abitudine dominante in Inghilterra, come è stato il compito principale di Bernard Shaw dimostrare. E su questo i brutalitarians lo odiano non perché sia tenero, ma perché è duro, perché non si lascia ammorbidire dalle scuse convenzionali; perché guarda le cose con durezza… e colpisce ancora più duramente. Un povero sciocco della reazione Henley-Whibley ha scritto che se volessimo essere conquistatori dovremmo essere meno teneri e più spietati. Shaw ha risposto con un’ironia veramente vendicativa: “Che luce getta questo principio sulla sconfitta del tenero Derviscio, dello Zulu compassionevole e del Boxer morboso di umanità per mano dei robusti selvaggi d’Inghilterra, Francia e Germania?”. In quella frase un idiota viene cancellato e tutta la storia dell’Europa raccontata; ma è immensamente irrigidita dalla sua forma ironica. Allo stesso modo Shaw ha lavato via per sempre l’idea che i socialisti fossero sognatori deboli, che dicevano che le cose potessero essere solo perché lo desideravano. G.B.S., nel dibattito con un individualista, si è mostrato in genere molto più bravo come economista e molto meno abile come retore. In questo clima nacque una famosa Società Fabiana, di cui lui è ancora lo spirito guida: una società che rispondeva a tutte le accuse di idealismo irrealizzabile spingendo sia le sue dichiarazioni teoriche che i suoi negoziati pratici fino al limite del cinismo. Bernard Shaw era l’esperto letterario che scrisse la maggior parte dei suoi opuscoli. In uno di questi, tra sezioni come Riforma Fabiana della Temperanza riforma, Istruzione Fabiana istruzione e così via, c’era un capitolo intitolato con gravità “Scienza Naturale Fabiana”, che affermava che nella causa socialista serviva più luce che calore.
Così il distacco irlandese e l’austerità puritana fecero molto bene al paese e alle cause per cui combattevano. Ma c’era una cosa che non facevano; non fecero nulla per Shaw stesso riguardo ai suoi errori primari e alla sua reale limitazione. Il suo grande difetto era ed è la mancanza di sentimento democratico. E non c’era niente di democratico nemmeno nel suo umanitarismo o nel suo socialismo. Queste nuove e raffinate fedi tendevano piuttosto a rendere l’irlandese ancora più aristocratico, il puritano ancora più esclusivo. Essere socialisti significava guardare dall’alto in basso tutti i proprietari contadini della terra, specialmente i proprietari contadini della sua stessa isola. Essere un vegetariano era essere un uomo con una strana e misteriosa moralità, un uomo che pensava che il buon signore che arrostiva bue per i suoi vassalli fosse solo meno cattivo del cattivo signore che arrostiva i vassalli. Nessuna di queste vedute avanzate poteva essere ascoltata volentieri dal popolo comune; né in effetti Shaw era particolarmente ansioso di compiacere il popolo comune. Era la sua gloria che compativa gli animali come fossero uomini; era il suo difetto che compativa gli uomini solo troppo simili agli animali. Foulon disse della democrazia, “Che mangino erba.” Shaw disse, “Che mangino verdure.” Aveva più benevolenza, ma quasi altrettanto disprezzo. “Non ho mai avuto alcun sentimento per le classi lavoratrici inglesi,” disse in un altro luogo, “tranne il desiderio di abolirle e sostituirle con persone sensate.” Questo è l’aspetto antipatico della cosa; ma ne aveva un altro molto più nobile, che deve essere almeno seriamente riconosciuto prima di passare a cose molto più leggere.
Bernard Shaw non è un democratico; ma è uno splendido repubblicano. La sfumatura di differenza tra questi termini lo descrive con precisione. E in Inghilterra c’è, dopotutto, una buona dose di vaga democrazia, nel senso che vi è molto un vago senso di fratellanza, e non da nessuna parte più che tra la gente vecchio stile e persino reazionaria. Ma un repubblicano è un uccello raro, e nobile. Shaw è un repubblicano nel senso letterale e latino; gli importa di più della Cosa Pubblica che di qualsiasi cosa privata. L’interesse dello Stato per lui è una sincera sete dell’anima, come lo era nelle piccole città pagane. Ora questa passione pubblica, questo puro appetito per l’ordine e l’equità, era scesa a un livello più basso, era quasi scomparsa del tutto nell’epoca precedente di Shaw più che in qualsiasi altro periodo. Individualismo del peggior tipo era sulla cresta dell’onda; intendo dire l’individualismo artistico, che è tanto più crudele, tanto più cieco e persino molto più irrazionale di quello commerciale. Il declino della società veniva lodato dagli artisti come il declino di un cadavere viene lodato dai vermi. L’esteta era tutto ricettività, come la pulce. La sua unica faccenda in questo mondo era nutrirsi dei suoi fatti e colori, come un parassita sul sangue. L’io era il tutto; e le lodi di esso venivano enunciate con ritmi sempre più folli da poeti la cui Elicona era l’assenzio e il cui Pegaso era l’incubo. Questo malato orgoglio non era nemmeno consapevole di un interesse pubblico, e avrebbe trovato tutti i termini politici del tutto insipidi e insignificanti. Non si trattava più di un uomo, un voto, ma di un uomo, un universo.
Nel mio tempo ho avuto la mia esperienza con la Società Fabiana, con il pedantismo dei piani e l’arroganza degli esperti; e non me ne pento ora. Ma quando ricordo quell’altro mondo contro cui essa alzò la sua borghese bandiera di pulizia e buon senso, non voglio chiudere questo capitolo senza rendere a quel mondo un omaggio decente. Datemi i tubi della fogna dei Fabiani piuttosto che le siringhe degli ultimi poeti; i tubi delle fogne hanno un odore più gradevole. Datemi anche quella benevolenza da ufficio che radunava gli uomini come bestie piuttosto che quell’arte squisita che li isolava come diavoli; datemi pure la soppressione de “Zaeo” piuttosto che il trionfo de “Salomé.” E se sento che una tale confessione è dovuta a quei Fabiani che difficilmente avrebbero potuto essere altro che esperti in qualsiasi società, come il signor Sidney Webb o il signor Edward Pease, è ancora più dovuta al più grande dei Fabiani. Ecco un uomo che avrebbe potuto godere dell’arte tra gli artisti, che sarebbe stato lo spirito più arguto di tutti i FLÂNEURS; che avrebbe potuto fare epigrammi come diamanti e bere musica come vino. Invece ha lavorato in una macina di statistiche e riempito la sua mente con i dettagli più tetri e più luridi, in modo da poter discutere all’improvviso su macchine per cucire o fogne, sulla febbre tifoide o sui tubi da due pence. La solita teoria meschina dei motivi non copre il caso; non è ambizione, perché avrebbe potuto essere venti volte più in vista come umorista plausibile e popolare. È la vera e antica emozione della SALUS POPULI, quasi estinta nel nostro caos oligarchico; né io, per uno, mentre passo a molte questioni di discussione o contesa, trascurerò di salutare una passione così implacabile e pura.
The Critic
IT appears a point of some mystery to the present writer that Bernard Shaw should have been so long unrecognised and almost in beggary. I should have thought his talent was of the ringing and arresting sort; such as even editors and publishers would have sense enough to seize. Yet it is quite certain that he almost starved in London for many years, writing occasional columns for an advertisement or words for a picture. And it is equally certain (it is proved by twenty anecdotes, but no one who knows Shaw needs any anecdotes to prove it) that in those days of desperation he again and again threw up chances and flung back good bargains which did not suit his unique and erratic sense of honour. The fame of having first offered Shaw to the public upon a platform worthy of him belongs, like many other public services, to Mr. William Archer.
I say it seems odd that such a writer should not be appreciated in a flash; but upon this point there is evidently a real difference of opinion, and it constitutes for me the strangest difficulty of the subject. I hear many people complain that Bernard Shaw deliberately mystifies them. I cannot imagine what they mean; it seems to me that he deliberately insults them. His language, especially on moral questions, is generally as straight and solid as that of a bargee and far less ornate and symbolic than that of a hansom-cabman. The prosperous English Philistine complains that Mr. Shaw is making a fool of him. Whereas Mr. Shaw is not in the least making a fool of him; Mr. Shaw is, with laborious lucidity, calling him a fool. G. B. S. calls a landlord a thief; and the landlord, instead of denying or resenting it, says, “Ah, that fellow hides his meaning so cleverly that one can never make out what he means, it is all so fine spun and fantastical.” G. B. S. calls a statesman a liar to his face, and the statesman cries in a kind of ecstasy, “Ah, what quaint, intricate and half-tangled trains of thought! Ah, what elusive and many-coloured mysteries of half-meaning!” I think it is always quite plain what Mr. Shaw means, even when he is joking, and it generally means that the people he is talking to ought to howl aloud for their sins. But the average representative of them undoubtedly treats the Shavian meaning as tricky and complex, when it is really direct and offensive. He always accuses Shaw of pulling his leg, at the exact moment when Shaw is pulling his nose.
This prompt and pungent style he learnt in the open, upon political tubs and platforms; and he is very legitimately proud of it. He boasts of being a demagogue; “The cart and the trumpet for me,” he says, with admirable good sense. Everyone will remember the effective appearance of Cyrano de Bergerac in the first act of the fine play of that name; when instead of leaping in by any hackneyed door or window, he suddenly springs upon a chair above the crowd that has so far kept him invisible; “les bras croisés, le feutre en bataille, la moustache herissée, le nez terrible.” I will not go so far as to say that when Bernard Shaw sprang upon a chair or tub in Trafalgar Square he had the hat in battle, or even that he had the nose terrible. But just as we see Cyrano best when he thus leaps above the crowd, I think we may take this moment of Shaw stepping on his little platform to see him clearly as he then was, and even as he has largely not ceased to be. I, at least, have only known him in his middle age; yet I think I can see him, younger yet only a little more alert, with hair more red but with face yet paler, as he first stood up upon some cart or barrow in the tossing glare of the gas.
The first fact that one realises about Shaw (independent of all one has read and often contradicting it) is his voice. Primarily it is the voice of an Irishman, and then something of the voice of a musician. It possibly explains much of his career; a man may be permitted to say so many impudent things with so pleasant an intonation. But the voice is not only Irish and agreeable, it is also frank and as it were inviting conference. This goes with a style and gesture which can only be described as at once very casual and very emphatic. He assumes that bodily supremacy which goes with oratory, but he assumes it with almost ostentatious carelessness; he throws back the head, but loosely and laughingly. He is at once swaggering and yet shrugging his shoulders, as if to drop from them the mantle of the orator which he has confidently assumed. Lastly, no man ever used voice or gesture better for the purpose of expressing certainty; no man can say “I tell Mr. Jones he is totally wrong” with more air of unforced and even casual conviction.
This particular play of feature or pitch of voice, at once didactic and yet not uncomrade-like, must be counted a very important fact, especially in connection with the period when that voice was first heard. It must be remembered that Shaw emerged as a wit in a sort of secondary age of wits; one of those stale interludes of prematurely old young men, which separate the serious epochs of history. Oscar Wilde was its god; but he was somewhat more mystical, not to say monstrous, than the average of its dried and decorous impudence. The TWO SURVIVALS of that time, as far as I know, are Mr. Max Beerbohm and Mr. Graham Robertson; two most charming people; but the air they had to live in was the devil. One of its notes was an artificial reticence of speech, which waited till it could plant the perfect epigram. Its typical products were far too conceited to lay down the law. Now when people heard that Bernard Shaw was witty, as he most certainly was, when they heard his MOTS repeated like those of Whistler or Wilde, when they heard things like “the Seven deadly Virtues” or “Who WAS Hall Caine?” they expected another of these silent sarcastic dandies who went about with one epigram, patient and poisonous, like a bee with his one sting. And when they saw and heard the new humorist they found no fixed sneer, no frock coat, no green carnation, no silent Savoy Restaurant good manners, no fear of looking a fool, no particular notion of looking a gentleman. They found a talkative Irishman with a kind voice and a brown coat; open gestures and an evident desire to make people really agree with him. He had his own kind of affectations no doubt, and his own kind of tricks of debate; but he broke, and, thank God, forever the spell of the little man with the single eye glass who had frozen both faith and fun at so many tea-tables. Shaw’s humane voice and hearty manner were so obviously more the things of a great man than the hard, gem-like brilliancy of Wilde or the careful ill-temper of Whistler. He brought in a breezier sort of insolence; the single eye-glass fled before the single eye.
Il Critico
APPARE come un punto alquanto misterioso a chi qui scrive che Bernard Shaw sia rimasto tanto a lungo misconosciuto e quasi ridotto in miseria. Avrei creduto che il suo talento fosse di quella specie squillante e capace di arrestare l’attenzione; tale che perfino i direttori e gli editori avrebbero avuto abbastanza buon senso da afferrarlo. Eppure è del tutto certo che egli quasi patì la fame a Londra per molti anni, scrivendo occasionali colonne per una réclame o parole per un’illustrazione. Ed è del pari certo (lo provano venti aneddoti, ma nessuno che conosca Shaw ha bisogno di aneddoti per provarlo) che in quei giorni di disperazione egli respinse più e più volte delle occasioni e ributtò indietro dei buoni affari che non si accordavano col suo unico ed erratico senso dell’onore. La gloria d’aver per primo offerto Shaw al pubblico su una tribuna degna di lui appartiene, come molti altri pubblici servizi, al signor William Archer.
Dico che pare strano che uno scrittore siffatto non venga apprezzato in un lampo; ma su questo punto vi è evidentemente una reale divergenza d’opinione, ed essa costituisce per me la più bizzarra difficoltà del soggetto. Odo molti lamentarsi che Bernard Shaw li mistifichi deliberatamente. Non riesco a immaginare che cosa vogliano dire; a me pare che egli deliberatamente li insulti. Il suo linguaggio, specialmente sulle questioni morali, è generalmente tanto diritto e solido quanto quello di un barcaiolo e assai meno ornato e simbolico di quello di un vetturino di hansom. Il prospero Filisteo inglese si lamenta che il signor Shaw lo stia prendendo per uno sciocco. Laddove il signor Shaw non lo prende affatto per uno sciocco; il signor Shaw sta, con laboriosa lucidità, dandogli dello sciocco. G. B. S. dà del ladro a un proprietario terriero; e il proprietario, invece di negarlo o risentirsene, dice: «Ah, quel tale nasconde il proprio significato così abilmente che non si riesce mai a capire che cosa intenda, è tutto così finemente filato e fantastico.» G. B. S. dà del bugiardo a uno statista in faccia, e lo statista grida in una sorta d’estasi: «Ah, che bizzarri, intricati e semiaggrovigliati corsi di pensiero! Ah, che elusivi e multicolori misteri di semisignificato!» Io penso che sia sempre del tutto chiaro ciò che il signor Shaw intende, anche quando scherza, e generalmente significa che le persone a cui egli parla dovrebbero urlare ad alta voce per i loro peccati. Ma il tipico loro rappresentante tratta indubbiamente il significato shaviano come ingannevole e complesso, quando esso è in realtà diretto e offensivo. Egli accusa sempre Shaw di prenderlo in giro, nell’istante esatto in cui Shaw lo sta prendendo per il naso.
Questo stile pronto e pungente egli lo apprese all’aperto, su tribune e palchi politici; e ne va assai legittimamente fiero. Si vanta d’essere un demagogo; «Il carretto e la tromba per me,» dice, con ammirevole buon senso. Tutti ricorderanno l’efficace apparizione di Cyrano de Bergerac nel primo atto del bel dramma che porta quel nome; quando, invece di irrompere da una qualche trita porta o finestra, balza d’un tratto su una sedia al di sopra della folla che l’ha finora tenuto invisibile; «les bras croisés, le feutre en bataille, la moustache herissée, le nez terrible.» Non mi spingerò fino a dire che, quando Bernard Shaw balzava su una sedia o una tribuna in Trafalgar Square, avesse il cappello in battaglia, o addirittura che avesse il naso terribile. Ma proprio come vediamo Cyrano al meglio quando egli così si slancia al di sopra della folla, penso che possiamo cogliere questo momento di Shaw che sale sul suo piccolo palco per vederlo chiaramente com’era allora, e persino come in larga parte non ha cessato d’essere. Io, almeno, l’ho conosciuto soltanto nella sua mezza età; eppure penso di poterlo vedere, più giovane ma solo un poco più svelto, coi capelli più rossi ma col volto ancor più pallido, come dapprima si levò in piedi su qualche carretto o carriola nel bagliore ondeggiante del gas.
Il primo fatto che si coglie riguardo a Shaw (indipendentemente da tutto ciò che se n’è letto e spesso in contraddizione con esso) è la sua voce. In primo luogo è la voce di un irlandese, e poi qualcosa della voce di un musicista. Essa forse spiega gran parte della sua carriera; a un uomo può esser concesso di dire tante cose sfacciate con un’intonazione così gradevole. Ma la voce non è soltanto irlandese e piacevole, è anche franca e per così dire invitante al colloquio. Ciò va di pari passo con uno stile e un gesto che possono solo essere descritti come al contempo molto disinvolti e molto enfatici. Egli assume quella supremazia corporea che accompagna l’oratoria, ma l’assume con una noncuranza quasi ostentata; getta indietro il capo, ma mollemente e ridendo. È al tempo stesso spavaldo e insieme scrolla le spalle, come per lasciarne cadere il mantello dell’oratore che ha assunto con sicurezza. Infine, nessun uomo usò mai voce o gesto meglio allo scopo di esprimere certezza; nessun uomo sa dire «Io dico al signor Jones che ha completamente torto» con maggior aria di convinzione spontanea e persino noncurante.
Questo particolare gioco di fisionomia o timbro di voce, insieme didattico eppure non privo di cameratesca cordialità, va contato come un fatto assai importante, specialmente in connessione col periodo in cui quella voce fu udita per la prima volta. Bisogna ricordare che Shaw emerse come un uomo di spirito in una sorta di età secondaria di uomini di spirito; uno di quegli stantii intermezzi di giovani prematuramente vecchi, che separano le epoche serie della storia. Oscar Wilde ne era il dio; ma egli era alquanto più mistico, per non dire mostruoso, della media della sua rinsecchita e decorosa sfacciataggine. I DUE SUPERSTITI di quel tempo, per quanto ne so, sono il signor Max Beerbohm e il signor Graham Robertson; due persone quanto mai affascinanti; ma l’aria in cui dovettero vivere era il diavolo. Una delle sue note era una reticenza artificiosa del discorso, che attendeva finché potesse piantare l’epigramma perfetto. I suoi prodotti tipici erano di gran lunga troppo vanitosi per dettar legge. Ora, quando la gente sentiva che Bernard Shaw era arguto, come di certo era, quando udivano i suoi MOTS ripetuti come quelli di Whistler o Wilde, quando udivano cose come «le Sette Virtù capitali» o «Chi ERA Hall Caine?» si aspettavano un altro di quei silenziosi dandy sarcastici che andavano in giro con un solo epigramma, paziente e velenoso, come un’ape con la sua unica puntura. E quando videro e udirono il nuovo umorista non trovarono alcun ghigno fisso, alcuna finanziera, alcun garofano verde, alcuna silenziosa buona creanza da Savoy Restaurant, alcuna paura di parere uno sciocco, alcuna particolare cura di parere un gentiluomo. Trovarono un irlandese loquace con una voce gentile e una giacca marrone; gesti aperti e un evidente desiderio di far sì che la gente concordasse davvero con lui. Aveva le sue affettazioni, senza dubbio, e i suoi propri trucchi da dibattito; ma spezzò, e, grazie a Dio, per sempre l’incantesimo dell’ometto col monocolo che aveva agghiacciato tanto la fede quanto l’allegria a tanti tavoli da tè. La voce umana e i modi cordiali di Shaw erano così palesemente più le cose di un grand’uomo che la dura, gemmea brillantezza di Wilde o il curato malumore di Whistler. Egli introdusse una specie più arieggiante d’insolenza; il monocolo fuggì dinanzi all’occhio solo.
Added to the effect of the amiable dogmatic voice and lean, loose swaggering figure, is that of the face with which so many caricaturists have fantastically delighted themselves, the Mephistophilean face with the fierce tufted eyebrows and forked red beard. Yet those caricaturists in their natural delight in coming upon so striking a face, have somewhat misrepresented it, making it merely Satanic; whereas its actual expression has quite as much benevolence as mockery. By this time his costume has become a part of his personality; one has come to think of the reddish brown Jaeger suit as if it were a sort of reddish brown fur, and were, like the hair and eyebrows, a part of the animal; yet there are those who claim to remember a Bernard Shaw of yet more awful aspect before Jaeger came to his assistance; a Bernard Shaw in a dilapidated frock-coat and some sort of straw hat. I can hardly believe it; the man is so much of a piece, and must always have dressed appropriately. In any case his brown woollen clothes, at once artistic and hygienic, completed the appeal for which he stood; which might be defined as an eccentric healthy-mindedness. But something of the vagueness and equivocation of his first fame is probably due to the different functions which he performed in the contemporary world of art.
He began by writing novels. They are not much read, and indeed not imperatively worth reading, with the one exception of the crude and magnificent CASHEL BYRON’S PROFESSION. Mr. William Archer, in the course of his kindly efforts on behalf of his young Irish friend, sent this book to Samoa, for the opinion of the most elvish and yet efficient of modern critics. Stevenson summed up much of Shaw even from that fragment when he spoke of a romantic griffin roaring with laughter at the nature of his own quest. He also added the not wholly unjustified post-script: “I say, Archer,—my God, what women!”
The fiction was largely dropped; but when he began work he felt his way by the avenues of three arts. He was an art critic, a dramatic critic, and a musical critic; and in all three, it need hardly be said, he fought for the newest style and the most revolutionary school. He wrote on all these as he would have written on anything; but it was, I fancy, about the music that he cared most.
It may often be remarked that mathematicians love and understand music more than they love or understand poetry. Bernard Shaw is in much the same condition; indeed, in attempting to do justice to Shakespeare’s poetry, he always calls it “word music.” It is not difficult to explain this special attachment of the mere logician to music. The logician, like every other man on earth, must have sentiment and romance in his existence; in every man’s life, indeed, which can be called a life at all, sentiment is the most solid thing. But if the extreme logician turns for his emotions to poetry, he is exasperated and bewildered by discovering that the words of his own trade are used in an entirely different meaning. He conceives that he understands the word “visible,” and then finds Milton applying it to darkness, in which nothing is visible. He supposes that he understands the word “hide,” and then finds Shelley talking of a poet hidden in the light. He has reason to believe that he understands the common word “hung”; and then William Shakespeare, Esquire, of Stratford-on-Avon, gravely assures him that the tops of the tall sea waves were hung with deafening clamours on the slippery clouds. That is why the common arithmetician prefers music to poetry. Words are his scientific instruments. It irritates him that they should be anyone else’s musical instruments. He is willing to see men juggling, but not men juggling with his own private tools and possessions—his terms. It is then that he turns with an utter relief to music. Here are all the same fascination and inspiration, all the same purity and plunging force as in poetry; but not requiring any verbal confession that light conceals things or that darkness can be seen in the dark. Music is mere beauty; it is beauty in the abstract, beauty in solution. It is a shapeless and liquid element of beauty, in which a man may really float, not indeed affirming the truth, but not denying it. Bernard Shaw, as I have already said, is infinitely far above all such mere mathematicians and pedantic reasoners; still his feeling is partly the same. He adores music because it cannot deal with romantic terms either in their right or their wrong sense. Music can be romantic without reminding him of Shakespeare and Walter Scott, with whom he has had personal quarrels. Music can be Catholic without reminding him verbally of the Catholic Church, which he has never seen, and is sure he does not like. Bernard Shaw can agree with Wagner, the musician, because he speaks without words; if it had been Wagner the man he would certainly have had words with him. Therefore I would suggest that Shaw’s love of music (which is so fundamental that it must be mentioned early, if not first, in his story) may itself be considered in the first case as the imaginative safety-valve of the rationalistic Irishman.
This much may be said conjecturally over the present signature; but more must not be said. Bernard Shaw understands music so much better than I do that it is just possible that he is, in that tongue and atmosphere, all that he is not elsewhere. While he is writing with a pen I know his limitations as much as I admire his genius; and I know it is true to say that he does not appreciate romance. But while he is playing on the piano he may be cocking a feather, drawing a sword or draining a flagon for all I know. While he is speaking I am sure that there are some things he does not understand. But while he is listening (at the Queen’s Hall) he may understand everything, including God and me. Upon this part of him I am a reverent agnostic; it is well to have some such dark continent in the character of a man of whom one writes. It preserves two very important things—modesty in the biographer and mystery in the biography.
All’effetto dell’amabile voce dogmatica e della figura magra, sciolta e spavalda, si aggiunge quello del volto con cui tanti caricaturisti si sono fantasticamente dilettati, il volto mefistofelico dalle sopracciglia fieramente folte e dalla barba rossa e forcuta. Eppure quei caricaturisti, nel loro naturale diletto d’imbattersi in un volto così sorprendente, in qualche modo l’hanno travisato, rendendolo semplicemente satanico; mentre la sua reale espressione ha tanta benevolenza quanta beffa. Ormai, col tempo, il suo costume è divenuto parte della sua personalità; si è finiti col pensare al completo Jaeger bruno-rossastro come se fosse una sorta di pelo bruno-rossastro e fosse, al pari dei capelli e delle sopracciglia, parte dell’animale; eppure c’è chi pretende di ricordare un Bernard Shaw dall’aspetto ancor più terribile prima che Jaeger gli venisse in soccorso; un Bernard Shaw in una redingote malandata e con una sorta di cappello di paglia. Stento a crederlo; l’uomo è talmente tutto d’un pezzo che deve sempre essersi vestito in modo appropriato. In ogni caso i suoi abiti di lana marrone, a un tempo artistici e igienici, completavano l’istanza che egli incarnava; la quale potrebbe definirsi un’eccentrica sanità di spirito. Ma qualcosa della vaghezza e dell’equivoco della sua prima fama è probabilmente dovuto alle diverse funzioni che egli svolgeva nel mondo artistico contemporaneo.
Cominciò scrivendo romanzi. Non sono molto letti, e in verità non sono imperativamente degni di lettura, con l’unica eccezione del rozzo e magnifico CASHEL BYRON’S PROFESSION. Il signor William Archer, nel corso dei suoi gentili sforzi in favore del suo giovane amico irlandese, mandò questo libro a Samoa, per il parere del più elfico e insieme efficiente dei critici moderni. Stevenson riassunse gran parte di Shaw anche solo da quel frammento quando parlò di un grifone romantico che ruggiva di riso davanti alla natura della propria ricerca. Aggiunse anche il post scriptum non del tutto ingiustificato: «Ma di’, Archer, — mio Dio, che donne!»
La narrativa fu in gran parte abbandonata; ma quando cominciò a lavorare cercò la propria via per i viali di tre arti. Fu critico d’arte, critico drammatico e critico musicale; e in tutte e tre, quasi non occorre dirlo, si batté per lo stile più nuovo e per la scuola più rivoluzionaria. Scrisse su tutte queste cose come avrebbe scritto su qualunque altra; ma era, immagino, della musica che gli importava di più.
Si può spesso osservare che i matematici amano e comprendono la musica più di quanto amino o comprendano la poesia. Bernard Shaw si trova pressappoco nella stessa condizione; anzi, nel tentativo di rendere giustizia alla poesia di Shakespeare, la chiama sempre «musica di parole». Non è difficile spiegare questo speciale attaccamento del puro logico alla musica. Il logico, come ogni altro uomo sulla terra, deve avere sentimento e romanticismo nella propria esistenza; nella vita di ogni uomo, invero, che possa dirsi in qualche modo una vita, il sentimento è la cosa più solida. Ma se il logico estremo si volge per le sue emozioni alla poesia, resta esasperato e sconcertato nello scoprire che le parole del suo stesso mestiere vi sono usate in un significato del tutto diverso. Egli crede di comprendere la parola «visibile», e poi trova Milton applicarla alle tenebre, in cui nulla è visibile. Suppone di comprendere la parola «nascondere», e poi trova Shelley parlare di un poeta nascosto nella luce. Ha ragione di credere di comprendere la comune parola «sospeso»; e poi William Shakespeare, gentiluomo, di Stratford-on-Avon, gli assicura con gravità che le cime delle alte onde marine erano sospese di clamori assordanti sulle nubi sdrucciolevoli. Ecco perché il comune aritmetico preferisce la musica alla poesia. Le parole sono i suoi strumenti scientifici. Lo irrita che debbano essere gli strumenti musicali di qualcun altro. È disposto a veder gli uomini fare giochi di destrezza, ma non gli uomini che li fanno con i suoi personali arnesi e possessi: i suoi termini. È allora che si volge con assoluto sollievo alla musica. Qui vi sono tutto lo stesso fascino e la stessa ispirazione, tutta la stessa purezza e forza travolgente della poesia; ma senza richiedere alcuna confessione verbale che la luce nasconda le cose o che l’oscurità possa vedersi nel buio. La musica è pura bellezza; è bellezza in astratto, bellezza in soluzione. È un elemento informe e liquido di bellezza, in cui un uomo può davvero galleggiare, senza in verità affermare la verità, ma senza negarla. Bernard Shaw, come ho già detto, è infinitamente al di sopra di tutti questi meri matematici e ragionatori pedanti; eppure il suo sentimento è in parte lo stesso. Egli adora la musica perché essa non può trattare i termini romantici né nel loro senso giusto né in quello sbagliato. La musica può essere romantica senza rammentargli Shakespeare e Walter Scott, coi quali ha avuto liti personali. La musica può essere cattolica senza rammentargli verbalmente la Chiesa cattolica, che egli non ha mai visto, ed è certo che non gli piaccia. Bernard Shaw può trovarsi d’accordo con Wagner, il musicista, perché parla senza parole; se fosse stato Wagner l’uomo, avrebbe di certo avuto qualche parola con lui. Perciò suggerirei che Shaw, col suo amore per la musica (così fondamentale che va menzionato presto, se non per primo, nella sua storia), possa esso stesso considerarsi, in prima istanza, come la valvola di sicurezza immaginativa dell’irlandese razionalista.
Questo può dirsi congetturalmente sotto la presente firma; ma di più non si deve dire. Bernard Shaw comprende la musica tanto meglio di me che è ben possibile che egli sia, in quella lingua e in quell’atmosfera, tutto ciò che altrove non è. Mentre scrive con la penna, conosco i suoi limiti tanto quanto ne ammiro il genio; e so che è vero dire che egli non apprezza il romanticismo. Ma mentre suona il pianoforte, per quel che ne so potrebbe star drizzando una piuma, sguainando una spada o vuotando un boccale. Mentre parla, sono certo che vi sono alcune cose che non comprende. Ma mentre ascolta (alla Queen’s Hall) potrebbe comprendere ogni cosa, Dio e me compresi. Su questa parte di lui sono un reverente agnostico; è bene avere un qualche simile oscuro continente nel carattere di un uomo di cui si scrive. Ciò preserva due cose importantissime: la modestia nel biografo e il mistero nella biografia.
For the purpose of our present generalisation it is only necessary to say that Shaw, as a musical critic, summed himself up as “The Perfect Wagnerite”; he threw himself into subtle and yet trenchant eulogy of that revolutionary voice in music. It was the same with the other arts. As he was a Perfect Wagnerite in music, so he was a Perfect Whistlerite in painting; so above all he was a Perfect Ibsenite in drama. And with this we enter that part of his career with which this book is more specially concerned. When Mr. William Archer got him established as dramatic critic of the SATURDAY REVIEW, he became for the first time “a star of the stage”; a shooting star and sometimes a destroying comet.
On the day of that appointment opened one of the very few exhilarating and honest battles that broke the silence of the slow and cynical collapse of the nineteenth century. Bernard Shaw the demagogue had got his cart and his trumpet; and was resolved to make them like the car of destiny and the trumpet of judgment. He had not the servility of the ordinary rebel, who is content to go on rebelling against kings and priests, because such rebellion is as old and as established as any priests or kings. He cast about him for something to attack which was not merely powerful or placid, but was unattacked. After a little quite sincere reflection, he found it. He would not be content to be a common atheist; he wished to blaspheme something in which even atheists believed. He was not satisfied with being revolutionary; there were so many revolutionists. He wanted to pick out some prominent institution which had been irrationally and instinctively accepted by the most violent and profane; something of which Mr. Foote would speak as respectfully on the front page of the FREETHINKEr as Mr. St. Loe Strachey on the front page of the SPECTATOR. He found the thing; he found the great unassailed English institution—Shakespeare.
But Shaw’s attack on Shakespeare, though exaggerated for the fun of the thing, was not by any means the mere folly or firework paradox that has been supposed. He meant what he said; what was called his levity was merely the laughter of a man who enjoyed saying what he meant— an occupation which is indeed one of the greatest larks in life. Moreover, it can honestly be said that Shaw did good by shaking the mere idolatry of Him of Avon. That idolatry was bad for England; it buttressed our perilous self-complacency by making us think that we alone had, not merely a great poet, but the one poet above criticism. It was bad for literature; it made a minute model out of work that was really a hasty and faulty masterpiece. And it was bad for religion and morals that there should be so huge a terrestrial idol, that we should put such utter and unreasoning trust in any child of man. It is true that it was largely through Shaw’s own defects that he beheld the defects of Shakespeare. But it needed someone equally prosaic to resist what was perilous in the charm of such poetry; it may not be altogether a mistake to send a deaf man to destroy the rock of the sirens.
This attitude of Shaw illustrates of course all three of the divisions or aspects to which the reader’s attention has been drawn. It was partly the attitude of the Irishman objecting to the Englishman turning his mere artistic taste into a religion; especially when it was a taste merely taught him by his aunts and uncles. In Shaw’s opinion (one might say) the English do not really enjoy Shakespeare or even admire Shakespeare; one can only say, in the strong colloquialism, that they swear by Shakespeare. He is a mere god; a thing to be invoked. And Shaw’s whole business was to set up the things which were to be sworn by as things to be sworn at. It was partly again the revolutionist in pursuit of pure novelty, hating primarily the oppression of the past, almost hating history itself. For Bernard Shaw the prophets were to be stoned after, and not before, men had built their sepulchres. There was a Yankee smartness in the man which was irritated at the idea of being dominated by a person dead for three hundred years; like Mark Twain, he wanted a fresher corpse.
These two motives there were, but they were small compared with the other. It was the third part of him, the Puritan, that was really at war with Shakespeare. He denounced that playwright almost exactly as any contemporary Puritan coming out of a conventicle in a steeple-crowned hat and stiff bands might have denounced the playwright coming out of the stage door of the old Globe Theatre. This is not a mere fancy; it is philosophically true. A legend has run round the newspapers that Bernard Shaw offered himself as a better writer than Shakespeare. This is false and quite unjust; Bernard Shaw never said anything of the kind. The writer whom he did say was better than Shakespeare was not himself, but Bunyan. And he justified it by attributing to Bunyan a virile acceptance of life as a high and harsh adventure, while in Shakespeare he saw nothing but profligate pessimism, the VANITAS VANITATUM of a disappointed voluptuary. According to this view Shakespeare was always saying, “Out, out, brief candle,” because his was only a ballroom candle; while Bunyan was seeking to light such a candle as by God’s grace should never be put out.
It is odd that Bernard Shaw’s chief error or insensibility should have been the instrument of his noblest affirmation. The denunciation of Shakespeare was a mere misunderstanding. But the denunciation of Shakespeare’s pessimism was the most splendidly understanding of all his utterances. This is the greatest thing in Shaw, a serious optimism—even a tragic optimism. Life is a thing too glorious to be enjoyed. To be is an exacting and exhausting business; the trumpet though inspiring is terrible. Nothing that he ever wrote is so noble as his simple reference to the sturdy man who stepped up to the Keeper of the Book of Life and said, “Put down my name, Sir.” It is true that Shaw called this heroic philosophy by wrong names and buttressed it with false metaphysics; that was the weakness of the age. The temporary decline of theology had involved the neglect of philosophy and all fine thinking; and Bernard Shaw had to find shaky justifications in Schopenhauer for the sons of God shouting for joy. He called it the Will to Live—a phrase invented by Prussian professors who would like to exist, but can’t. Afterwards he asked people to worship the Life-Force; as if one could worship a hyphen. But though he covered it with crude new names (which are now fortunately crumbling everywhere like bad mortar) he was on the side of the good old cause; the oldest and the best of all causes, the cause of creation against destruction, the cause of yes against no, the cause of the seed against the stony earth and the star against the abyss.
Ai fini della nostra presente generalizzazione basta dire che Shaw, come critico musicale, si riassunse in «Il perfetto wagneriano»; si gettò in un elogio sottile e insieme tagliente di quella voce rivoluzionaria nella musica. Lo stesso valse per le altre arti. Come fu un perfetto wagneriano nella musica, così fu un perfetto whistleriano nella pittura; e soprattutto fu un perfetto ibseniano nel dramma. E con questo entriamo in quella parte della sua carriera di cui questo libro si occupa più particolarmente. Quando il signor William Archer lo fece nominare critico drammatico della SATURDAY REVIEW, egli divenne per la prima volta una «stella del palcoscenico»; una stella cadente e talvolta una cometa distruttrice.
Nel giorno di quella nomina si aprì una delle pochissime battaglie esilaranti e oneste che ruppero il silenzio del lento e cinico crollo del diciannovesimo secolo. Bernard Shaw il demagogo aveva ottenuto il suo carro e la sua tromba; ed era deciso a renderli simili al carro del destino e alla tromba del giudizio. Non aveva la servilità del comune ribelle, che si accontenta di continuare a ribellarsi contro re e sacerdoti, perché tale ribellione è tanto antica e consolidata quanto qualsiasi sacerdote o re. Si guardò intorno in cerca di qualcosa da attaccare che non fosse soltanto potente o placido, ma inattaccato. Dopo un po’ di riflessione del tutto sincera, lo trovò. Non si sarebbe accontentato di essere un comune ateo; desiderava bestemmiare qualcosa in cui credessero anche gli atei. Non gli bastava essere rivoluzionario; c’erano tanti rivoluzionari. Voleva scegliere qualche istituzione di rilievo che fosse stata accettata in modo irrazionale e istintivo perfino dai più violenti e profani; qualcosa di cui il signor Foote avrebbe parlato con altrettanto rispetto sulla prima pagina del FREETHINKER quanto il signor St. Loe Strachey sulla prima pagina dello SPECTATOR. Trovò la cosa; trovò la grande, inattaccata istituzione inglese: Shakespeare.
Ma l’attacco di Shaw a Shakespeare, per quanto esagerato per il gusto della cosa, non fu affatto la mera follia o il fuoco d’artificio del paradosso che si è supposto. Egli intendeva ciò che diceva; quella che veniva chiamata la sua leggerezza era soltanto la risata di un uomo che godeva nel dire ciò che pensava — un’occupazione che è in verità uno dei più grandi spassi della vita. Inoltre, si può onestamente affermare che Shaw fece del bene scuotendo la mera idolatria del Cigno dell’Avon. Quell’idolatria era dannosa per l’Inghilterra; puntellava il nostro pericoloso compiacimento di sé facendoci credere che noi soli avessimo, non semplicemente un grande poeta, ma l’unico poeta al di sopra della critica. Era dannosa per la letteratura; faceva un minuzioso modello di un’opera che era in realtà un capolavoro frettoloso e imperfetto. Ed era dannosa per la religione e la morale che vi fosse un idolo terrestre così immenso, che riponessimo una fiducia tanto totale e irragionevole in un qualsiasi figlio dell’uomo. È vero che fu in gran parte attraverso i difetti stessi di Shaw che egli scorse i difetti di Shakespeare. Ma occorreva qualcuno altrettanto prosaico per resistere a ciò che era pericoloso nel fascino di una simile poesia; potrebbe non essere del tutto un errore mandare un sordo a distruggere lo scoglio delle sirene.
Questo atteggiamento di Shaw illustra naturalmente tutte e tre le divisioni o aspetti su cui è stata richiamata l’attenzione del lettore. Era in parte l’atteggiamento dell’irlandese che si oppone all’inglese quando trasforma il suo mero gusto artistico in una religione; specialmente quando si tratta di un gusto che gli è stato semplicemente insegnato dalle zie e dagli zii. Secondo l’opinione di Shaw (si potrebbe dire) gli inglesi non godono davvero di Shakespeare né lo ammirano davvero; si può solo dire, nella forte espressione colloquiale, che essi giurano su Shakespeare. Egli è un mero dio; una cosa da invocare. E l’intera impresa di Shaw consisteva nel porre le cose su cui si giurava come cose da cui rifuggire con imprecazioni. Era in parte, ancora, il rivoluzionario in cerca di pura novità, che odia anzitutto l’oppressione del passato, quasi odiando la storia stessa. Per Bernard Shaw i profeti dovevano essere lapidati dopo, e non prima, che gli uomini avessero costruito i loro sepolcri. C’era nell’uomo una spigliatezza yankee che si irritava all’idea di essere dominato da una persona morta da trecento anni; come Mark Twain, voleva un cadavere più fresco.
Questi due moventi c’erano, ma erano piccoli in confronto all’altro. Era la terza parte di lui, il puritano, che era davvero in guerra con Shakespeare. Egli denunciava quel drammaturgo quasi esattamente come qualsiasi puritano contemporaneo, uscendo da un conventicolo con un cappello dall’alta cocuzzolo e rigidi collari, avrebbe potuto denunciare il drammaturgo che usciva dalla porta di servizio del vecchio Globe Theatre. Non è una mera fantasia; è filosoficamente vero. Una leggenda ha corso per i giornali secondo cui Bernard Shaw si sarebbe proposto come scrittore migliore di Shakespeare. Ciò è falso e assai ingiusto; Bernard Shaw non disse mai nulla del genere. Lo scrittore che egli disse essere migliore di Shakespeare non era lui stesso, ma Bunyan. E lo giustificava attribuendo a Bunyan una virile accettazione della vita come alta e aspra avventura, mentre in Shakespeare non vedeva altro che dissoluto pessimismo, la VANITAS VANITATUM di un voluttuoso deluso. Secondo questa visione Shakespeare diceva sempre: «Spegniti, spegniti, breve candela», perché la sua era soltanto una candela da sala da ballo; mentre Bunyan cercava di accendere una candela tale che, per grazia di Dio, non dovesse mai spegnersi.
È strano che il principale errore o insensibilità di Bernard Shaw sia stato lo strumento della sua più nobile affermazione. La denuncia di Shakespeare fu un mero malinteso. Ma la denuncia del pessimismo di Shakespeare fu la più splendidamente comprensiva di tutte le sue enunciazioni. Questa è la cosa più grande in Shaw, un serio ottimismo — persino un ottimismo tragico. La vita è cosa troppo gloriosa per essere goduta. Essere è un’impresa esigente ed estenuante; la tromba, benché ispiratrice, è terribile. Nulla di ciò che egli scrisse è tanto nobile quanto il suo semplice riferimento all’uomo robusto che si fece avanti verso il Custode del Libro della Vita e disse: «Metta giù il mio nome, Signore». È vero che Shaw chiamò questa eroica filosofia con nomi sbagliati e la puntellò con una falsa metafisica; questa fu la debolezza dell’epoca. Il temporaneo declino della teologia aveva comportato la negligenza della filosofia e di ogni pensiero raffinato; e Bernard Shaw dovette trovare in Schopenhauer traballanti giustificazioni per i figli di Dio che gridano di gioia. La chiamò la Volontà di Vivere — una frase inventata da professori prussiani che vorrebbero esistere, ma non ci riescono. In seguito chiese alla gente di adorare la Forza Vitale; come se si potesse adorare un trattino. Ma per quanto la ricoprisse di rozzi nomi nuovi (che ora fortunatamente si sgretolano ovunque come cattiva malta), egli stava dalla parte della buona vecchia causa; la più antica e la migliore di tutte le cause, la causa della creazione contro la distruzione, la causa del sì contro il no, la causa del seme contro la terra pietrosa e della stella contro l’abisso.
His misunderstanding of Shakespeare arose largely from the fact that he is a Puritan, while Shakespeare was spiritually a Catholic. The former is always screwing himself up to see truth; the latter is often content that truth is there. The Puritan is only strong enough to stiffen; the Catholic is strong enough to relax. Shaw, I think, has entirely misunderstood the pessimistic passages of Shakespeare. They are flying moods which a man with a fixed faith can afford to entertain. That all is vanity, that life is dust and love is ashes, these are frivolities, these are jokes that a Catholic can afford to utter. He knows well enough that there is a life that is not dust and a love that is not ashes. But just as he may let himself go more than the Puritan in the matter of enjoyment, so he may let himself go more than the Puritan in the matter of melancholy. The sad exuberances of Hamlet are merely like the glad exuberances of Falstaff. This is not conjecture; it is the text of Shakespeare. In the very act of uttering his pessimism, Hamlet admits that it is a mood and not the truth. Heaven IS a heavenly thing, only to him it seems a foul congregation of vapours. Man IS the paragon of animals, only to him he seems a quintessence of dust. Hamlet is quite the reverse of a sceptic. He is a man whose strong intellect believes much more than his weak temperament can make vivid to him. But this power of knowing a thing without feeling it, this power of believing a thing without experiencing it, this is an old Catholic complexity, and the Puritan has never understood it. Shakespeare confesses his moods (mostly by the mouths of villains and failures), but he never sets up his moods against his mind. His cry of VANITAS VANITATUM is itself only a harmless vanity. Readers may not agree with my calling him Catholic with a big C; but they will hardly complain of my calling him catholic with a small one. And that is here the principal point. Shakespeare was not in any sense a pessimist; he was, if anything, an optimist so universal as to be able to enjoy even pessimism. And this is exactly where he differs from the Puritan. The true Puritan is not squeamish: the true Puritan is free to say “Damn it!” But the Catholic Elizabethan was free (on passing provocation) to say “Damn it all!”
It need hardly be explained that Bernard Shaw added to his negative case of a dramatist to be depreciated a corresponding affirmative case of a dramatist to be exalted and advanced. He was not content with so remote a comparison as that between Shakespeare and Bunyan. In his vivacious weekly articles in the SATURDAY REVIEW, the real comparison upon which everything turned was the comparison between Shakespeare and Ibsen. He early threw himself with all possible eagerness into the public disputes about the great Scandinavian; and though there was no doubt whatever about which side he supported, there was much that was individual in the line he took. It is not our business here to explore that extinct volcano. You may say that anti-Ibsenism is dead, or you may say that Ibsen is dead; in any case, that controversy is dead, and death, as the Roman poet says, can alone confess of what small atoms we are made. The opponents of Ibsen largely exhibited the permanent qualities of the populace; that is, their instincts were right and their reasons wrong. They made the complete controversial mistake of calling Ibsen a pessimist; whereas, indeed, his chief weakness is a rather childish confidence in mere nature and freedom, and a blindness (either of experience or of culture) in the matter of original sin. In this sense Ibsen is not so much a pessimist as a highly crude kind of optimist. Nevertheless the man in the street was right in his fundamental instinct, as he always is. Ibsen, in his pale northern style, is an optimist; but for all that he is a depressing person. The optimism of Ibsen is less comforting than the pessimism of Dante; just as a Norwegian sunrise, however splendid, is colder than a southern night.
But on the side of those who fought for Ibsen there was also a disagreement, and perhaps also a mistake. The vague army of “the advanced” (an army which advances in all directions) were united in feeling that they ought to be the friends of Ibsen because he also was advancing somewhere somehow. But they were also seriously impressed by Flaubert, by Oscar Wilde and all the rest who told them that a work of art was in another universe from ethics and social good. Therefore many, I think most, of the Ibsenites praised the Ibsen plays merely as CHOSES VUES, aesthetic affirmations of what can be without any reference to what ought to be. Mr. William Archer himself inclined to this view, though his strong sagacity kept him in a haze of healthy doubt on the subject. Mr. Walkley certainly took this view. But this view Mr. George Bernard Shaw abruptly and violently refused to take.
With the full Puritan combination of passion and precision he informed everybody that Ibsen was not artistic, but moral; that his dramas were didactic, that all great art was didactic, that Ibsen was strongly on the side of some of his characters and strongly against others, that there was preaching and public spirit in the work of good dramatists; and that if this were not so, dramatists and all other artists would be mere panders of intellectual debauchery, to be locked up as the Puritans locked up the stage players. No one can understand Bernard Shaw who does not give full value to this early revolt of his on behalf of ethics against the ruling school of L’ART POUR L’ART. It is interesting because it is connected with other ambitions in the man, especially with that which has made him somewhat vainer of being a Parish Councillor than of being one of the most popular dramatists in Europe. But its chief interest is again to be referred to our stratification of the psychology; it is the lover of true things rebelling for once against merely new things; it is the Puritan suddenly refusing to be the mere Progressive.
Il suo fraintendimento di Shakespeare nasceva in gran parte dal fatto che egli è un puritano, mentre Shakespeare era spiritualmente un cattolico. Il primo si sforza sempre di scorgere la verità; il secondo spesso si accontenta che la verità sia lì. Il puritano è forte abbastanza solo per irrigidirsi; il cattolico è forte abbastanza per rilassarsi. Shaw, credo, ha del tutto frainteso i passi pessimistici di Shakespeare. Sono umori passeggeri che un uomo dotato di una fede salda può permettersi di coltivare. Che tutto sia vanità, che la vita sia polvere e l’amore sia cenere: queste sono frivolezze, sono scherzi che un cattolico può permettersi di pronunciare. Egli sa bene che esiste una vita che non è polvere e un amore che non è cenere. Ma proprio come può lasciarsi andare più del puritano in fatto di godimento, così può lasciarsi andare più del puritano in fatto di malinconia. Le tristi esuberanze di Amleto sono semplicemente come le liete esuberanze di Falstaff. Questa non è congettura; è il testo di Shakespeare. Nell’atto stesso di enunciare il suo pessimismo, Amleto ammette che si tratta di un umore e non della verità. Il Cielo È una cosa celeste, solo che a lui pare un lurido ammasso di vapori. L’uomo È il paragone degli animali, solo che a lui pare una quintessenza di polvere. Amleto è esattamente l’opposto di uno scettico. È un uomo il cui forte intelletto crede assai più di quanto il suo debole temperamento possa rendergli vivido. Ma questa facoltà di conoscere una cosa senza sentirla, questa facoltà di credere una cosa senza sperimentarla, è un’antica complessità cattolica, e il puritano non l’ha mai compresa. Shakespeare confessa i suoi umori (per lo più per bocca di malvagi e di falliti), ma non erge mai i suoi umori contro la sua mente. Il suo grido di VANITAS VANITATUM è esso stesso soltanto un’innocua vanità. I lettori potranno non essere d’accordo nel definirlo cattolico con la C maiuscola; ma difficilmente si lamenteranno che io lo chiami cattolico con la minuscola. E questo è qui il punto principale. Shakespeare non era in alcun senso un pessimista; era, semmai, un ottimista tanto universale da poter godere perfino del pessimismo. Ed è esattamente qui che differisce dal puritano. Il vero puritano non è schizzinoso: il vero puritano è libero di dire «Maledizione!» Ma l’elisabettiano cattolico era libero (a una provocazione momentanea) di dire «Maledizione a tutto quanto!»
Non occorre certo spiegare che Bernard Shaw aggiunse al suo argomento negativo di un drammaturgo da svalutare un corrispondente argomento affermativo di un drammaturgo da esaltare e promuovere. Non si accontentava di un confronto così remoto come quello tra Shakespeare e Bunyan. Nei suoi vivaci articoli settimanali sulla SATURDAY REVIEW, il vero confronto attorno a cui tutto ruotava era quello tra Shakespeare e Ibsen. Si gettò per tempo con ogni possibile ardore nelle pubbliche dispute intorno al grande scandinavo; e sebbene non vi fosse alcun dubbio su quale parte sostenesse, molto di personale vi era nella linea che assunse. Non è nostro compito qui esplorare quel vulcano spento. Si può dire che l’anti-ibsenismo sia morto, oppure che Ibsen sia morto; in ogni caso, quella controversia è morta, e la morte, come dice il poeta romano, può sola rivelare di quali minuti atomi siamo fatti. Gli avversari di Ibsen esibirono in gran parte le qualità permanenti del popolino; vale a dire, i loro istinti erano giusti e le loro ragioni sbagliate. Commisero il totale errore polemico di definire Ibsen un pessimista; mentre, in verità, la sua principale debolezza è una fiducia piuttosto puerile nella pura natura e nella libertà, e una cecità (di esperienza o di cultura) in materia di peccato originale. In questo senso Ibsen non è tanto un pessimista quanto una specie di ottimista assai rozzo. Nondimeno l’uomo della strada aveva ragione nel suo istinto fondamentale, come sempre. Ibsen, nel suo pallido stile nordico, è un ottimista; ma con tutto ciò è una persona deprimente. L’ottimismo di Ibsen è meno consolante del pessimismo di Dante; proprio come un’alba norvegese, per quanto splendida, è più fredda di una notte meridionale.
Ma dalla parte di coloro che combattevano per Ibsen vi era anche un disaccordo, e forse anche un errore. La vaga armata degli «avanzati» (un’armata che avanza in tutte le direzioni) era concorde nel sentire che dovesse essere amica di Ibsen, poiché anch’egli avanzava in qualche luogo in qualche modo. Ma erano anche seriamente colpiti da Flaubert, da Oscar Wilde e da tutti gli altri che dicevano loro che un’opera d’arte apparteneva a un universo diverso da quello dell’etica e del bene sociale. Perciò molti, credo i più, degli ibseniani lodavano i drammi di Ibsen semplicemente come CHOSES VUES, affermazioni estetiche di ciò che può essere senza alcun riferimento a ciò che dovrebbe essere. Lo stesso signor William Archer propendeva per questa opinione, benché la sua forte sagacia lo mantenesse in una nebbia di salutare dubbio sull’argomento. Il signor Walkley di certo condivideva questa opinione. Ma questa opinione il signor George Bernard Shaw rifiutò bruscamente e violentemente di condividere.
Con la piena combinazione puritana di passione e precisione informò tutti che Ibsen non era artistico, ma morale; che i suoi drammi erano didattici, che tutta la grande arte era didattica, che Ibsen era fortemente dalla parte di alcuni dei suoi personaggi e fortemente contro altri, che vi era predicazione e spirito civico nell’opera dei buoni drammaturghi; e che, se così non fosse, i drammaturghi e tutti gli altri artisti non sarebbero altro che ruffiani di una dissolutezza intellettuale, da rinchiudere come i puritani rinchiusero gli attori. Nessuno può comprendere Bernard Shaw se non dà pieno valore a questa sua precoce rivolta in nome dell’etica contro la scuola dominante dell’L’ART POUR L’ART. È interessante perché è connessa con altre ambizioni dell’uomo, specialmente con quella che lo ha reso alquanto più vanaglorioso di essere un consigliere parrocchiale che di essere uno dei più popolari drammaturghi d’Europa. Ma il suo interesse principale va di nuovo riferito alla nostra stratificazione della psicologia; è l’amante delle cose vere che si ribella per una volta contro le cose meramente nuove; è il puritano che a un tratto rifiuta di essere il mero progressista.
But this attitude obviously laid on the ethical lover of Ibsen a not inconsiderable obligation. If the new drama had an ethical purpose, what was it? and if Ibsen was a moral teacher, what the deuce was he teaching? Answers to this question, answers of manifold brilliancy and promise, were scattered through all the dramatic criticisms of those years on the SATURDAY REVIEW. But even Bernard Shaw grew tired after a time of discussing Ibsen only in connection with the current pantomime or the latest musical comedy. It was felt that so much sincerity and fertility of explanation justified a concentrated attack; and in 1891 appeared the brilliant book called THE QUINTESSENCE OF IBSENISM, which some have declared to be merely the quintessence of Shaw. However this may be, it was in fact and profession the quintessence of Shaw’s theory of the morality or propaganda of Ibsen.
The book itself is much longer than the book that I am writing; and as is only right in so spirited an apologist, every paragraph is provocative. I could write an essay on every sentence which I accept and three essays on every sentence which I deny. Bernard Shaw himself is a master of compression; he can put a conception more compactly than any other man alive. It is therefore rather difficult to compress his compression; one feels as if one were trying to extract a beef essence from Bovril. But the shortest form in which I can state the idea of The Quintessence of Ibsenism is that it is the idea of distrusting ideals, which are universal, in comparison with facts, which are miscellaneous. The man whom he attacks throughout he calls “The Idealist”; that is the man who permits himself to be mainly moved by a moral generalisation. “Actions,” he says, “are to be judged by their effect on happiness, and not by their conformity to any ideal.” As we have already seen, there is a certain inconsistency here; for while Shaw had always chucked all ideals overboard the one he had chucked first was the ideal of happiness. Passing this however for the present, we may mark the above as the most satisfying summary. If I tell a lie I am not to blame myself for having violated the ideal of truth, but only for having perhaps got myself into a mess and made things worse than they were before. If I have broken my word I need not feel (as my fathers did) that I have broken something inside of me, as one who breaks a blood vessel. It all depends on whether I have broken up something outside me; as one who breaks up an evening party. If I shoot my father the only question is whether I have made him happy. I must not admit the idealistic conception that the mere shooting of my father might possibly make me unhappy. We are to judge of every individual case as it arises, apparently without any social summary or moral ready-reckoner at all. “The Golden Rule is that there is no Golden Rule.” We must not say that it is right to keep promises, but that it may be right to keep this promise. Essentially it is anarchy; nor is it very easy to see how a state could be very comfortable which was Socialist in all its public morality and Anarchist in all its private. But if it is anarchy, it is anarchy without any of the abandon and exuberance of anarchy. It is a worried and conscientious anarchy; an anarchy of painful delicacy and even caution. For it refuses to trust in traditional experiments or plainly trodden tracks; every case must be considered anew from the beginning, and yet considered with the most wide-eyed care for human welfare; every man must act as if he were the first man made. Briefly, we must always be worrying about what is best for our children, and we must not take one hint or rule of thumb from our fathers. Some think that this anarchism would make a man tread down mighty cities in his madness. I think it would make a man walk down the street as if he were walking on egg-shells. I do not think this experiment in opportunism would end in frantic license; I think it would end in frozen timidity. If a man was forbidden to solve moral problems by moral science or the help of mankind, his course would be quite easy—he would not solve the problems. The world instead of being a knot so tangled as to need unravelling, would simply become a piece of clock-work too complicated to be touched. I cannot think that this untutored worry was what Ibsen meant; I have my doubts as to whether it was what Shaw meant; but I do not think that it can be substantially doubted that it was what he said.
In any case it can be asserted that the general aim of the work was to exalt the immediate conclusions of practice against the general conclusions of theory. Shaw objected to the solution of every problem in a play being by its nature a general solution, applicable to all other such problems. He disliked the entrance of a universal justice at the end of the last act; treading down all the personal ultimatums and all the varied certainties of men. He disliked the god from the machine—because he was from a machine. But even without the machine he tended to dislike the god; because a god is more general than a man. His enemies have accused Shaw of being anti-domestic, a shaker of the roof-tree. But in this sense Shaw may be called almost madly domestic. He wishes each private problem to be settled in private, without reference to sociological ethics. And the only objection to this kind of gigantic casuistry is that the theatre is really too small to discuss it. It would not be fair to play David and Goliath on a stage too small to admit Goliath. And it is not fair to discuss private morality on a stage too small to admit the enormous presence of public morality; that character which has not appeared in a play since the Middle Ages; whose name is Everyman and whose honour we have all in our keeping.
Ma questo atteggiamento imponeva evidentemente all’amante etico di Ibsen un obbligo non trascurabile. Se il nuovo teatro aveva uno scopo etico, quale era? e se Ibsen era un maestro morale, che diamine insegnava? Risposte a questa domanda, risposte di molteplice brillantezza e promessa, erano sparse per tutte le critiche drammatiche di quegli anni sulla SATURDAY REVIEW. Ma perfino Bernard Shaw si stancò dopo un tempo di discutere Ibsen solo in rapporto alla pantomima del momento o all’ultima commedia musicale. Si sentì che tanta sincerità e fertilità di spiegazione giustificavano un attacco concentrato; e nel 1891 apparve il brillante libro intitolato THE QUINTESSENCE OF IBSENISM, che alcuni hanno dichiarato essere semplicemente la quintessenza di Shaw. Comunque stiano le cose, esso fu di fatto e per dichiarazione la quintessenza della teoria di Shaw sulla moralità o propaganda di Ibsen.
Il libro stesso è molto più lungo del libro che sto scrivendo; e, come è giusto in un apologeta così spiritoso, ogni paragrafo è provocatorio. Potrei scrivere un saggio su ogni frase che accetto e tre saggi su ogni frase che nego. Bernard Shaw stesso è un maestro della compressione; sa esporre una concezione più compattamente di ogni altro uomo vivente. È perciò piuttosto difficile comprimere la sua compressione; ci si sente come se si cercasse di estrarre un estratto di manzo dal Bovril. Ma la forma più breve in cui posso enunciare l’idea di The Quintessence of Ibsenism è che essa è l’idea di diffidare degli ideali, che sono universali, in confronto ai fatti, che sono disparati. L’uomo che egli attacca dappertutto lo chiama «l’Idealista»; cioè l’uomo che si lascia muovere principalmente da una generalizzazione morale. «Le azioni», egli dice, «vanno giudicate dal loro effetto sulla felicità, e non dalla loro conformità a un qualche ideale». Come abbiamo già visto, c’è qui una certa incoerenza; poiché, mentre Shaw aveva sempre buttato a mare tutti gli ideali, il primo che aveva buttato era l’ideale della felicità. Passando tuttavia sopra a questo per il momento, possiamo segnare quanto sopra come il riassunto più soddisfacente. Se dico una menzogna non devo rimproverarmi di aver violato l’ideale della verità, ma solo di essermi forse cacciato in un pasticcio e di aver peggiorato le cose rispetto a prima. Se ho mancato alla parola data non ho bisogno di sentire (come sentivano i miei padri) di aver spezzato qualcosa dentro di me, come chi rompe un vaso sanguigno. Tutto dipende dal fatto che io abbia rotto qualcosa fuori di me; come chi manda all’aria una serata. Se sparo a mio padre l’unica questione è se l’ho reso felice. Non devo ammettere la concezione idealistica secondo cui il semplice sparare a mio padre potrebbe forse rendere me infelice. Dobbiamo giudicare ogni caso individuale così come si presenta, apparentemente senza alcun compendio sociale o prontuario morale. «La Regola d’Oro è che non c’è Regola d’Oro». Non dobbiamo dire che è giusto mantenere le promesse, ma che può essere giusto mantenere questa promessa. Essenzialmente è anarchia; né è molto facile vedere come possa star bene uno Stato che fosse Socialista in tutta la sua moralità pubblica e Anarchico in tutta quella privata. Ma se è anarchia, è anarchia priva di ogni abbandono ed esuberanza dell’anarchia. È un’anarchia inquieta e coscienziosa; un’anarchia di penosa delicatezza e perfino di cautela. Poiché rifiuta di fidarsi degli esperimenti tradizionali o dei sentieri chiaramente battuti; ogni caso dev’essere considerato di nuovo dal principio, e tuttavia considerato con la cura più vigile per il benessere umano; ogni uomo deve agire come se fosse il primo uomo creato. In breve, dobbiamo sempre preoccuparci di ciò che è meglio per i nostri figli, e non dobbiamo prendere un solo suggerimento o regola empirica dai nostri padri. Alcuni pensano che questo anarchismo indurrebbe un uomo a calpestare potenti città nella sua follia. Io penso che indurrebbe un uomo a camminare per la strada come se camminasse su gusci d’uovo. Non credo che questo esperimento di opportunismo finirebbe in una frenetica licenza; penso che finirebbe in una timidezza congelata. Se a un uomo fosse proibito di risolvere i problemi morali mediante la scienza morale o l’aiuto dell’umanità, il suo corso sarebbe assai facile: non risolverebbe i problemi. Il mondo, invece di essere un nodo tanto aggrovigliato da richiedere di essere sciolto, diverrebbe semplicemente un pezzo di orologeria troppo complicato per essere toccato. Non posso pensare che questa incolta inquietudine fosse ciò che Ibsen intendeva; ho i miei dubbi se fosse ciò che Shaw intendeva; ma non credo si possa dubitare sostanzialmente che fosse ciò che egli disse.
In ogni caso si può affermare che lo scopo generale dell’opera era esaltare le conclusioni immediate della pratica contro le conclusioni generali della teoria. Shaw obiettava che la soluzione di ogni problema in un dramma fosse per sua natura una soluzione generale, applicabile a tutti gli altri problemi dello stesso genere. Gli spiaceva l’ingresso di una giustizia universale alla fine dell’ultimo atto; che calpestava tutti gli ultimatum personali e tutte le svariate certezze degli uomini. Gli spiaceva il dio dalla macchina — perché veniva da una macchina. Ma anche senza la macchina tendeva a detestare il dio; perché un dio è più generale di un uomo. I suoi nemici hanno accusato Shaw di essere anti-domestico, uno scuotitore dell’albero del focolare. Ma in questo senso Shaw può dirsi quasi follemente domestico. Egli desidera che ogni problema privato sia risolto in privato, senza riferimento all’etica sociologica. E l’unica obiezione a questa specie di gigantesca casuistica è che il teatro è davvero troppo piccolo per discuterla. Non sarebbe leale rappresentare Davide e Golia su un palco troppo piccolo per contenere Golia. E non è leale discutere la moralità privata su un palco troppo piccolo per accogliere l’enorme presenza della moralità pubblica; quel personaggio che non è comparso in un dramma dal Medioevo; il cui nome è Ognuno e il cui onore abbiamo tutti in custodia.
The Dramatist
NO one who was alive at the time and interested in such matters will ever forget the first acting of ARMS AND THE MAN. It was applauded by that indescribable element in all of us which rejoices to see the genuine thing prevail against the plausible; that element which rejoices that even its enemies are alive. Apart from the problems raised in the play, the very form of it was an attractive and forcible innovation. Classic plays which were wholly heroic, comic plays which were wholly and even heartlessly ironical, were common enough. Commonest of all in this particular time was the play that began playfully, with plenty of comic business, and was gradually sobered by sentiment until it ended on a note of romance or even of pathos. A commonplace little officer, the butt of the mess, becomes by the last act as high and hopeless a lover as Dante. Or a vulgar and violent pork-butcher remembers his own youth before the curtain goes down. The first thing that Bernard Shaw did when he stepped before the footlights was to reverse this process. He resolved to build a play not on pathos, but on bathos. The officer should be heroic first and then everyone should laugh at him; the curtain should go up on a man remembering his youth, and he should only reveal himself as a violent pork-butcher when someone interrupted him with an order for pork. This merely technical originality is indicated in the very title of the play. The ARMA VIRUMQUE of Virgil is a mounting and ascending phrase, the man is more than his weapons. The Latin line suggests a superb procession which should bring on to the stage the brazen and resounding armour, the shield and shattering axe, but end with the hero himself, taller and more terrible because unarmed. The technical effect of Shaw’s scheme is like the same scene, in which a crowd should carry even more gigantic shapes of shield and helmet, but when the horns and howls were at their highest, should end with the figure of Little Tich. The name itself is meant to be a bathos; arms—and the man.
It is well to begin with the superficial; and this is the superficial effectiveness of Shaw; the brilliancy of bathos. But of course the vitality and value of his plays does not lie merely in this; any more than the value of Swinburne lies in alliteration or the value of Hood in puns. This is not his message; but it is his method; it is his style. The first taste we had of it was in this play of ARMS AND THE MAN; but even at the very first it was evident that there was much more in the play than that. Among other things there was one thing not unimportant; there was savage sincerity. Indeed, only a ferociously sincere person can produce such effective flippancies on a matter like war; just as only a strong man could juggle with cannon balls. It is all very well to use the word “fool” as synonymous with “jester”; but daily experience shows that it is generally the solemn and silent man who is the fool. It is all very well to accuse Mr. Shaw of standing on his head; but if you stand on your head you must have a hard and solid head to stand on. In ARMS AND THE MAN the bathos of form was strictly the incarnation of a strong satire in the idea. The play opens in an atmosphere of military melodrama; the dashing officer of cavalry going off to death in an attitude, the lovely heroine left in tearful rapture; the brass band, the noise of guns and the red fire. Into all this enters Bluntschli, the little sturdy crop-haired Swiss professional soldier, a man without a country but with a trade. He tells the army-adoring heroine frankly that she is a humbug; and she, after a moment’s reflection, appears to agree with him. The play is like nearly all Shaw’s plays, the dialogue of a conversion. By the end of it the young lady has lost all her military illusions and admires this mercenary soldier not because he faces guns, but because he faces facts.
This was a fitting entrance for Shaw to his didactic drama; because the commonplace courage which he respects in Bluntschli was the one virtue which he was destined to praise throughout. We can best see how the play symbolises and summarises Bernard Shaw if we compare it with some other attack by modern humanitarians upon war. Shaw has many of the actual opinions of Tolstoy. Like Tolstoy he tells men, with coarse innocence, that romantic war is only butchery and that romantic love is only lust. But Tolstoy objects to these things because they are real; he really wishes to abolish them. Shaw only objects to them in so far as they are ideal; that is in so far as they are idealised. Shaw objects not so much to war as to the attractiveness of war. He does not so much dislike love as the love of love. Before the temple of Mars, Tolstoy stands and thunders, “There shall be no wars”; Bernard Shaw merely murmurs, “Wars if you must; but for God’s sake, not war songs.” Before the temple of Venus, Tolstoy cries terribly, “Come out of it!”; Shaw is quite content to say, “Do not be taken in by it.” Tolstoy seems really to propose that high passion and patriotic valour should be destroyed. Shaw is more moderate; and only asks that they should be desecrated. Upon this note, both about sex and conflict, he was destined to dwell through much of his work with the most wonderful variations of witty adventure and intellectual surprise. It may be doubted perhaps whether this realism in love and war is quite so sensible as it looks. SECURUS JUDICAT ORBIS TERRARUM; the world is wiser than the moderns. The world has kept sentimentalities simply because they are the most practical things in the world. They alone make men do things. The world does not encourage a quite rational lover, simply because a perfectly rational lover would never get married. The world does not encourage a perfectly rational army, because a perfectly rational army would run away.
Il Drammaturgo
Nessuno che fosse vivo a quel tempo e interessato a tali cose dimenticherà mai la prima rappresentazione di ARMS AND THE MAN. Fu applaudita da quell’indescrivibile elemento in tutti noi che gioisce nel vedere la cosa genuina prevalere sulla cosa plausibile; quell’elemento che gioisce che perfino i suoi nemici siano vivi. A parte i problemi sollevati nel dramma, la forma stessa di esso era un’innovazione attraente e vigorosa. Drammi classici che erano interamente eroici, commedie che erano interamente e persino spietatamente ironiche, erano abbastanza comuni. Il più comune di tutti in questo particolare tempo era il dramma che cominciava scherzosamente, con abbondanza di trovate comiche, e veniva gradualmente rabbonito dal sentimento finché non si chiudeva su una nota di romanticismo o persino di pathos. Un banale ufficialetto, zimbello della mensa, diventa entro l’ultimo atto un amante alto e disperato quanto Dante. Oppure un volgare e violento salumaio ricorda la propria giovinezza prima che cali il sipario. La prima cosa che Bernard Shaw fece quando avanzò davanti alle luci della ribalta fu di rovesciare questo processo. Egli decise di costruire un dramma non sul pathos, ma sul bathos. L’ufficiale doveva essere prima eroico e poi tutti dovevano ridere di lui; il sipario doveva alzarsi su un uomo che ricorda la propria giovinezza, ed egli doveva rivelarsi come un violento salumaio solo quando qualcuno lo interrompeva con un’ordinazione di carne di maiale. Questa originalità meramente tecnica è indicata nel titolo stesso del dramma. L’ARMA VIRUMQUE di Virgilio è una frase ascendente e crescente, l’uomo è più delle sue armi. Il verso latino suggerisce una superba processione che dovrebbe portare sulla scena l’armatura di bronzo risonante, lo scudo e l’ascia fracassatrice, ma terminare con l’eroe stesso, più alto e più terribile perché disarmato. L’effetto tecnico dello schema di Shaw è come la stessa scena, in cui una folla dovrebbe recare forme ancor più gigantesche di scudo ed elmo, ma quando i corni e gli ululati fossero al culmine, dovrebbe terminare con la figura di Little Tich. Il nome stesso è inteso come un bathos: arms — and the man.
È bene cominciare dal superficiale; e questa è la superficiale efficacia di Shaw: la brillantezza del bathos. Ma naturalmente la vitalità e il valore dei suoi drammi non risiedono meramente in questo; non più di quanto il valore di Swinburne risieda nell’allitterazione o il valore di Hood nei giochi di parole. Questo non è il suo messaggio; ma è il suo metodo; è il suo stile. Il primo assaggio che ne avemmo fu in questo dramma di ARMS AND THE MAN; ma già alla prima fu evidente che nel dramma c’era molto di più. Fra le altre cose ce n’era una non trascurabile: c’era una sincerità feroce. Anzi, solo una persona ferocemente sincera può produrre frivolezze così efficaci su una materia come la guerra; proprio come solo un uomo forte potrebbe giocolare con palle di cannone. Va bene usare la parola «folle» come sinonimo di «buffone»; ma l’esperienza quotidiana mostra che è generalmente l’uomo solenne e silenzioso a essere il folle. Va bene accusare il signor Shaw di stare a testa in giù; ma se stai a testa in giù devi avere una testa dura e solida su cui stare. In ARMS AND THE MAN il bathos della forma era rigorosamente l’incarnazione di una forte satira nell’idea. Il dramma si apre in un’atmosfera di melodramma militare; il brioso ufficiale di cavalleria che parte per la morte in posa, la leggiadra eroina lasciata in lacrimoso rapimento; la banda d’ottoni, il fragore dei cannoni e il rosso fuoco. In tutto questo entra Bluntschli, il piccolo, robusto soldato di mestiere svizzero dai capelli rasati, un uomo senza patria ma con un mestiere. Egli dice francamente all’eroina adoratrice dell’esercito che ella è un’impostura; ed ella, dopo un momento di riflessione, sembra dargli ragione. Il dramma è come quasi tutti i drammi di Shaw, il dialogo di una conversione. Alla fine di esso la giovane dama ha perduto tutte le sue illusioni militari e ammira questo soldato mercenario non perché affronta i cannoni, ma perché affronta i fatti.
Questo fu un ingresso adatto per Shaw nel suo teatro didattico; perché il banale coraggio che egli rispetta in Bluntschli era l’unica virtù che era destinato a lodare da un capo all’altro. Possiamo vedere al meglio come il dramma simboleggi e riassuma Bernard Shaw se lo confrontiamo con qualche altro attacco degli umanitaristi moderni alla guerra. Shaw ha molte delle opinioni concrete di Tolstoj. Come Tolstoj egli dice agli uomini, con rozza innocenza, che la guerra romantica è solo macelleria e che l’amore romantico è solo lussuria. Ma Tolstoj obietta a queste cose perché sono reali; egli desidera davvero abolirle. Shaw vi obietta solo nella misura in cui sono ideali; cioè nella misura in cui sono idealizzate. Shaw obietta non tanto alla guerra quanto all’attrattiva della guerra. Non gli spiace tanto l’amore quanto l’amore dell’amore. Davanti al tempio di Marte, Tolstoj sta e tuona: «Non vi saranno guerre»; Bernard Shaw si limita a mormorare: «Guerre se dovete; ma per amor di Dio, non canti di guerra». Davanti al tempio di Venere, Tolstoj grida terribilmente: «Uscitene!»; Shaw si accontenta di dire: «Non lasciatevene ingannare». Tolstoj sembra davvero proporre che l’alta passione e il valore patriottico vengano distrutti. Shaw è più moderato; e chiede soltanto che vengano profanati. Su questa nota, sia riguardo al sesso sia riguardo al conflitto, egli era destinato a indugiare per gran parte della sua opera con le più mirabili variazioni di spiritosa avventura e sorpresa intellettuale. Si può forse dubitare che questo realismo nell’amore e nella guerra sia proprio così assennato come sembra. SECURUS JUDICAT ORBIS TERRARUM; il mondo è più saggio dei moderni. Il mondo ha conservato i sentimentalismi semplicemente perché sono le cose più pratiche del mondo. Essi soli fanno agire gli uomini. Il mondo non incoraggia un amante del tutto razionale, semplicemente perché un amante perfettamente razionale non si sposerebbe mai. Il mondo non incoraggia un esercito perfettamente razionale, perché un esercito perfettamente razionale scapperebbe.
The brain of Bernard Shaw was like a wedge in the literal sense. Its sharpest end was always in front; and it split our society from end to end the moment it had entrance at all. As I have said he was long unheard of; but he had not the tragedy of many authors, who were heard of long before they were heard. When you had read any Shaw you read all Shaw. When you had seen one of his plays you waited for more. And when he brought them out in volume form, you did what is repugnant to any literary man—you bought a book.
The dramatic volume with which Shaw dazzled the public was called, Plays, Pleasant and Unpleasant. I think the most striking and typical thing about it was that he did not know very clearly which plays were unpleasant and which were pleasant. “Pleasant” is a word which is almost unmeaning to Bernard Shaw. Except, as I suppose, in music (where I cannot follow him), relish and receptivity are things that simply do not appear. He has the best of tongues and the worst of palates. With the possible exception of Mrs. Warren’s Profession (which was at least unpleasant in the sense of being forbidden) I can see no particular reason why any of the seven plays should be held specially to please or displease. First in fame and contemporary importance came the reprint of Arms and the Man, of which I have already spoken. Over all the rest towered unquestionably the two figures of Mrs. Warren and of Candida. They were neither of them pleasant, except as all good art is pleasant. They were neither of them really unpleasant except as all truth is unpleasant. But they did represent the author’s normal preference and his principal fear; and those two sculptured giantesses largely upheld his fame.
I fancy that the author rather dislikes CANDIDA because it is so generally liked. I give my own feeling for what it is worth (a foolish phrase), but I think that there were only two moments when this powerful writer was truly, in the ancient and popular sense, inspired; that is, breathing from a bigger self and telling more truth than he knew. One is that scene in a later play where after the secrets and revenges of Egypt have rioted and rotted all round him, the colossal sanity of Caesar is suddenly acclaimed with swords. The other is that great last scene in CANDIDa where the wife, stung into final speech, declared her purpose of remaining with the strong man because he is the weak man. The wife is asked to decide between two men, one a strenuous self-confident popular preacher, her husband, the other a wild and weak young poet, logically futile and physically timid, her lover; and she chooses the former because he has more weakness and more need of her. Even among the plain and ringing paradoxes of the Shaw play this is one of the best reversals or turnovers ever effected. A paradoxical writer like Bernard Shaw is perpetually and tiresomely told that he stands on his head. But all romance and all religion consist in making the whole universe stand on its head. That reversal is the whole idea of virtue; that the last shall be first and the first last. Considered as a pure piece of Shaw therefore, the thing is of the best. But it is also something much better than Shaw. The writer touches certain realities commonly outside his scope; especially the reality of the normal wife’s attitude to the normal husband, an attitude which is not romantic but which is yet quite quixotic; which is insanely unselfish and yet quite cynically clear-sighted. It involves human sacrifice without in the least involving idolatry.
The truth is that in this place Bernard Shaw comes within an inch of expressing something that is not properly expressed anywhere else; the idea of marriage. Marriage is not a mere chain upon love as the anarchists say; nor is it a mere crown upon love as the sentimentalists say. Marriage is a fact, an actual human relation like that of motherhood which has certain human habits and loyalties, except in a few monstrous cases where it is turned to torture by special insanity and sin. A marriage is neither an ecstasy nor a slavery; it is a commonwealth; it is a separate working and fighting thing like a nation. Kings and diplomatists talk of “forming alliances” when they make weddings; but indeed every wedding is primarily an alliance. The family is a fact even when it is not an agreeable fact, and a man is part of his wife even when he wishes he wasn’t. The twain are one flesh—yes, even when they are not one spirit. Man is duplex. Man is a quadruped.
Of this ancient and essential relation there are certain emotional results, which are subtle, like all the growths of nature. And one of them is the attitude of the wife to the husband, whom she regards at once as the strongest and most helpless of human figures. She regards him in some strange fashion at once as a warrior who must make his way and as an infant who is sure to lose his way. The man has emotions which exactly correspond; sometimes looking down at his wife and sometimes up at her; for marriage is like a splendid game of see-saw. Whatever else it is, it is not comradeship. This living, ancestral bond (not of love or fear, but strictly of marriage) has been twice expressed splendidly in literature. The man’s incurable sense of the mother in his lawful wife was uttered by Browning in one of his two or three truly shattering lines of genius, when he makes the execrable Guido fall back finally upon the fact of marriage and the wife whom he has trodden like mire:
“Christ! Maria! God, Pompilia, will you let them murder me?”
And the woman’s witness to the same fact has been best expressed by Bernard Shaw in this great scene where she remains with the great stalwart successful public man because he is really too little to run alone.
Il cervello di Bernard Shaw era come un cuneo nel senso letterale. La sua estremità più affilata era sempre in avanti; e spaccò la nostra società da un capo all’altro nel momento stesso in cui vi ebbe accesso. Come ho detto, egli rimase a lungo sconosciuto; ma non ebbe la tragedia di molti autori, che furono uditi nominare molto prima di essere uditi. Quando avevi letto un po’ di Shaw avevi letto tutto Shaw. Quando avevi visto uno dei suoi drammi ne aspettavi altri. E quando li pubblicò in volume, facesti ciò che ripugna a ogni uomo di lettere: comprasti un libro.
Il volume drammatico con cui Shaw abbagliò il pubblico si intitolava Plays, Pleasant and Unpleasant. Penso che la cosa più notevole e tipica di esso fosse che egli non sapeva molto chiaramente quali drammi fossero sgradevoli e quali gradevoli. «Piacevole» è una parola quasi priva di senso per Bernard Shaw. Tranne, suppongo, nella musica (dove non riesco a seguirlo), il gusto e la ricettività sono cose che semplicemente non compaiono. Egli ha la migliore delle lingue e il peggiore dei palati. Con la possibile eccezione di Mrs. Warren’s Profession (che era almeno sgradevole nel senso di essere proibito) non vedo alcuna ragione particolare per cui uno qualsiasi dei sette drammi debba essere ritenuto atto specialmente a piacere o a dispiacere. Primo per fama e importanza contemporanea veniva la ristampa di Arms and the Man, di cui ho già parlato. Su tutti gli altri torreggiavano indubbiamente le due figure di Mrs. Warren e di Candida. Nessuna delle due era gradevole, se non come è gradevole ogni buona arte. Nessuna delle due era davvero sgradevole, se non come è sgradevole ogni verità. Ma esse rappresentavano davvero la preferenza normale dell’autore e la sua principale paura; e quelle due scolpite gigantesse sostenevano in gran parte la sua fama.
Immagino che l’autore piuttosto detesti CANDIDA proprio perché è così generalmente amato. Do la mia sensazione per quel che vale (frase sciocca), ma penso che ci siano stati solo due momenti in cui questo potente scrittore fu davvero, nel senso antico e popolare, ispirato; cioè, respirante da un sé più grande e dicente più verità di quanta ne sapesse. Uno è quella scena in un dramma posteriore dove, dopo che i segreti e le vendette d’Egitto hanno tumultuato e imputridito tutt’intorno a lui, la colossale sanità di Cesare è d’un tratto acclamata con le spade. L’altro è quella grande scena finale di CANDIDA dove la moglie, spinta a un discorso finale, dichiarò il suo proposito di restare con l’uomo forte perché è l’uomo debole. Alla moglie si chiede di decidere fra due uomini, l’uno strenuo predicatore popolare pieno di sé, suo marito, l’altro un poeta giovane, selvaggio e debole, logicamente inconcludente e fisicamente timido, il suo amante; ed ella sceglie il primo perché ha più debolezza e maggior bisogno di lei. Perfino fra i chiari e squillanti paradossi del dramma di Shaw questo è uno dei migliori rovesciamenti o capovolgimenti mai realizzati. A uno scrittore paradossale come Bernard Shaw si dice perpetuamente e stancamente che sta a testa in giù. Ma tutto il romanticismo e tutta la religione consistono nel far stare a testa in giù l’intero universo. Quel rovesciamento è l’idea stessa della virtù; che gli ultimi saranno i primi e i primi gli ultimi. Considerata come puro pezzo di Shaw, dunque, la cosa è del meglio. Ma è anche qualcosa di molto migliore di Shaw. Lo scrittore tocca certe realtà comunemente fuori dalla sua portata; specialmente la realtà dell’atteggiamento della moglie normale verso il marito normale, un atteggiamento che non è romantico ma che è tuttavia del tutto donchisciottesco; che è follemente altruistico e tuttavia del tutto cinicamente lucido. Comporta il sacrificio umano senza comportare minimamente l’idolatria.
La verità è che in questo punto Bernard Shaw giunge a un pollice dall’esprimere qualcosa che non è propriamente espresso in nessun altro luogo; l’idea del matrimonio. Il Matrimonio non è una mera catena sull’amore come dicono gli anarchici; né una mera corona sull’amore come dicono i sentimentalisti. Il Matrimonio è un fatto, una reale relazione umana come quella della maternità, che ha certe abitudini e lealtà umane, salvo in pochi casi mostruosi in cui è mutato in tortura da speciale follia e peccato. Un matrimonio non è né un’estasi né una schiavitù; è un bene comune; è una cosa a sé che lavora e combatte come una nazione. Re e diplomatici parlano di «stringere alleanze» quando fanno nozze; ma in verità ogni nozze è primariamente un’alleanza. La famiglia è un fatto anche quando non è un fatto gradevole, e un uomo è parte della propria moglie anche quando vorrebbe non esserlo. I due sono una sola carne — sì, anche quando non sono un solo spirito. L’uomo è duplice. L’uomo è un quadrupede.
Di questa antica ed essenziale relazione vi sono certi risultati emotivi, che sono sottili, come tutte le crescite della natura. E uno di essi è l’atteggiamento della moglie verso il marito, che ella considera al tempo stesso la più forte e la più impotente delle figure umane. Ella lo considera in qualche strana maniera insieme come un guerriero che deve aprirsi la strada e come un infante che è certo di smarrire la strada. L’uomo ha emozioni che esattamente corrispondono; ora guardando in basso verso la moglie e ora in alto verso di lei; poiché il matrimonio è come uno splendido gioco dell’altalena. Qualunque altra cosa sia, non è cameratismo. Questo vincolo vivente e ancestrale (non di amore o paura, ma strettamente di matrimonio) è stato due volte espresso splendidamente nella letteratura. L’incurabile senso della madre che l’uomo avverte nella propria legittima moglie fu proferito da Browning in uno dei suoi due o tre versi di genio davvero folgoranti, quando fa sì che l’esecrabile Guido ricada infine sul fatto del matrimonio e sulla moglie che ha calpestato come fango:
«Cristo! Maria! Dio, Pompilia, lascerai che mi assassinino?»
E la testimonianza della donna al medesimo fatto è stata espressa al meglio da Bernard Shaw in questa grande scena dove ella resta col grande, gagliardo e riuscito uomo pubblico perché è davvero troppo piccolo per procedere da solo.
There are one or two errors in the play; and they are all due to the primary error of despising the mental attitude of romance, which is the only key to real human conduct. For instance, the love making of the young poet is all wrong. He is supposed to be a romantic and amorous boy; and therefore the dramatist tries to make him talk turgidly, about seeking for “an archangel with purple wings” who shall be worthy of his lady. But a lad in love would never talk in this mock heroic style; there is no period at which the young male is more sensitive and serious and afraid of looking a fool. This is a blunder; but there is another much bigger and blacker. It is completely and disastrously false to the whole nature of falling in love to make the young Eugene complain of the cruelty which makes Candida defile her fair hands with domestic duties. No boy in love with a beautiful woman would ever feel disgusted when she peeled potatoes or trimmed lamps. He would like her to be domestic. He would simply feel that the potatoes had become poetical and the lamps gained an extra light. This may be irrational; but we are not talking of rationality, but of the psychology of first love. It may be very unfair to women that the toil and triviality of potato peeling should be seen through a glamour of romance; but the glamour is quite as certain a fact as the potatoes. It may be a bad thing in sociology that men should deify domesticity in girls as something dainty and magical; but all men do. Personally I do not think it a bad thing at all; but that is another argument. The argument here is that Bernard Shaw, in aiming at mere realism, makes a big mistake in reality. Misled by his great heresy of looking at emotions from the outside, he makes Eugene a cold-blooded prig at the very moment when he is trying, for his own dramatic purposes, to make him a hot-blooded lover. He makes the young lover an idealistic theoriser about the very things about which he really would have been a sort of mystical materialist. Here the romantic Irishman is much more right than the very rational one; and there is far more truth to life as it is in Lover’s couplet—
“And envied the chicken That Peggy was pickin’.”
than in Eugene’s solemn, aesthetic protest against the potato-skins and the lamp-oil. For dramatic purposes, G. B. S., even if he despises romance, ought to comprehend it. But then, if once he comprehended romance, he would not despise it.
The series contained, besides its more substantial work, tragic and comic, a comparative frivolity called THE MAN OF DESTINY. It is a little comedy about Napoleon, and is chiefly interesting as a foreshadowing of his after sketches of heroes and strong men; it is a kind of parody of CAESAR AND CLEOPATRa before it was written. In this connection the mere title of this Napoleonic play is of interest. All Shaw’s generation and school of thought remembered Napoleon only by his late and corrupt title of “The Man of Destiny,” a title only given to him when he was already fat and tired and destined to exile. They forgot that through all the really thrilling and creative part of his career he was not the man of destiny, but the man who defied destiny. Shaw’s sketch is extraordinarily clever; but it is tinged with this unmilitary notion of an inevitable conquest; and this we must remember when we come to those larger canvases on which he painted his more serious heroes. As for the play, it is packed with good things, of which the last is perhaps the best. The long duologue between Bonaparte and the Irish lady ends with the General declaring that he will only be beaten when he meets an English army under an Irish general. It has always been one of Shaw’s paradoxes that the English mind has the force to fulfil orders, while the Irish mind has the intelligence to give them, and it is among those of his paradoxes which contain a certain truth.
A far more important play is THE PHILANDERER, an ironic comedy which is full of fine strokes and real satire; it is more especially the vehicle of some of Shaw’s best satire upon physical science. Nothing could be cleverer than the picture of the young, strenuous doctor, in the utter innocence of his professional ambition, who has discovered a new disease, and is delighted when he finds people suffering from it and cast down to despair when he finds that it does not exist. The point is worth a pause, because it is a good, short way of stating Shaw’s attitude, right or wrong, upon the whole of formal morality. What he dislikes in young Doctor Paramore is that he has interposed a secondary and false conscience between himself and the facts. When his disease is disproved, instead of seeing the escape of a human being who thought he was going to die of it, Paramore sees the downfall of a kind of flag or cause. This is the whole contention of THE QUINTESSENCE OF IBSENISM, put better than the book puts it; it is a really sharp exposition of the dangers of “idealism,” the sacrifice of people to principles, and Shaw is even wiser in his suggestion that this excessive idealism exists nowhere so strongly as in the world of physical science. He shows that the scientist tends to be more concerned about the sickness than about the sick man; but it was certainly in his mind to suggest here also that the idealist is more concerned about the sin than about the sinner.
This business of Dr. Paramore’s disease while it is the most farcical thing in the play is also the most philosophic and important. The rest of the figures, including the Philanderer himself, are in the full sense of those blasting and obliterating words “funny without being vulgar,” that is, funny without being of any importance to the masses of men. It is a play about a dashing and advanced “Ibsen Club,” and the squabble between the young Ibsenites and the old people who are not yet up to Ibsen. It would be hard to find a stronger example of Shaw’s only essential error, modernity—which means the seeking for truth in terms of time. Only a few years have passed and already almost half the wit of that wonderful play is wasted, because it all turns on the newness of a fashion that is no longer new. Doubtless many people still think the Ibsen drama a great thing, like the French classical drama. But going to “The Philanderer” is like going among periwigs and rapiers and hearing that the young men are now all for Racine. What makes such work sound unreal is not the praise of Ibsen, but the praise of the novelty of Ibsen. Any advantage that Bernard Shaw had over Colonel Craven I have over Bernard Shaw; we who happen to be born last have the meaningless and paltry triumph in that meaningless and paltry war. We are the superiors by that silliest and most snobbish of all superiorities, the mere aristocracy of time. All works must become thus old and insipid which have ever tried to be “modern,” which have consented to smell of time rather than of eternity. Only those who have stooped to be in advance of their time will ever find themselves behind it.
Ci sono uno o due errori nel dramma; e sono tutti dovuti all’errore primario di disprezzare l’atteggiamento mentale del romanticismo, che è l’unica chiave della vera condotta umana. Per esempio, il corteggiamento amoroso del giovane poeta è tutto sbagliato. Si suppone che egli sia un ragazzo romantico e amoroso; e perciò il drammaturgo cerca di farlo parlare in modo turgido, del cercare «un arcangelo dalle ali purpuree» che sia degno della sua dama. Ma un giovinetto innamorato non parlerebbe mai in questo stile eroicomico; non c’è periodo in cui il giovane maschio sia più sensibile e serio e timoroso di sembrare un folle. Questo è un errore; ma ce n’è un altro molto più grande e più nero. È completamente e disastrosamente falso all’intera natura del cadere in amore far sì che il giovane Eugene si lamenti della crudeltà che fa insudiciare a Candida le sue belle mani con i doveri domestici. Nessun ragazzo innamorato di una bella donna proverebbe mai disgusto quando ella pelasse patate o smoccolasse lampade. Le vorrebbe che fosse domestica. Sentirebbe semplicemente che le patate sono diventate poetiche e che le lampade hanno acquistato una luce in più. Questo può essere irrazionale; ma non stiamo parlando di razionalità, bensì della psicologia del primo amore. Può essere assai ingiusto verso le donne che la fatica e la banalità dello sbucciare le patate siano viste attraverso un incanto di romanticismo; ma l’incanto è un fatto tanto certo quanto le patate. Può essere una brutta cosa in sociologia che gli uomini deifichino la domesticità nelle fanciulle come qualcosa di grazioso e magico; ma tutti gli uomini lo fanno. Personalmente non lo ritengo affatto una brutta cosa; ma questo è un altro argomento. L’argomento qui è che Bernard Shaw, mirando al mero realismo, commette un grande sbaglio nella realtà. Fuorviato dalla sua grande eresia di guardare le emozioni dall’esterno, egli fa di Eugene un pedante dal sangue freddo proprio nel momento in cui sta cercando, per i propri scopi drammatici, di farne un amante dal sangue caldo. Fa del giovane amante un teorizzatore idealistico proprio sulle cose riguardo alle quali sarebbe stato in realtà una sorta di materialista mistico. Qui l’irlandese romantico ha molta più ragione di quello assai razionale; e c’è assai più verità rispetto alla vita com’è nel distico dell’Innamorato:
«E invidiava il pollo Che Peggy sbocconcellava».
che nella solenne, estetica protesta di Eugene contro le bucce di patata e l’olio delle lampade. Per scopi drammatici, G. B. S., anche se disprezza il romanticismo, dovrebbe comprenderlo. Ma allora, se una volta comprendesse il romanticismo, non lo disprezzerebbe.
La serie conteneva, oltre alle sue opere più sostanziali, tragiche e comiche, una relativa frivolezza intitolata THE MAN OF DESTINY. È una piccola commedia su Napoleone, ed è interessante soprattutto come presagio dei suoi successivi ritratti di eroi e uomini forti; è una specie di parodia di CAESAR AND CLEOPATRa prima ancora che fosse scritto. A questo proposito il mero titolo di questo dramma napoleonico è d’interesse. Tutta la generazione e la scuola di pensiero di Shaw ricordava Napoleone solo col suo tardo e corrotto titolo di «L’Uomo del Destino», titolo dato a lui solo quando era già grasso e stanco e destinato all’esilio. Dimenticavano che per tutta la parte davvero avvincente e creativa della sua carriera egli non fu l’uomo del destino, ma l’uomo che sfidò il destino. Lo schizzo di Shaw è straordinariamente abile; ma è tinto di questa nozione antimilitare di una conquista inevitabile; e questo dobbiamo ricordarlo quando giungiamo a quelle tele più grandi su cui egli dipinse i suoi eroi più seri. Quanto al dramma, è gremito di buone cose, delle quali l’ultima è forse la migliore. Il lungo dialogo a due fra Bonaparte e la dama irlandese si chiude con il Generale che dichiara che sarà battuto solo quando incontrerà un esercito inglese sotto un generale irlandese. È sempre stato uno dei paradossi di Shaw che la mente inglese abbia la forza di eseguire gli ordini, mentre la mente irlandese abbia l’intelligenza di darli, ed è fra quelli dei suoi paradossi che contengono una certa verità.
Un dramma assai più importante è THE PHILANDERER, una commedia ironica piena di begli spunti e di vera satira; è, più specialmente, il veicolo con cui Shaw offre alcune delle sue migliori prove di satira sulla scienza fisica. Nulla potrebbe essere più abile del ritratto del giovane, strenuo dottore, nella totale innocenza della sua ambizione professionale, che ha scoperto una nuova malattia, ed è deliziato quando trova gente che ne soffre e abbattuto nella disperazione quando scopre che essa non esiste. Il punto merita una pausa, perché è un buon modo breve di enunciare l’atteggiamento di Shaw, giusto o sbagliato, riguardo all’intera moralità formale. Ciò che gli spiace nel giovane Dottor Paramore è che egli ha frapposto una coscienza secondaria e falsa fra se stesso e i fatti. Quando la sua malattia è smentita, invece di vedere lo scampo di un essere umano che credeva di doverne morire, Paramore vede il crollo di una specie di bandiera o causa. Questa è l’intera tesi di THE QUINTESSENCE OF IBSENISM, esposta meglio di quanto la esponga il libro; è una davvero acuta esposizione dei pericoli dell’«idealismo», il sacrificio delle persone ai principi, e Shaw è ancora più saggio nel suggerire che questo eccessivo idealismo non esiste in nessun luogo così fortemente come nel mondo della scienza fisica. Egli mostra che lo scienziato tende a essere più preoccupato della malattia che del malato; ma era certamente nella sua mente suggerire qui anche che l’idealista è più preoccupato del peccato che del peccatore.
Questo affare della malattia del Dr. Paramore, pur essendo la cosa più farsesca del dramma, è anche la più filosofica e importante. Le altre figure, incluso il Filandero stesso, sono nel pieno senso di quelle fulminanti e cancellanti parole «buffe senza essere volgari», cioè buffe senza avere alcuna importanza per le masse degli uomini. È un dramma su un brioso e progredito «Circolo Ibsen», e sul battibecco fra i giovani ibseniani e i vecchi che non sono ancora all’altezza di Ibsen. Sarebbe difficile trovare un esempio più forte dell’unico errore essenziale di Shaw, la modernità — che significa la ricerca della verità in termini di tempo. Sono passati solo pochi anni e già quasi metà dell’arguzia di quel meraviglioso dramma è sprecata, perché ruota tutta sulla novità di una moda che non è più nuova. Senza dubbio molti pensano ancora che il dramma ibseniano sia una gran cosa, come il dramma classico francese. Ma andare a «The Philanderer» è come andare fra parrucche e stocchi e sentire che i giovani sono ora tutti per Racine. Ciò che fa suonare irreale un’opera simile non è la lode di Ibsen, ma la lode della novità di Ibsen. Qualunque vantaggio Bernard Shaw avesse sul Colonnello Craven, io lo ho su Bernard Shaw; noi cui capita di nascere ultimi abbiamo il trionfo insignificante e meschino in quella insignificante e meschina guerra. Siamo i superiori per quella più sciocca e snob di tutte le superiorità, la mera aristocrazia del tempo. Tutte le opere devono così divenire vecchie e insipide, quelle che abbiano mai tentato di essere «moderne», che abbiano acconsentito a sapere di tempo piuttosto che di eternità. Solo coloro che si sono chinati a essere in anticipo sul proprio tempo si troveranno mai indietro rispetto a esso.
But it is irritating to think what diamonds, what dazzling silver of Shavian wit has been sunk in such an out-of-date warship. In THE PHILANDERER there are five hundred excellent and about five magnificent things. The rattle of repartees between the doctor and the soldier about the humanity of their two trades is admirable. Or again, when the colonel tells Chartaris that “in his young days” he would have no more behaved like Chartaris than he would have cheated at cards. After a pause Chartaris says, “You’re getting old, Craven, and you make a virtue of it as usual.” And there is an altitude of aerial tragedy in the words of Grace, who has refused the man she loves, to Julia, who is marrying the man she doesn’t, “This is what they call a happy ending—these men.”
There is an acrid taste in THE PHILANDERER; and certainly he might be considered a super-sensitive person who should find anything acrid in YOU NEVER CAN TELL. This play is the nearest approach to frank and objectless exuberance in the whole of Shaw’s work. PUNCH, with wisdom as well as wit, said that it might well be called not “You Never Can Tell” but “You Never Can be Shaw.” And yet if anyone will read this blazing farce and then after it any of the romantic farces, such as PICKWICK or even THE WRONG BOX, I do not think he will be disposed to erase or even to modify what I said at the beginning about the ingrained grimness and even inhumanity of Shaw’s art. To take but one test: love, in an “extravaganza,” may be light love or love in idleness, but it should be hearty and happy love if it is to add to the general hilarity. Such are the ludicrous but lucky love affairs of the sportsman Winkle and the Maestro Jimson. In Gloria’s collapse before her bullying lover there is something at once cold and unclean; it calls up all the modern supermen with their cruel and fishy eyes. Such farces should begin in a friendly air, in a tavern. There is something very symbolic of Shaw in the fact that his farce begins in a dentist’s.
The only one out of this brilliant batch of plays in which I think that the method adopted really fails, is the one called WIDOWER’S HOUSES. The best touch of Shaw is simply in the title. The simple substitution of widowers for widows contains almost the whole bitter and yet boisterous protest of Shaw; all his preference for undignified fact over dignified phrase; all his dislike of those subtle trends of sex or mystery which swing the logician off the straight line. We can imagine him crying, “Why in the name of death and conscience should it be tragic to be a widow but comic to be a widower?” But the rationalistic method is here applied quite wrong as regards the production of a drama. The most dramatic point in the affair is when the open and indecent rack-renter turns on the decent young man of means and proves to him that he is equally guilty, that he also can only grind his corn by grinding the faces of the poor. But even here the point is undramatic because it is indirect; it is indirect because it is merely sociological. It may be the truth that a young man living on an unexamined income which ultimately covers a great deal of house-property is as dangerous as any despot or thief. But it is a truth that you can no more put into a play than into a triolet. You can make a play out of one man robbing another man, but not out of one man robbing a million men; still less out of his robbing them unconsciously.
Of the plays collected in this book I have kept MRS. WARREN’S PROFESSION to the last, because, fine as it is, it is even finer and more important because of its fate, which was to rouse a long and serious storm and to be vetoed by the Censor of Plays. I say that this drama is most important because of the quarrel that came out of it. If I were speaking of some mere artist this might be an insult. But there are high and heroic things in Bernard Shaw; and one of the highest and most heroic is this, that he certainly cares much more for a quarrel than for a play. And this quarrel about the censorship is one on which he feels so strongly that in a book embodying any sort of sympathy it would be much better to leave out Mrs. Warren than to leave out Mr. Redford. The veto was the pivot of so very personal a movement by the dramatist, of so very positive an assertion of his own attitude towards things, that it is only just and necessary to state what were the two essential parties to the dispute; the play and the official who prevented the play.
The play of MRS. WARREN’S PROFESSIOn is concerned with a coarse mother and a cold daughter; the mother drives the ordinary and dirty trade of harlotry; the daughter does not know until the end the atrocious origin of all her own comfort and refinement. The daughter, when the discovery is made, freezes up into an iceberg of contempt; which is indeed a very womanly thing to do. The mother explodes into pulverising cynicism and practicality; which is also very womanly. The dialogue is drastic and sweeping; the daughter says the trade is loathsome; the mother answers that she loathes it herself; that every healthy person does loathe the trade by which she lives. And beyond question the general effect of the play is that the trade is loathsome; supposing anyone to be so insensible as to require to be told of the fact. Undoubtedly the upshot is that a brothel is a miserable business, and a brothel-keeper a miserable woman. The whole dramatic art of Shaw is in the literal sense of the word, tragi-comic; I mean that the comic part comes after the tragedy. But just as YOU NEVER CAN TELL represents the nearest approach of Shaw to the purely comic, so MRS. WARREN’S PROFESSIOn represents his only complete, or nearly complete, tragedy. There is no twopenny modernism in it, as in THE PHILANDERER. Mrs. Warren is as old as the Old Testament; “for she hath cast down many wounded, yea, many strong men have been slain by her; her house is in the gates of hell, going down into the chamber of death.” Here is no subtle ethics, as in WIDOWERS’ HOUSES; for even those moderns who think it noble that a woman should throw away her honour, surely cannot think it especially noble that she should sell it. Here is no lighting up by laughter, astonishment, and happy coincidence, as in YOU NEVER CAN TELL. The play is a pure tragedy about a permanent and quite plain human problem; the problem is as plain and permanent, the tragedy is as proud and pure, as in OEDIPUs or MACBETH. This play was presented in the ordinary way for public performance and was suddenly stopped by the Censor of Plays.
Ma è irritante pensare a quali diamanti, a quale abbagliante argento dell’arguzia shaviana sia stato affondato in una nave da guerra così fuori moda. In THE PHILANDERER vi sono cinquecento cose eccellenti e circa cinque magnifiche. Il crepitio dei botta e risposta fra il dottore e il soldato sull’umanità dei loro due mestieri è ammirevole. O ancora, quando il colonnello dice a Chartaris che «ai suoi giovani tempi» si sarebbe comportato come Chartaris non più di quanto avrebbe barato alle carte. Dopo una pausa Chartaris dice: «Stai invecchiando, Craven, e ne fai una virtù come al solito». E c’è un’altitudine di aerea tragedia nelle parole di Grace, che ha rifiutato l’uomo che ama, a Julia, che sta sposando l’uomo che non ama: «Questo è ciò che loro chiamano un lieto fine — questi uomini».
C’è un sapore acre in THE PHILANDERER; e certamente si potrebbe ritenere una persona ipersensibile chi trovasse qualcosa di acre in YOU NEVER CAN TELL. Questo dramma è l’approccio più prossimo alla franca e senza scopo esuberanza in tutta l’opera di Shaw. PUNCH, con saggezza tanto quanto con arguzia, disse che lo si sarebbe ben potuto intitolare non «You Never Can Tell» ma «You Never Can be Shaw». E tuttavia, se qualcuno leggerà questa fiammeggiante farsa e poi, dopo di essa, una qualsiasi delle farse romantiche, come PICKWICK o perfino THE WRONG BOX, non credo che sarà disposto a cancellare o anche solo a modificare ciò che ho detto all’inizio sulla radicata cupezza e perfino disumanità dell’arte di Shaw. Per prendere una sola prova: l’amore, in una «stravaganza», può essere amore leggero o amore nell’ozio, ma dovrebbe essere un amore cordiale e felice se deve accrescere l’ilarità generale. Tali sono le ridicole ma fortunate faccende d’amore dello sportivo Winkle e del Maestro Jimson. Nel crollo di Gloria davanti al suo amante prepotente c’è qualcosa a un tempo di freddo e di sudicio; richiama alla mente tutti i moderni superuomini con i loro occhi crudeli e ittici. Tali farse dovrebbero cominciare in un’aria amichevole, in una taverna. C’è qualcosa di molto simbolico di Shaw nel fatto che la sua farsa cominci da un dentista.
L’unico di questo brillante mazzo di drammi in cui penso che il metodo adottato fallisca davvero, è quello intitolato WIDOWER’S HOUSES. Il miglior tocco di Shaw è semplicemente nel titolo. La semplice sostituzione dei vedovi alle vedove contiene quasi l’intera amara eppure chiassosa protesta di Shaw; tutta la sua preferenza per il fatto indecoroso rispetto alla frase decorosa; tutta la sua avversione per quelle sottili inclinazioni di sesso o mistero che deviano il logico dalla linea retta. Possiamo immaginarlo gridare: «Perché in nome della morte e della coscienza dovrebbe essere tragico essere una vedova ma comico essere un vedovo?». Ma il metodo razionalistico è qui applicato del tutto a torto per quanto riguarda la produzione di un dramma. Il punto più drammatico nella faccenda è quando lo scoperto e indecente strozzino degli affitti si volge contro il perbene giovane benestante e gli prova che egli è ugualmente colpevole, che anch’egli può macinare il proprio grano solo macinando i volti dei poveri. Ma anche qui il punto è non drammatico perché è indiretto; è indiretto perché è meramente sociologico. Può essere la verità che un giovane che vive di una rendita non esaminata la quale in ultima analisi copre una gran quantità di proprietà immobiliare sia pericoloso quanto un qualsiasi despota o ladro. Ma è una verità che non puoi mettere in un dramma più di quanto tu possa metterla in un triolet. Puoi fare un dramma da un uomo che ne deruba un altro, ma non da un uomo che ne deruba un milione; ancor meno dal suo derubarli inconsapevolmente.
Fra i drammi raccolti in questo libro ho tenuto MRS. WARREN’S PROFESSION per ultimo, perché, per quanto sia bello, è ancora più bello e più importante a causa del suo destino, che fu di suscitare una lunga e seria tempesta e di essere vietato dal Censore dei Drammi. Dico che questo dramma è importantissimo a causa della lite che ne uscì. Se stessi parlando di qualche mero artista questo potrebbe essere un insulto. Ma vi sono cose alte ed eroiche in Bernard Shaw; e una delle più alte e più eroiche è questa, che egli certamente tiene molto più a una lite che a un dramma. E questa lite sulla censura è una su cui egli sente così fortemente che, in un libro che incarni una qualche sorta di simpatia, sarebbe assai meglio tralasciare Mrs. Warren che tralasciare il signor Redford. Il veto fu il perno di un movimento tanto personale del drammaturgo, di un’affermazione tanto positiva del suo proprio atteggiamento verso le cose, che è solo giusto e necessario enunciare quali fossero le due parti essenziali della disputa; il dramma e il funzionario che impedì il dramma.
Il dramma di MRS. WARREN’S PROFESSION riguarda una madre rozza e una figlia fredda; la madre esercita l’ordinario e sordido commercio del meretricio; la figlia non conosce fino alla fine l’atroce origine di tutto il proprio agio e la propria raffinatezza. La figlia, quando la scoperta è fatta, si congela in un iceberg di disprezzo; il che è invero una cosa assai femminile da fare. La madre esplode in un cinismo e in una praticità polverizzanti; il che è pure assai femminile. Il dialogo è drastico e travolgente; la figlia dice che il commercio è ripugnante; la madre risponde che lo detesta ella stessa; che ogni persona sana detesta il commercio con cui vive. E fuor di dubbio l’effetto generale del dramma è che il commercio è ripugnante; posto che qualcuno sia tanto insensibile da aver bisogno che glielo si dica. Indubbiamente la conclusione è che un bordello è un misero affare, e una tenutaria di bordello una misera donna. L’intera arte drammatica di Shaw è, nel senso letterale della parola, tragicomica; intendo che la parte comica viene dopo la tragedia. Ma proprio come YOU NEVER CAN TELL rappresenta l’approccio più prossimo di Shaw al puramente comico, così MRS. WARREN’S PROFESSION rappresenta la sua unica completa, o quasi completa, tragedia. Non c’è in esso alcun modernismo da due soldi, come in THE PHILANDERER. Mrs. Warren è antica quanto l’Antico Testamento; «poiché ella ha atterrato molti feriti, sì, molti uomini forti sono stati uccisi da lei; la sua casa è alle porte dell’inferno, scendendo nelle camere della morte». Qui non c’è alcuna etica sottile, come in WIDOWERS’ HOUSES; poiché perfino quei moderni che pensano nobile che una donna getti via il proprio onore, di certo non possono pensare specialmente nobile che ella lo venda. Qui non c’è alcun rischiaramento per mezzo di riso, stupore e felice coincidenza, come in YOU NEVER CAN TELL. Il dramma è una pura tragedia su un permanente e del tutto semplice problema umano; il problema è tanto semplice e permanente, la tragedia è tanto fiera e pura, quanto in EDIPO o MACBETH. Questo dramma fu presentato nel modo ordinario per la rappresentazione pubblica e fu d’un tratto fermato dal Censore dei Drammi.
The Censor of Plays is a small and accidental eighteenth-century official. Like nearly all the powers which Englishmen now respect as ancient and rooted, he is very recent. Novels and newspapers still talk of the English aristocracy that came over with William the Conqueror. Little of our effective oligarchy is as old as the Reformation; and none of it came over with William the Conqueror. Some of the older English landlords came over with William of Orange; the rest have come by ordinary alien immigration. In the same way we always talk of the Victorian woman (with her smelling salts and sentiment) as the old-fashioned woman. But she really was a quite new-fashioned woman; she considered herself, and was, an advance in delicacy and civilisation upon the coarse and candid Elizabethan woman to whom we are now returning. We are never oppressed by old things; it is recent things that can really oppress. And in accordance with this principle modern England has accepted, as if it were a part of perennial morality, a tenth-rate job of Walpole’s worst days called the Censorship of the Drama. Just as they have supposed the eighteenth-century parvenus to date from Hastings, just as they have supposed the eighteenth-century ladies to date from Eve, so they have supposed the eighteenth-century Censorship to date from Sinai. The origin of the thing was in truth purely political. Its first and principal achievement was to prevent Fielding from writing plays; not at all because the plays were coarse, but because they criticised the Government. Fielding was a free writer; but they did not resent his sexual freedom; the Censor would not have objected if he had torn away the most intimate curtains of decency or rent the last rag from private life. What the Censor disliked was his rending the curtain from public life. There is still much of that spirit in our country; there are no affairs which men seek so much to cover up as public affairs. But the thing was done somewhat more boldly and baldly in Walpole’s day; and the Censorship of plays has its origin, not merely in tyranny, but in a quite trifling and temporary and partisan piece of tyranny; a thing in its nature far more ephemeral, far less essential, than Ship Money. Perhaps its brightest moment was when the office of censor was held by that filthy writer, Colman the younger; and when he gravely refused to license a work by the author of OUR VILLAGE. Few funnier notions can ever have actually been facts than this notion that the restraint and chastity of George Colman saved the English public from the eroticism and obscenity of Miss Mitford.
Such was the play; and such was the power that stopped the play. A private man wrote it; another private man forbade it; nor was there any difference between Mr. Shaw’s authority and Mr. Redford’s, except that Mr. Shaw did defend his action on public grounds and Mr. Redford did not. The dramatist had simply been suppressed by a despot; and what was worse (because it was modern) by a silent and evasive despot; a despot in hiding. People talk about the pride of tyrants; but we at the present day suffer from the modesty of tyrants; from the shyness and the shrinking secrecy of the strong. Shaw’s preface to Mrs. Warren’s Profession was far more fit to be called a public document than the slovenly refusal of the individual official; it had more exactness, more universal application, more authority. Shaw on Redford was far more national and responsible than Redford on Shaw.
The dramatist found in the quarrel one of the important occasions of his life, because the crisis called out something in him which is in many ways his highest quality—righteous indignation. As a mere matter of the art of controversy of course he carried the war into the enemy’s camp at once. He did not linger over loose excuses for licence; he declared at once that the Censor was licentious, while he, Bernard Shaw, was clean. He did not discuss whether a Censorship ought to make the drama moral. He declared that it made the drama immoral. With a fine strategic audacity he attacked the Censor quite as much for what he permitted as for what he prevented. He charged him with encouraging all plays that attracted men to vice and only stopping those which discouraged them from it. Nor was this attitude by any means an idle paradox. Many plays appear (as Shaw pointed out) in which the prostitute and the procuress are practically obvious, and in which they are represented as revelling in beautiful surroundings and basking in brilliant popularity. The crime of Shaw was not that he introduced the Gaiety Girl; that had been done, with little enough decorum, in a hundred musical comedies. The crime of Shaw was that he introduced the Gaiety Girl, but did not represent her life as all gaiety. The pleasures of vice were already flaunted before the playgoers. It was the perils of vice that were carefully concealed from them. The gay adventures, the gorgeous dresses, the champagne and oysters, the diamonds and motor-cars, dramatists were allowed to drag all these dazzling temptations before any silly housemaid in the gallery who was grumbling at her wages. But they were not allowed to warn her of the vulgarity and the nausea, the dreary deceptions and the blasting diseases of that life. MRS. WARREN’S PROFESSION was not up to a sufficient standard of immorality; it was not spicy enough to pass the Censor. The acceptable and the accepted plays were those which made the fall of a woman fashionable and fascinating; for all the world as if the Censor’s profession were the same as Mrs. Warren’s profession.
Such was the angle of Shaw’s energetic attack; and it is not to be denied that there was exaggeration in it, and what is so much worse, omission. The argument might easily be carried too far; it might end with a scene of screaming torture in the Inquisition as a corrective to the too amiable view of a clergyman in THE PRIVATE SECRETARY. But the controversy is definitely worth recording, if only as an excellent example of the author’s aggressive attitude and his love of turning the tables in debate. Moreover, though this point of view involves a potential overstatement, it also involves an important truth. One of the best points urged in the course of it was this, that though vice is punished in conventional drama, the punishment is not really impressive, because it is not inevitable or even probable. It does not arise out of the evil act. Years afterwards Bernard Shaw urged this argument again in connection with his friend Mr. Granville Barker’s play of WASTE, in which the woman dies from an illegal operation. Bernard Shaw said, truly enough, that if she had died from poison or a pistol shot it would have left everyone unmoved, for pistols do not in their nature follow female unchastity. Illegal operations very often do. The punishment was one which might follow the crime, not only in that case, but in many cases. Here, I think, the whole argument might be sufficiently cleared up by saying that the objection to such things on the stage is a purely artistic objection. There is nothing wrong in talking about an illegal operation; there are plenty of occasions when it would be very wrong not to talk about it. But it may easily be just a shade too ugly for the shape of any work of art. There is nothing wrong about being sick; but if Bernard Shaw wrote a play in which all the characters expressed their dislike of animal food by vomiting on the stage, I think we should be justified in saying that the thing was outside, not the laws of morality, but the framework of civilised literature. The instinctive movement of repulsion which everyone has when hearing of the operation in WASTE is not an ethical repulsion at all. But it is an aesthetic repulsion, and a right one.
Il Censore dei Drammi è un piccolo e accidentale funzionario del diciottesimo secolo. Come quasi tutti i poteri che gli inglesi ora rispettano come antichi e radicati, è assai recente. Romanzi e giornali parlano ancora dell’aristocrazia inglese che venne con Guglielmo il Conquistatore. Poco della nostra effettiva oligarchia è antico quanto la Riforma; e nulla di essa venne con Guglielmo il Conquistatore. Alcuni dei più antichi proprietari terrieri inglesi vennero con Guglielmo d’Orange; il resto è giunto per ordinaria immigrazione straniera. Allo stesso modo parliamo sempre della donna vittoriana (con i suoi sali da fiuto e il suo sentimento) come della donna all’antica. Ma ella era in realtà una donna del tutto alla nuova moda; ella si considerava, ed era, un progresso in delicatezza e civiltà rispetto alla rozza e schietta donna elisabettiana alla quale ora stiamo tornando. Non siamo mai oppressi dalle cose vecchie; sono le cose recenti che possono davvero opprimere. E in accordo con questo principio l’Inghilterra moderna ha accettato, come se fosse parte di una perenne moralità, un lavoro di decima categoria dei peggiori giorni di Walpole chiamato la Censura del Teatro. Proprio come hanno supposto che i parvenus del diciottesimo secolo datassero da Hastings, proprio come hanno supposto che le dame del diciottesimo secolo datassero da Eva, così hanno supposto che la Censura del diciottesimo secolo datasse dal Sinai. L’origine della cosa era in verità puramente politica. Il suo primo e principale risultato fu di impedire a Fielding di scrivere drammi; non affatto perché i drammi fossero rozzi, ma perché criticavano il Governo. Fielding era uno scrittore libero; ma non risentivano della sua libertà sessuale; il Censore non avrebbe obiettato se egli avesse strappato via le più intime cortine della decenza o lacerato l’ultimo straccio dalla vita privata. Ciò che spiaceva al Censore era il suo lacerare la cortina dalla vita pubblica. C’è ancora molto di quello spirito nel nostro paese; non ci sono affari che gli uomini cerchino tanto di coprire quanto gli affari pubblici. Ma la cosa fu fatta un po’ più arditamente e crudamente ai giorni di Walpole; e la Censura dei drammi ha la sua origine, non meramente nella tirannia, ma in un pezzo del tutto insignificante e temporaneo e partigiano di tirannia; una cosa per sua natura assai più effimera, assai meno essenziale, della Ship Money. Forse il suo momento più luminoso fu quando l’ufficio di censore era tenuto da quel lurido scrittore, Colman il giovane; e quando egli gravemente rifiutò di autorizzare un’opera dell’autrice di OUR VILLAGE. Poche nozioni più buffe possono mai essere state effettivamente fatti reali di questa nozione che la moderazione e la castità di George Colman salvassero il pubblico inglese dall’erotismo e dall’oscenità di Miss Mitford.
Tale era il dramma; e tale era il potere che fermò il dramma. Un uomo privato lo scrisse; un altro uomo privato lo proibì; né vi era alcuna differenza fra l’autorità del signor Shaw e quella del signor Redford, salvo che il signor Shaw difese sì la propria azione su basi pubbliche mentre il signor Redford no. Il drammaturgo era stato semplicemente soppresso da un despota; e ciò che era peggio (perché era moderno) da un despota silenzioso ed evasivo; un despota nascosto. La gente parla dell’orgoglio dei tiranni; ma noi al giorno d’oggi soffriamo della modestia dei tiranni; della timidezza e del reticente segreto dei forti. La prefazione di Shaw a Mrs. Warren’s Profession era assai più adatta a essere chiamata un documento pubblico che il trasandato rifiuto del singolo funzionario; aveva più esattezza, più universale applicazione, più autorità. Shaw su Redford era assai più nazionale e responsabile di Redford su Shaw.
Il drammaturgo trovò nella lite una delle importanti occasioni della sua vita, perché la crisi fece emergere in lui qualcosa che è per molti versi la sua qualità più alta: l’indignazione giusta. Come mera questione dell’arte della controversia egli naturalmente portò subito la guerra nel campo nemico. Non si attardò su vaghe scuse per la licenza; dichiarò subito che il Censore era licenzioso, mentre lui, Bernard Shaw, era pulito. Non discusse se una Censura dovesse rendere morale il teatro. Dichiarò che essa rendeva immorale il teatro. Con una bella audacia strategica attaccò il Censore tanto per ciò che permetteva quanto per ciò che impediva. Lo accusò di incoraggiare tutti i drammi che attiravano gli uomini al vizio e di fermare soltanto quelli che ne li distoglievano. Né questo atteggiamento era in alcun modo un ozioso paradosso. Molti drammi compaiono (come Shaw fece notare) in cui la prostituta e la mezzana sono praticamente evidenti, e in cui sono rappresentate mentre gozzovigliano in bei dintorni e si crogiolano in una brillante popolarità. La colpa di Shaw non fu di aver introdotto la Gaiety Girl; ciò era stato fatto, con abbastanza poco decoro, in un centinaio di commedie musicali. La colpa di Shaw fu che introdusse la Gaiety Girl, ma non rappresentò la sua vita come tutta gaiezza. I piaceri del vizio erano già ostentati davanti agli spettatori. Erano i pericoli del vizio che venivano accuratamente celati loro. Le allegre avventure, i sontuosi abiti, lo champagne e le ostriche, i diamanti e le automobili, ai drammaturghi era permesso trascinare tutte queste abbaglianti tentazioni davanti a qualsiasi sciocca cameriera in galleria che si lagnasse del proprio salario. Ma non era loro permesso avvertirla della volgarità e della nausea, delle tetre menzogne e delle malattie devastanti di quella vita. MRS. WARREN’S PROFESSION non era all’altezza di un sufficiente standard di immoralità; non era abbastanza piccante da passare il Censore. I drammi accettabili e accettati erano quelli che rendevano la caduta di una donna elegante e affascinante; proprio come se la professione del Censore fosse la stessa della professione di Mrs. Warren.
Tale era l’angolazione dell’energico attacco di Shaw; e non si può negare che vi fosse esagerazione in esso, e ciò che è tanto peggio, omissione. L’argomento potrebbe facilmente essere portato troppo oltre; potrebbe finire con una scena di tortura urlante nell’Inquisizione come correttivo alla troppo amabile veduta di un ecclesiastico in THE PRIVATE SECRETARY. Ma la controversia è decisamente degna d’essere registrata, non fosse che come eccellente esempio dell’atteggiamento aggressivo dell’autore e del suo amore di rovesciare i ruoli nel dibattito. Inoltre, benché questo punto di vista comporti una potenziale sopravvalutazione, comporta anche un’importante verità. Uno dei migliori punti addotti nel suo corso fu questo, che, benché il vizio sia punito nel dramma convenzionale, la punizione non è davvero impressionante, perché non è inevitabile né perfino probabile. Non sorge dall’atto malvagio. Anni dopo Bernard Shaw addusse di nuovo questo argomento in rapporto al dramma del suo amico, il signor Granville Barker, WASTE, in cui la donna muore per un’operazione illegale. Bernard Shaw disse, abbastanza veridicamente, che se ella fosse morta per veleno o per un colpo di pistola ciò avrebbe lasciato tutti indifferenti, poiché le pistole non seguono per loro natura l’impudicizia femminile. Le operazioni illegali molto spesso lo fanno. La punizione era una che poteva seguire il delitto, non solo in quel caso, ma in molti casi. Qui, penso, l’intero argomento potrebbe essere sufficientemente chiarito dicendo che l’obiezione a tali cose sulla scena è un’obiezione puramente artistica. Non c’è nulla di male nel parlare di un’operazione illegale; ci sono molte occasioni in cui sarebbe assai male non parlarne. Ma può facilmente essere solo una sfumatura troppo brutta per la forma di una qualsiasi opera d’arte. Non c’è nulla di male nell’aver la nausea; ma se Bernard Shaw scrivesse un dramma in cui tutti i personaggi esprimessero la loro avversione per il cibo animale vomitando sulla scena, penso che saremmo giustificati nel dire che la cosa era fuori, non dalle leggi della moralità, ma dalla cornice della letteratura civile. Il movimento istintivo di repulsione che ognuno prova nell’udire dell’operazione in WASTE non è affatto una repulsione etica. Ma è una repulsione estetica, e giusta.
But I have only dwelt on this particular fighting phase because it leaves us facing the ultimate characteristics which I mentioned first. Bernard Shaw cares nothing for art; in comparison with morals, literally nothing. Bernard Shaw is a Puritan and his work is Puritan work. He has all the essentials of the old, virile and extinct Protestant type. In his work he is as ugly as a Puritan. He is as indecent as a Puritan. He is as full of gross words and sensual facts as a sermon of the seventeenth century. Up to this point of his life indeed hardly anyone would have dreamed of calling him a Puritan; he was called sometimes an anarchist, sometimes a buffoon, sometimes (by the more discerning stupid people) a prig. His attitude towards current problems was felt to be arresting and even indecent; I do not think that anyone thought of connecting it with the old Calvinistic morality. But Shaw, who knew better than the Shavians, was at this moment on the very eve of confessing his moral origin. The next book of plays he produced (including THE DEVIL’S DISCIPLE, CAPTAIN BRASSBOUND’S CONVERSION, and CAESAR AND CLEOPATRA), actually bore the title of PLAYS FOR PURITANS.
The play called THE DEVIL’S DISCIPLE has great merits, but the merits are incidental. Some of its jokes are serious and important, but its general plan can only be called a joke. Almost alone among Bernard Shaw’s plays (except of course such things as HOW HE LIED TO HER HUSBANd and THE ADMIRABLE BASHVILLe) this drama does not turn on any very plain pivot of ethical or philosophical conviction. The artistic idea seems to be the notion of a melodrama in which all the conventional melodramatic situations shall suddenly take unconventional turns. Just where the melodramatic clergyman would show courage he appears to show cowardice; just where the melodramatic sinner would confess his love he confesses his indifference. This is a little too like the Shaw of the newspaper critics rather than the Shaw of reality. There are indeed present in the play two of the writer’s principal moral conceptions. The first is the idea of a great heroic action coming in a sense from nowhere; that is, not coming from any commonplace motive; being born in the soul in naked beauty, coming with its own authority and testifying only to itself. Shaw’s agent does not act towards something, but from something. The hero dies, not because he desires heroism, but because he has it. So in this particular play the Devil’s Disciple finds that his own nature will not permit him to put the rope around another man’s neck; he has no reasons of desire, affection, or even equity; his death is a sort of divine whim. And in connection with this the dramatist introduces another favourite moral; the objection to perpetual playing upon the motive of sex. He deliberately lures the onlooker into the net of Cupid in order to tell him with salutary decision that Cupid is not there at all. Millions of melodramatic dramatists have made a man face death for the woman he loves; Shaw makes him face death for the woman he does not love—merely in order to put woman in her place. He objects to that idolatry of sexualism which makes it the fountain of all forcible enthusiasms; he dislikes the amorous drama which makes the female the only key to the male. He is Feminist in politics, but Anti-feminist in emotion. His key to most problems is, “Ne cherchez pas la femme.”
As has been observed, the incidental felicities of the play are frequent and memorable, especially those connected with the character of General Burgoyne, the real full-blooded, free-thinking eighteenth century gentleman, who was much too much of an aristocrat not to be a liberal. One of the best thrusts in all the Shavian fencing matches is that which occurs when Richard Dudgeon, condemned to be hanged, asks rhetorically why he cannot be shot like a soldier. “Now there you speak like a civilian,” replies General Burgoyne. “Have you formed any conception of the condition of marksmanship in the British Army?” Excellent, too, is the passage in which his subordinate speaks of crushing the enemy in America, and Burgoyne asks him who will crush their enemies in England, snobbery and jobbery and incurable carelessness and sloth. And in one sentence towards the end, Shaw reaches a wider and more genial comprehension of mankind than he shows anywhere else; “it takes all sorts to make a world, saints as well as soldiers.” If Shaw had remembered that sentence on other occasions he would have avoided his mistake about Caesar and Brutus. It is not only true that it takes all sorts to make a world; but the world cannot succeed without its failures. Perhaps the most doubtful point of all in the play is why it is a play for Puritans; except the hideous picture of a Calvinistic home is meant to destroy Puritanism. And indeed in this connection it is constantly necessary to fall back upon the facts of which I have spoken at the beginning of this brief study; it is necessary especially to remember that Shaw could in all probability speak of Puritanism from the inside. In that domestic circle which took him to hear Moody and Sankey, in that domestic circle which was teetotal even when it was intoxicated, in that atmosphere and society Shaw might even have met the monstrous mother in THE DEVIL’S DISCIPLE, the horrible old woman who declares that she has hardened her heart to hate her children, because the heart of man is desperately wicked, the old ghoul who has made one of her children an imbecile and the other an outcast. Such types do occur in small societies drunk with the dismal wine of Puritan determinism. It is possible that there were among Irish Calvinists people who denied that charity was a Christian virtue. It is possible that among Puritans there were people who thought a heart was a kind of heart disease. But it is enough to make one tear one’s hair to think that a man of genius received his first impressions in so small a corner of Europe that he could for a long time suppose that this Puritanism was current among Christian men. The question, however, need not detain us, for the batch of plays contained two others about which it is easier to speak.
Ma ho indugiato su questa particolare fase combattiva soltanto perché ci lascia di fronte alle caratteristiche ultime che ho menzionato per prime. A Bernard Shaw non importa nulla dell’arte; in confronto alla morale, letteralmente nulla. Bernard Shaw è un Puritano e la sua opera è opera puritana. Egli ha tutti gli essenziali del vecchio, virile ed estinto tipo protestante. Nella sua opera è brutto come un Puritano. È indecente come un Puritano. È pieno di parole grossolane e di fatti sensuali come un sermone del diciassettesimo secolo. Fino a questo punto della sua vita, in verità, quasi nessuno avrebbe sognato di chiamarlo Puritano; era chiamato talvolta anarchico, talvolta buffone, talvolta (dalle persone stupide più perspicaci) un pedante. Il suo atteggiamento verso i problemi correnti era sentito come arrestante e perfino indecente; non credo che qualcuno pensasse di collegarlo alla vecchia moralità calvinista. Ma Shaw, che ne sapeva più degli shaviani, era in questo momento alla vigilia stessa di confessare la propria origine morale. Il libro di drammi successivo che egli produsse (includente THE DEVIL’S DISCIPLE, CAPTAIN BRASSBOUND’S CONVERSION e CAESAR AND CLEOPATRA) recava effettivamente il titolo di PLAYS FOR PURITANS.
Il dramma intitolato THE DEVIL’S DISCIPLE ha grandi meriti, ma i meriti sono incidentali. Alcune delle sue battute sono serie e importanti, ma il suo disegno generale può essere chiamato soltanto una burla. Quasi unico fra i drammi di Bernard Shaw (eccetto naturalmente cose come HOW HE LIED TO HER HUSBAND e THE ADMIRABLE BASHVILLE) questo dramma non ruota su alcun perno assai chiaro di convinzione etica o filosofica. L’idea artistica sembra essere la nozione di un melodramma in cui tutte le convenzionali situazioni melodrammatiche prendano d’un tratto svolte non convenzionali. Proprio dove l’ecclesiastico melodrammatico mostrerebbe coraggio egli appare mostrare codardia; proprio dove il peccatore melodrammatico confesserebbe il suo amore egli confessa la sua indifferenza. Questo è un po’ troppo simile allo Shaw dei critici dei giornali piuttosto che allo Shaw della realtà. Vi sono in verità presenti nel dramma due delle principali concezioni morali dello scrittore. La prima è l’idea di una grande azione eroica che viene in un certo senso dal nulla; cioè, non venente da alcun movente banale; nascente nell’anima in nuda bellezza, venente con la propria autorità e testimoniante soltanto se stessa. L’agente di Shaw non agisce verso qualcosa, ma da qualcosa. L’eroe muore, non perché desidera l’eroismo, ma perché lo possiede. Così in questo particolare dramma il Discepolo del Diavolo scopre che la sua propria natura non gli permetterà di mettere la corda intorno al collo di un altro uomo; egli non ha ragioni di desiderio, affetto o perfino equità; la sua morte è una specie di capriccio divino. E in rapporto a questo il drammaturgo introduce un altro suo prediletto motivo morale; l’obiezione al perpetuo giocare sul movente del sesso. Egli deliberatamente adesca lo spettatore nella rete di Cupido al fine di dirgli con salutare decisione che Cupido non è affatto lì. Milioni di drammaturghi melodrammatici hanno fatto affrontare a un uomo la morte per la donna che ama; Shaw gli fa affrontare la morte per la donna che non ama — meramente al fine di mettere la donna al suo posto. Egli obietta a quell’idolatria del sessualismo che ne fa la fonte di tutti gli entusiasmi vigorosi; gli spiace il dramma amoroso che fa della femmina l’unica chiave del maschio. È Femminista in politica, ma Anti-femminista nell’emozione. La sua chiave per la maggior parte dei problemi è: «Ne cherchez pas la femme».
Come si è osservato, le felicità incidentali del dramma sono frequenti e memorabili, specialmente quelle connesse al personaggio del Generale Burgoyne, il vero gentiluomo del diciottesimo secolo, pieno di sangue e libero pensatore, che era troppo aristocratico per non essere un liberale. Uno dei migliori affondi in tutti gli assalti di scherma shaviani è quello che si verifica quando Richard Dudgeon, condannato a essere impiccato, chiede retoricamente perché non possa essere fucilato come un soldato. «Ecco, ora parlate da civile», replica il Generale Burgoyne. «Vi siete formato una qualche concezione della condizione del tiro a segno nell’Esercito Britannico?». Eccellente, pure, è il passo in cui il suo subalterno parla di schiacciare il nemico in America, e Burgoyne gli chiede chi schiaccerà i loro nemici in Inghilterra, lo snobismo e il clientelismo e l’incurabile trascuratezza e l’accidia. E in una frase verso la fine, Shaw raggiunge una più ampia e più geniale comprensione dell’umanità di quanta ne mostri in qualsiasi altro luogo: «ci vuole di tutto per fare un mondo, santi tanto quanto soldati». Se Shaw avesse ricordato quella frase in altre occasioni avrebbe evitato il suo errore su Cesare e Bruto. Non è solo vero che ci vuole di tutto per fare un mondo; ma il mondo non può riuscire senza i suoi fallimenti. Forse il punto più dubbio di tutti nel dramma è perché esso sia un dramma per Puritani; a meno che l’orribile quadro di una casa calvinista non sia inteso a distruggere il Puritanesimo. E invero in questo rapporto è costantemente necessario ricadere sui fatti di cui ho parlato all’inizio di questo breve studio; è necessario specialmente ricordare che Shaw poteva con ogni probabilità parlare del Puritanesimo dall’interno. In quel circolo domestico che lo portò a udire Moody e Sankey, in quel circolo domestico che era astemio perfino quando era ubriaco, in quell’atmosfera e società Shaw potrebbe perfino aver incontrato la mostruosa madre in THE DEVIL’S DISCIPLE, l’orribile vecchia che dichiara di aver indurito il proprio cuore per odiare i propri figli, perché il cuore dell’uomo è disperatamente malvagio, la vecchia ghoul che ha fatto di uno dei suoi figli un imbecille e dell’altro un reietto. Tali tipi si presentano davvero in piccole società ubriache del tetro vino del determinismo puritano. È possibile che fra i calvinisti irlandesi vi fossero persone che negavano che la carità fosse una virtù cristiana. È possibile che fra i Puritani vi fossero persone che pensavano che un cuore fosse una specie di malattia cardiaca. Ma basta a farsi strappare i capelli il pensare che un uomo di genio ricevette le sue prime impressioni in un angolo d’Europa così piccolo da poter per lungo tempo supporre che questo Puritanesimo fosse corrente fra gli uomini cristiani. La questione, tuttavia, non ha bisogno di trattenerci, perché il mazzo di drammi ne conteneva altri due dei quali è più facile parlare.
The third play in order in the series called PLAYS FOR PURITANS is a very charming one; CAPTAIN BRASSBOUND’S CONVERSION. This also turns, as does so much of the Caesar drama, on the idea of vanity of revenge—the idea that it is too slight and silly a thing for a man to allow to occupy and corrupt his consciousness. It is not, of course, the morality that is new here, but the touch of cold laughter in the core of the morality. Many saints and sages have denounced vengeance. But they treated vengeance as something too great for man. “Vengeance is Mine, saith the Lord; I will repay.” Shaw treats vengeance as something too small for man— a monkey trick he ought to have outlived, a childish storm of tears which he ought to be able to control. In the story in question Captain Brassbound has nourished through his whole erratic existence, racketting about all the unsavoury parts of Africa—a mission of private punishment which appears to him as a mission of holy justice. His mother has died in consequence of a judge’s decision, and Brassbound roams and schemes until the judge falls into his hands. Then a pleasant society lady, Lady Cicely Waynefleet tells him in an easy conversational undertone—a rivulet of speech which ripples while she is mending his coat— that he is making a fool of himself, that his wrong is irrelevant, that his vengeance is objectless, that he would be much better if he flung his morbid fancy away for ever; in short, she tells him he is ruining himself for the sake of ruining a total stranger. Here again we have the note of the economist, the hatred of mere loss. Shaw (one might almost say) dislikes murder, not so much because it wastes the life of the corpse as because it wastes the time of the murderer. If he were endeavouring to persuade one of his moon-lighting fellow-countrymen not to shoot his landlord, I can imagine him explaining with benevolent emphasis that it was not so much a question of losing a life as of throwing away a bullet. But indeed the Irish comparison alone suggests a doubt which wriggles in the recesses of my mind about the complete reliability of the philosophy of Lady Cicely Waynefleet, the complete finality of the moral of CAPTAIN BRASSBOUND’S CONVERSION. Of course, it was very natural in an aristocrat like Lady Cicely Waynefleet to wish to let sleeping dogs lie, especially those whom Mr. Blatchford calls under-dogs. Of course it was natural for her to wish everything to be smooth and sweet-tempered. But I have the obstinate question in the corner of my brain, whether if a few Captain Brassbounds did revenge themselves on judges, the quality of our judges might not materially improve.
When this doubt is once off one’s conscience one can lose oneself in the bottomless beatitude of Lady Cicely Waynefleet, one of the most living and laughing things that her maker has made. I do not know any stronger way of stating the beauty of the character than by saying that it was written specially for Ellen Terry, and that it is, with Beatrice, one of the very few characters in which the dramatist can claim some part of her triumph.
We may now pass to the more important of the plays. For some time Bernard Shaw would seem to have been brooding upon the soul of Julius Caesar. There must always be a strong human curiosity about the soul of Julius Caesar; and, among other things, about whether he had a soul. The conjunction of Shaw and Caesar has about it something smooth and inevitable; for this decisive reason, that Caesar is really the only great man of history to whom the Shaw theories apply. Caesar WAS a Shaw hero. Caesar was merciful without being in the least pitiful; his mercy was colder than justice. Caesar was a conqueror without being in any hearty sense a soldier; his courage was lonelier than fear. Caesar was a demagogue without being a democrat. In the same way Bernard Shaw is a demagogue without being a democrat. If he had tried to prove his principle from any of the other heroes or sages of mankind he would have found it much more difficult. Napoleon achieved more miraculous conquest; but during his most conquering epoch he was a burning boy suicidally in love with a woman far beyond his age. Joan of Arc achieved far more instant and incredible worldly success; but Joan of Arc achieved worldly success because she believed in another world. Nelson was a figure fully as fascinating and dramatically decisive; but Nelson was “romantic”; Nelson was a devoted patriot and a devoted lover. Alexander was passionate; Cromwell could shed tears; Bismarck had some suburban religion; Frederick was a poet; Charlemagne was fond of children. But Julius Caesar attracted Shaw not less by his positive than by his negative enormousness. Nobody can say with certainty that Caesar cared for anything. It is unjust to call Caesar an egoist; for there is no proof that he cared even for Caesar. He may not have been either an atheist or a pessimist. But he may have been; that is exactly the rub. He may have been an ordinary decently good man slightly deficient in spiritual expansiveness. On the other hand, he may have been the incarnation of paganism in the sense that Christ was the incarnation of Christianity. As Christ expressed how great a man can be humble and humane, Caesar may have expressed how great a man can be frigid and flippant. According to most legends Antichrist was to come soon after Christ. One has only to suppose that Antichrist came shortly before Christ; and Antichrist might very well be Caesar.
It is, I think, no injustice to Bernard Shaw to say that he does not attempt to make his Caesar superior except in this naked and negative sense. There is no suggestion, as there is in the Jehovah of the Old Testament, that the very cruelty of the higher being conceals some tremendous and even tortured love. Caesar is superior to other men not because he loves more, but because he hates less. Caesar is magnanimous not because he is warm-hearted enough to pardon, but because he is not warm-hearted enough to avenge. There is no suggestion anywhere in the play that he is hiding any great genial purpose or powerful tenderness towards men. In order to put this point beyond a doubt the dramatist has introduced a soliloquy of Caesar alone with the Sphinx. There if anywhere he would have broken out into ultimate brotherhood or burning pity for the people. But in that scene between the Sphinx and Caesar, Caesar is as cold and as lonely and as dead as the Sphinx.
La terza commedia in ordine nella serie intitolata PLAYS FOR PURITANS è deliziosa: LA CONVERSIONE DEL CAPITANO BRASSBOUND. Anch’essa ruota, come tanta parte del dramma su Cesare, attorno all’idea della vanità della vendetta: l’idea che sia cosa troppo meschina e sciocca perché un uomo la lasci occupare e corrompere la propria coscienza. Non è nuova, s’intende, la morale qui espressa, ma il tocco di gelida risata nel cuore di quella morale. Molti santi e sapienti hanno condannato la vendetta. Ma la trattavano come qualcosa di troppo grande per l’uomo. «A me la vendetta, dice il Signore; io ricambierò.» Shaw tratta la vendetta come qualcosa di troppo piccolo per l’uomo: un gioco da scimmie che egli avrebbe dovuto superare, una puerile tempesta di lacrime che dovrebbe saper dominare. Nella storia in questione il capitano Brassbound ha nutrito, per tutta la sua esistenza errabonda, gironzolando per tutte le parti più malfamate dell’Africa, una missione di castigo privato che gli appare come una missione di santa giustizia. Sua madre è morta in conseguenza della sentenza di un giudice, e Brassbound vaga e trama finché il giudice non gli capita fra le mani. Allora una piacevole signora di società, Lady Cicely Waynefleet, gli dice con noncurante tono di conversazione — un rivolo di parole che scorre gorgogliando mentre gli rammenda la giacca — che si sta rendendo ridicolo, che il suo torto è irrilevante, che la sua vendetta è senza scopo, che starebbe molto meglio se scacciasse per sempre la sua fantasia morbosa; in breve, gli dice che sta rovinando se stesso per amore di rovinare un perfetto sconosciuto. Anche qui ritroviamo la nota dell’economista, l’odio della semplice perdita. Shaw (si potrebbe quasi dire) detesta l’assassinio, non tanto perché spreca la vita del cadavere quanto perché spreca il tempo dell’assassino. Se cercasse di persuadere uno dei suoi notturni connazionali a non sparare al proprio padrone, riesco a immaginarlo mentre spiega con benevola insistenza che non si tratta tanto di perdere una vita quanto di buttar via una pallottola. Ma in verità proprio il paragone irlandese suggerisce da solo un dubbio che si contorce nei recessi della mia mente circa la piena attendibilità della filosofia di Lady Cicely Waynefleet, la piena definitività della morale della CONVERSIONE DEL CAPITANO BRASSBOUND. Era, s’intende, del tutto naturale che un’aristocratica come Lady Cicely Waynefleet desiderasse lasciar dormire i cani tranquilli, specie quelli che il signor Blatchford chiama i cani soccombenti. Era naturale, s’intende, che desiderasse ogni cosa liscia e di dolce umore. Ma serbo l’ostinata domanda in un angolo del mio cervello: se qualche capitano Brassbound si vendicasse dei giudici, la qualità dei nostri giudici non ne migliorerebbe forse sensibilmente.
Una volta tolto dalla coscienza questo dubbio, ci si può perdere nella sconfinata beatitudine di Lady Cicely Waynefleet, una delle creature più vive e ridenti che il suo autore abbia mai foggiato. Non conosco modo più forte di enunciare la bellezza di quel personaggio che dire che fu scritto apposta per Ellen Terry, e che è, insieme a Beatrice, uno dei pochissimi personaggi in cui il drammaturgo può rivendicare qualche parte del suo trionfo.
Possiamo ora passare alle più importanti fra le commedie. Per qualche tempo sembra che Bernard Shaw abbia rimuginato sull’anima di Giulio Cesare. Vi sarà sempre una forte curiosità umana sull’anima di Giulio Cesare; e, fra l’altro, sul fatto che ne avesse una, di anima. La congiunzione di Shaw e Cesare ha in sé qualcosa di liscio e inevitabile; per questa ragione decisiva, che Cesare è davvero l’unico grand’uomo della storia a cui si applichino le teorie di Shaw. Cesare ERA un eroe alla Shaw. Cesare era misericordioso senza essere minimamente pietoso; la sua misericordia era più fredda della giustizia. Cesare era un conquistatore senza essere in alcun senso cordiale un soldato; il suo coraggio era più solitario della paura. Cesare era un demagogo senza essere un democratico. Allo stesso modo Bernard Shaw è un demagogo senza essere un democratico. Se avesse tentato di provare il suo principio a partire da uno qualsiasi degli altri eroi o sapienti dell’umanità, l’avrebbe trovato assai più difficile. Napoleone conseguì conquiste più miracolose; ma nell’epoca del suo massimo conquistare era un ragazzo ardente, suicidamente innamorato di una donna assai più anziana di lui. Giovanna d’Arco conseguì un successo mondano assai più immediato e incredibile; ma Giovanna d’Arco conseguì il successo mondano perché credeva in un altro mondo. Nelson fu una figura pienamente affascinante e drammaticamente decisiva quanto la sua; ma Nelson era «romantico»; Nelson era un patriota devoto e un amante devoto. Alessandro era appassionato; Cromwell sapeva versare lacrime; Bismarck aveva una qualche religione suburbana; Federico era poeta; Carlo Magno amava i bambini. Ma Giulio Cesare attrasse Shaw non meno per la sua enormità positiva che per quella negativa. Nessuno può dire con certezza che Cesare tenesse a qualcosa. È ingiusto chiamare Cesare un egoista; poiché non vi è prova che tenesse anche solo a Cesare. Può darsi che non fosse né un ateo né un pessimista. Ma può darsi che lo fosse; e sta appunto qui il nodo. Può darsi che fosse un uomo comune, decorosamente buono, un po’ scarso di espansività spirituale. D’altra parte, può darsi che fosse l’incarnazione del paganesimo nel senso in cui Cristo fu l’incarnazione del Cristianesimo. Come Cristo espresse quanto grande possa essere un uomo umile e umano, Cesare può aver espresso quanto grande possa essere un uomo gelido e frivolo. Secondo la maggior parte delle leggende l’Anticristo doveva venire poco dopo Cristo. Basta supporre che l’Anticristo sia venuto poco prima di Cristo; e l’Anticristo potrebbe benissimo essere Cesare.
Non è, io credo, alcuna ingiustizia verso Bernard Shaw dire che egli non tenta di rendere il suo Cesare superiore se non in questo senso nudo e negativo. Non vi è alcun accenno, come vi è nel Geova dell’Antico Testamento, che la crudeltà stessa dell’essere superiore celi un qualche tremendo e persino tormentato amore. Cesare è superiore agli altri uomini non perché ama di più, ma perché odia di meno. Cesare è magnanimo non perché ha il cuore abbastanza caldo da perdonare, ma perché non ha il cuore abbastanza caldo da vendicarsi. Non vi è in tutta la commedia alcun accenno che egli nasconda qualche grande e geniale proposito o una potente tenerezza verso gli uomini. Per mettere questo punto al di là di ogni dubbio, il drammaturgo ha introdotto un soliloquio di Cesare solo con la Sfinge. Lì, se mai altrove, egli sarebbe prorotto in un’estrema fratellanza o in un’ardente pietà per il popolo. Ma in quella scena fra la Sfinge e Cesare, Cesare è freddo e solitario e morto quanto la Sfinge.
But whether the Shavian Caesar is a sound ideal or no, there can be little doubt that he is a very fine reality. Shaw has done nothing greater as a piece of artistic creation. If the man is a little like a statue, it is a statue by a great sculptor; a statue of the best period. If his nobility is a little negative in its character, it is the negative darkness of the great dome of night; not as in some “new moralities” the mere mystery of the coal-hole. Indeed, this somewhat austere method of work is very suitable to Shaw when he is serious. There is nothing Gothic about his real genius; he could not build a mediaeval cathedral in which laughter and terror are twisted together in stone, molten by mystical passion. He can build, by way of amusement, a Chinese pagoda; but when he is in earnest, only a Roman temple. He has a keen eye for truth; but he is one of those people who like, as the saying goes, to put down the truth in black and white. He is always girding and jeering at romantics and idealists because they will not put down the truth in black and white. But black and white are not the only two colours in the world. The modern man of science who writes down a fact in black and white is not more but less accurate than the mediaeval monk who wrote it down in gold and scarlet, sea-green and turquoise. Nevertheless, it is a good thing that the more austere method should exist separately, and that some men should be specially good at it. Bernard Shaw is specially good at it; he is pre-eminently a black and white artist.
And as a study in black and white nothing could be better than this sketch of Julius Caesar. He is not so much represented as “bestriding the earth like a Colossus” (which is indeed a rather comic attitude for a hero to stand in), but rather walking the earth with a sort of stern levity, lightly touching the planet and yet spurning it away like a stone. He walks like a winged man who has chosen to fold his wings. There is something creepy even about his kindness; it makes the men in front of him feel as if they were made of glass. The nature of the Caesarian mercy is massively suggested. Caesar dislikes a massacre, not because it is a great sin, but because it is a small sin. It is felt that he classes it with a flirtation or a fit of the sulks; a senseless temporary subjugation of man’s permanent purpose by his passing and trivial feelings. He will plunge into slaughter for a great purpose, just as he plunges into the sea. But to be stung into such action he deems as undignified as to be tipped off the pier. In a singularly fine passage Cleopatra, having hired assassins to stab an enemy, appeals to her wrongs as justifying her revenge, and says, “If you can find one man in all Africa who says that I did wrong, I will be crucified by my own slaves.” “If you can find one man in all the world,” replies Caesar, “who can see that you did wrong, he will either conquer the world as I have done or be crucified by it.” That is the high water mark of this heathen sublimity; and we do not feel it inappropriate, or unlike Shaw, when a few minutes afterwards the hero is saluted with a blaze of swords.
As usually happens in the author’s works, there is even more about Julius Caesar in the preface than there is in the play. But in the preface I think the portrait is less imaginative and more fanciful. He attempts to connect his somewhat chilly type of superman with the heroes of the old fairy tales. But Shaw should not talk about the fairy tales; for he does not feel them from the inside. As I have said, on all this side of historic and domestic traditions Bernard Shaw is weak and deficient. He does not approach them as fairy tales, as if he were four, but as “folk-lore” as if he were forty. And he makes a big mistake about them which he would never have made if he had kept his birthday and hung up his stocking, and generally kept alive inside him the firelight of a home. The point is so peculiarly characteristic of Bernard Shaw, and is indeed so much of a summary of his most interesting assertion and his most interesting error, that it deserves a word by itself, though it is a word which must be remembered in connection with nearly all the other plays.
His primary and defiant proposition is the Calvinistic proposition: that the elect do not earn virtue, but possess it. The goodness of a man does not consist in trying to be good, but in being good. Julius Caesar prevails over other people by possessing more VIRTUS than they; not by having striven or suffered or bought his virtue; not because he has struggled heroically, but because he is a hero. So far Bernard Shaw is only what I have called him at the beginning; he is simply a seventeenth-century Calvinist. Caesar is not saved by works, or even by faith; he is saved because he is one of the elect. Unfortunately for himself, however, Bernard Shaw went back further than the seventeenth century; and professing his opinion to be yet more antiquated, invoked the original legends of mankind. He argued that when the fairy tales gave Jack the Giant Killer a coat of darkness or a magic sword it removed all credit from Jack in the “common moral” sense; he won as Caesar won only because he was superior. I will confess, in passing, to the conviction that Bernard Shaw in the course of his whole simple and strenuous life was never quite so near to hell as at the moment when he wrote down those words. But in this question of fairy tales my immediate point is, not how near he was to hell, but how very far off he was from fairyland. That notion about the hero with a magic sword being the superman with a magic superiority is the caprice of a pedant; no child, boy, or man ever felt it in the story of Jack the Giant Killer. Obviously the moral is all the other way. Jack’s fairy sword and invisible coat are clumsy expedients for enabling him to fight at all with something which is by nature stronger. They are a rough, savage substitute for psychological descriptions of special valour or unwearied patience. But no one in his five wits can doubt that the idea of “Jack the Giant Killer” is exactly the opposite to Shaw’s idea. If it were not a tale of effort and triumph hardly earned it would not be called “Jack the Giant Killer.” If it were a tale of the victory of natural advantages it would be called “Giant the Jack Killer.” If the teller of fairy tales had merely wanted to urge that some beings are born stronger than others he would not have fallen back on elaborate tricks of weapon and costume for conquering an ogre. He would simply have let the ogre conquer. I will not speak of my own emotions in connection with this incredibly caddish doctrine that the strength of the strong is admirable, but not the valour of the weak. It is enough to say that I have to summon up the physical presence of Shaw, his frank gestures, kind eyes, and exquisite Irish voice, to cure me of a mere sensation of contempt. But I do not dwell upon the point for any such purpose; but merely to show how we must be always casting back to those concrete foundations with which we began. Bernard Shaw, as I have said, was never national enough to be domestic; he was never a part of his past; hence when he tries to interpret tradition he comes a terrible cropper, as in this case. Bernard Shaw (I strongly suspect) began to disbelieve in Santa Claus at a discreditably early age. And by this time Santa Claus has avenged himself by taking away the key of all the prehistoric scriptures; so that a noble and honourable artist flounders about like any German professor. Here is a whole fairy literature which is almost exclusively devoted to the unexpected victory of the weak over the strong; and Bernard Shaw manages to make it mean the inevitable victory of the strong over the weak—which, among other things, would not make a story at all. It all comes of that mistake about not keeping his birthday. A man should be always tied to his mother’s apron strings; he should always have a hold on his childhood, and be ready at intervals to start anew from a childish standpoint. Theologically the thing is best expressed by saying, “You must be born again.” Secularly it is best expressed by saying, “You must keep your birthday.” Even if you will not be born again, at least remind yourself occasionally that you were born once.
Ma che il Cesare shaviano sia o no un ideale valido, non vi può essere gran dubbio che sia una realtà bellissima. Shaw non ha fatto nulla di più grande come opera di creazione artistica. Se l’uomo somiglia un poco a una statua, è una statua di un grande scultore; una statua del periodo migliore. Se la sua nobiltà è di carattere alquanto negativo, è la negativa oscurità della grande cupola della Notte; non, come in certe «nuove moralità», il mero mistero della carbonaia. Anzi, questo metodo di lavoro alquanto austero si addice assai a Shaw quando è serio. Non vi è nulla di gotico nel suo vero genio; non saprebbe edificare una cattedrale medievale in cui riso e terrore siano intrecciati insieme nella pietra, fusi da una passione mistica. Sa costruire, per diletto, una pagoda cinese; ma quando fa sul serio, soltanto un tempio romano. Ha un occhio acuto per la verità; ma è di quelle persone che amano, come si suol dire, mettere la verità nero su bianco. Sempre punge e beffa romantici e idealisti perché non vogliono mettere la verità nero su bianco. Ma il nero e il bianco non sono gli unici due colori al mondo. Il moderno uomo di scienza che annota un fatto in nero su bianco non è più esatto, ma meno, del monaco medievale che lo annotava in oro e scarlatto, verdemare e turchese. Nondimeno, è cosa buona che il metodo più austero esista a parte, e che alcuni uomini vi siano particolarmente valenti. Bernard Shaw vi è particolarmente valente; è per eccellenza un artista del bianco e nero.
E come studio in bianco e nero nulla potrebbe essere migliore di questo schizzo di Giulio Cesare. Egli non è tanto rappresentato mentre «scavalca la terra come un Colosso» (che è invero atteggiamento piuttosto comico per un eroe), quanto mentre cammina la terra con una sorta di severa leggerezza, sfiorando appena il pianeta e pure respingendolo via come un sasso. Cammina come un uomo alato che ha scelto di ripiegare le ali. Vi è qualcosa di raccapricciante persino nella sua bontà; essa fa sentire gli uomini che gli stanno dinanzi come se fossero fatti di vetro. La natura della misericordia cesariana è suggerita con maestria. Cesare detesta un massacro, non perché sia un gran peccato, ma perché è un piccolo peccato. Si avverte che lo classifica insieme a un flirt o a un accesso di malumore; un’insensata e temporanea sottomissione del proposito permanente dell’uomo ai suoi sentimenti passeggeri e triviali. Si getterà nel massacro per un grande scopo, così come si getta in mare. Ma essere spinto a tale azione lo reputa indegno quanto essere buttato giù dal molo. In un passo di singolare bellezza Cleopatra, avendo assoldato sicari per pugnalare un nemico, invoca i suoi torti a giustificazione della sua vendetta e dice: «Se riesci a trovare un solo uomo in tutta l’Africa che dica che ho fatto male, mi lascerò crocifiggere dai miei stessi schiavi.» «Se riesci a trovare un solo uomo in tutto il mondo», risponde Cesare, «che sappia vedere che hai fatto male, o conquisterà il mondo come ho fatto io o ne sarà crocifisso.» Questo è il segno dell’alta marea di questa sublimità pagana; e non ci sembra inappropriato, né dissimile da Shaw, quando pochi minuti dopo l’eroe è salutato da un lampeggiare di spade.
Come suole accadere nelle opere dell’autore, vi è persino di più su Giulio Cesare nella prefazione che nella commedia stessa. Ma nella prefazione il ritratto mi pare meno immaginativo e più fantasioso. Egli tenta di collegare il suo alquanto gelido tipo di superuomo con gli eroi delle vecchie fiabe. Ma Shaw non dovrebbe parlare delle fiabe; perché non le sente dall’interno. Come ho detto, su tutto questo versante delle tradizioni storiche e domestiche Bernard Shaw è debole e manchevole. Non le accosta come fiabe, come se avesse quattro anni, ma come «folk-lore», come se ne avesse quaranta. E su di esse commette un grosso errore che non avrebbe mai commesso se avesse festeggiato il proprio compleanno e appeso la propria calza, e in generale tenuto vivo dentro di sé il fuoco di focolare di una casa. Il punto è così peculiarmente caratteristico di Bernard Shaw, ed è in verità così tanto un compendio della sua asserzione più interessante e del suo più interessante errore, che merita una parola a sé, per quanto sia una parola che va ricordata in connessione con quasi tutte le altre commedie.
La sua proposizione primaria e provocatoria è la proposizione calvinista: che gli eletti non guadagnano la virtù, ma la possiedono. La bontà di un uomo non consiste nel cercare di essere buono, ma nell’essere buono. Giulio Cesare prevale sugli altri perché possiede più VIRTUS di loro; non per aver lottato o sofferto o comprato la sua virtù; non perché abbia lottato eroicamente, ma perché è un eroe. Fin qui Bernard Shaw è soltanto ciò che l’ho chiamato all’inizio; è semplicemente un calvinista del Seicento. Cesare non è salvato dalle opere, e neppure dalla fede; è salvato perché è uno degli eletti. Sfortunatamente per sé, tuttavia, Bernard Shaw è andato ancora più indietro del Seicento; e professando la propria opinione come ancor più antiquata, ha invocato le leggende originarie dell’umanità. Ha sostenuto che quando le fiabe davano a Jack l’Ammazzagiganti un mantello di tenebra o una spada magica, toglievano ogni merito a Jack nel senso «morale corrente»; egli vinceva come vinse Cesare soltanto perché era superiore. Confesserò, di sfuggita, la convinzione che Bernard Shaw nel corso di tutta la sua vita semplice e strenua non fu mai così vicino all’inferno come nel momento in cui scrisse quelle parole. Ma in questa questione delle fiabe il mio punto immediato non è quanto fosse vicino all’inferno, bensì quanto fosse lontanissimo dal paese delle fate. Quell’idea che l’eroe con una spada magica sia il superuomo con una magica superiorità è il capriccio di un pedante; nessun fanciullo, ragazzo o uomo l’ha mai sentita nella storia di Jack l’Ammazzagiganti. Ovviamente la morale va tutta nel senso opposto. La spada fatata di Jack e il suo mantello invisibile sono goffi espedienti per metterlo in grado di combattere in qualche modo con qualcosa che per natura è più forte. Sono un rozzo, selvaggio surrogato delle descrizioni psicologiche di uno speciale valore o di un’infaticabile pazienza. Ma nessuno che sia in senno può dubitare che l’idea di «Jack l’Ammazzagiganti» sia esattamente l’opposto dell’idea di Shaw. Se non fosse una storia di sforzo e di trionfo faticosamente guadagnato non si chiamerebbe «Jack l’Ammazzagiganti». Se fosse una storia della vittoria di vantaggi naturali si chiamerebbe «Il Gigante Ammazza-Jack». Se il narratore di fiabe avesse voluto soltanto sostenere che alcuni esseri nascono più forti di altri, non sarebbe ricorso a elaborati trucchi di arma e di costume per vincere un orco. Avrebbe semplicemente lasciato che l’orco vincesse. Non parlerò delle mie emozioni in connessione con questa incredibilmente ignobile dottrina secondo cui è ammirevole la forza del forte, ma non il valore del debole. Basta dire che devo evocare la presenza fisica di Shaw, i suoi gesti franchi, gli occhi buoni e la squisita voce irlandese, per guarirmi da un mero senso di disprezzo. Ma non mi soffermo sul punto per un simile scopo; bensì soltanto per mostrare come dobbiamo sempre risalire a quelle concrete fondamenta da cui siamo partiti. Bernard Shaw, come ho detto, non fu mai abbastanza nazionale da essere domestico; non fu mai parte del proprio passato; perciò quando tenta di interpretare la tradizione fa una terribile capitombolo, come in questo caso. Bernard Shaw (lo sospetto fortemente) cominciò a non credere più a Babbo Natale a un’età vergognosamente precoce. E a questo tempo Babbo Natale si è vendicato togliendogli la chiave di tutte le scritture preistoriche; così che un nobile e onorevole artista arranca come un qualsiasi professore tedesco. Ecco un’intera letteratura fiabesca dedicata quasi esclusivamente all’inattesa vittoria del debole sul forte; e Bernard Shaw riesce a farle significare l’inevitabile vittoria del forte sul debole — la quale, fra l’altro, non farebbe affatto una storia. Tutto ciò deriva da quell’errore di non festeggiare il proprio compleanno. Un uomo dovrebbe sempre restare legato al grembiule della madre; dovrebbe sempre serbare una presa sulla propria infanzia, ed essere pronto a intervalli a ricominciare da un punto di vista infantile. Teologicamente la cosa è meglio espressa dicendo: «Devi nascere di nuovo.» Secolarmente è meglio espressa dicendo: «Devi festeggiare il tuo compleanno.» Anche se non vuoi nascere di nuovo, ricordati almeno di tanto in tanto che sei nato una volta.
Some of the incidental wit in the Caesarian drama is excellent although it is upon the whole less spontaneous and perfect than in the previous plays. One of its jests may be mentioned in passing, not merely to draw attention to its failure (though Shaw is brilliant enough to afford many failures) but because it is the best opportunity for mentioning one of the writer’s minor notions to which he obstinately adheres. He describes the Ancient Briton in Caesar’s train as being exactly like a modern respectable Englishman. As a joke for a Christmas pantomime this would be all very well; but one expects the jokes of Bernard Shaw to have some intellectual root, however fantastic the flower. And obviously all historic common sense is against the idea that that dim Druid people, whoever they were, who dwelt in our land before it was lit up by Rome or loaded with varied invasions, were a precise facsimile of the commercial society of Birmingham or Brighton. But it is a part of the Puritan in Bernard Shaw, a part of the taut and high-strung quality of his mind, that he will never admit of any of his jokes that it was only a joke. When he has been most witty he will passionately deny his own wit; he will say something which Voltaire might envy and then declare that he has got it all out of a Blue book. And in connection with this eccentric type of self-denial, we may notice this mere detail about the Ancient Briton. Someone faintly hinted that a blue Briton when first found by Caesar might not be quite like Mr. Broadbent; at the touch Shaw poured forth a torrent of theory, explaining that climate was the only thing that affected nationality; and that whatever races came into the English or Irish climate would become like the English or Irish. Now the modern theory of race is certainly a piece of stupid materialism; it is an attempt to explain the things we are sure of, France, Scotland, Rome, Japan, by means of the things we are not sure of at all, prehistoric conjectures, Celts, Mongols, and Iberians. Of course there is a reality in race; but there is no reality in the theories of race offered by some ethnological professors. Blood, perhaps, is thicker than water; but brains are sometimes thicker than anything. But if there is one thing yet more thick and obscure and senseless than this theory of the omnipotence of race it is, I think, that to which Shaw has fled for refuge from it; this doctrine of the omnipotence of climate. Climate again is something; but if climate were everything, Anglo-Indians would grow more and more to look like Hindoos, which is far from being the case. Something in the evil spirit of our time forces people always to pretend to have found some material and mechanical explanation. Bernard Shaw has filled all his last days with affirmations about the divinity of the non-mechanical part of man, the sacred quality in creation and choice. Yet it never seems to have occurred to him that the true key to national differentiations is the key of the will and not of the environment. It never crosses the modern mind to fancy that perhaps a people is chiefly influenced by how that people has chosen to behave. If I have to choose between race and weather I prefer race; I would rather be imprisoned and compelled by ancestors who were once alive than by mud and mists which never were. But I do not propose to be controlled by either; to me my national history is a chain of multitudinous choices. It is neither blood nor rain that has made England, but hope, the thing that all those dead men have desired. France was not France because she was made to be by the skulls of the Celts or by the sun of Gaul. France was France because she chose.
I have stepped on one side from the immediate subject because this is as good an instance as any we are likely to come across of a certain almost extraneous fault which does deface the work of Bernard Shaw. It is a fault only to be mentioned when we have made the solidity of the merits quite clear. To say that Shaw is merely making game of people is demonstrably ridiculous; at least a fairly systematic philosophy can be traced through all his jokes, and one would not insist on such a unity in all the songs of Mr. Dan Leno. I have already pointed out that the genius of Shaw is really too harsh and earnest rather than too merry and irresponsible. I shall have occasion to point out later that Shaw is, in one very serious sense, the very opposite of paradoxical. In any case if any real student of Shaw says that Shaw is only making a fool of him, we can only say that of that student it is very superfluous for anyone to make a fool. But though the dramatist’s jests are always serious and generally obvious, he is really affected from time to time by a certain spirit of which that climate theory is a case— a spirit that can only be called one of senseless ingenuity. I suppose it is a sort of nemesis of wit; the skidding of a wheel in the height of its speed. Perhaps it is connected with the nomadic nature of his mind. That lack of roots, this remoteness from ancient instincts and traditions is responsible for a certain bleak and heartless extravagance of statement on certain subjects which makes the author really unconvincing as well as exaggerative; satires that are SAUGRENU, jokes that are rather silly than wild, statements which even considered as lies have no symbolic relation to truth. They are exaggerations of something that does not exist. For instance, if a man called Christmas Day a mere hypocritical excuse for drunkenness and gluttony that would be false, but it would have a fact hidden in it somewhere. But when Bernard Shaw says that Christmas Day is only a conspiracy kept up by poulterers and wine merchants from strictly business motives, then he says something which is not so much false as startlingly and arrestingly foolish. He might as well say that the two sexes were invented by jewellers who wanted to sell wedding rings. Or again, take the case of nationality and the unit of patriotism. If a man said that all boundaries between clans, kingdoms, or empires were nonsensical or non-existent, that would be a fallacy, but a consistent and philosophical fallacy. But when Mr. Bernard Shaw says that England matters so little that the British Empire might very well give up these islands to Germany, he has not only got hold of the sow by the wrong ear but the wrong sow by the wrong ear; a mythical sow, a sow that is not there at all. If Britain is unreal, the British Empire must be a thousand times more unreal. It is as if one said, “I do not believe that Michael Scott ever had any existence; but I am convinced, in spite of the absurd legend, that he had a shadow.”
As has been said already, there must be some truth in every popular impression. And the impression that Shaw, the most savagely serious man of his time, is a mere music-hall artist must have reference to such rare outbreaks as these. As a rule his speeches are full, not only of substance, but of substances, materials like pork, mahogany, lead, and leather. There is no man whose arguments cover a more Napoleonic map of detail. It is true that he jokes; but wherever he is he has topical jokes, one might almost say family jokes. If he talks to tailors he can allude to the last absurdity about buttons. If he talks to the soldiers he can see the exquisite and exact humour of the last gun-carriage. But when all his powerful practicality is allowed, there does run through him this erratic levity, an explosion of ineptitude. It is a queer quality in literature. It is a sort of cold extravagance; and it has made him all his enemies.
Parte dell’arguzia incidentale nel dramma cesariano è eccellente, benché nel complesso sia meno spontanea e perfetta che nelle commedie precedenti. Uno dei suoi motti merita d’essere menzionato di sfuggita, non solo per richiamare l’attenzione sul suo fallimento (giacché Shaw è abbastanza brillante da potersi permettere molti fallimenti), ma perché è la migliore occasione per menzionare una delle idee minori dello scrittore, cui egli ostinatamente si attiene. Egli descrive l’antico Britanno al seguito di Cesare come esattamente simile a un moderno e rispettabile Inglese. Come scherzo per una pantomima natalizia andrebbe benissimo; ma dagli scherzi di Bernard Shaw ci si aspetta qualche radice intellettuale, per quanto fantastico sia il fiore. E ovviamente tutto il buon senso storico è contro l’idea che quell’oscuro popolo di Druidi, chiunque fossero, che dimorava nella nostra terra prima che fosse illuminata da Roma o gravata di svariate invasioni, fosse una precisa copia della società commerciale di Birmingham o di Brighton. Ma è parte del Puritano che è in Bernard Shaw, parte della qualità tesa e sovreccitata della sua mente, che egli non ammetterà mai di alcuno dei suoi scherzi che fosse soltanto uno scherzo. Quando è stato più arguto negherà appassionatamente la propria arguzia; dirà qualcosa che Voltaire potrebbe invidiargli e poi dichiarerà d’averla ricavata tutta da un Libro Blu. E in connessione con questo eccentrico tipo di autonegazione, possiamo notare questo mero particolare sull’antico Britanno. Qualcuno accennò debolmente che un Britanno azzurro, quando fu trovato per la prima volta da Cesare, poteva non essere del tutto simile al signor Broadbent; al primo tocco Shaw riversò un torrente di teoria, spiegando che il clima era l’unica cosa che influisse sulla nazionalità; e che qualsiasi razza entrasse nel clima inglese o irlandese sarebbe divenuta simile agli Inglesi o agli Irlandesi. Ora, la moderna teoria della razza è certamente un pezzo di stupido materialismo; è un tentativo di spiegare le cose di cui siamo sicuri, la Francia, la Scozia, Roma, il Giappone, per mezzo delle cose di cui non siamo affatto sicuri, congetture preistoriche, Celti, Mongoli e Iberi. Vi è, s’intende, una realtà nella razza; ma non vi è alcuna realtà nelle teorie della razza offerte da certi professori di etnologia. Il sangue, forse, è più denso dell’acqua; ma i cervelli sono talvolta più densi di ogni cosa. Ma se vi è una cosa ancora più densa e oscura e insensata di questa teoria dell’onnipotenza della razza, essa è, io credo, quella in cui Shaw ha cercato rifugio da essa: questa dottrina dell’onnipotenza del clima. Anche il clima è qualcosa; ma se il clima fosse tutto, gli Anglo-Indiani finirebbero sempre più col somigliare agli Indù, il che è ben lungi dall’essere il caso. Qualcosa nel malo spirito del nostro tempo costringe sempre la gente a fingere d’aver trovato qualche spiegazione materiale e meccanica. Bernard Shaw ha riempito tutti i suoi ultimi giorni di affermazioni sulla divinità della parte non meccanica dell’uomo, la sacra qualità nella creazione e nella scelta. Eppure pare non gli sia mai venuto in mente che la vera chiave delle differenziazioni nazionali è la chiave della volontà e non dell’ambiente. Non sfiora mai la mente moderna il pensiero che forse un popolo è influenzato soprattutto dal modo in cui quel popolo ha scelto di comportarsi. Se devo scegliere fra razza e clima preferisco la razza; preferirei essere imprigionato e costretto da antenati che un tempo furono vivi, piuttosto che dal fango e dalle nebbie che non lo furono mai. Ma non intendo essere controllato né dall’una né dall’altro; per me la mia storia nazionale è una catena di innumerevoli scelte. Non è né il sangue né la pioggia che ha fatto l’Inghilterra, ma la speranza, la cosa che tutti quei morti hanno desiderato. La Francia non fu la Francia perché fu resa tale dai teschi dei Celti o dal sole della Gallia. La Francia fu la Francia perché scelse.
Mi sono scostato per un attimo dall’argomento immediato perché questo è un esempio buono quanto qualsiasi altro in cui probabilmente ci imbatteremo di un certo difetto quasi estraneo che pur deturpa l’opera di Bernard Shaw. È un difetto da menzionarsi solo quando abbiamo reso ben chiara la solidità dei meriti. Dire che Shaw si limiti a prendersi gioco della gente è dimostrabilmente ridicolo; almeno una filosofia abbastanza sistematica può rintracciarsi attraverso tutti i suoi scherzi, e non si insisterebbe su una simile unità in tutte le canzoni del signor Dan Leno. Ho già rilevato che il genio di Shaw è in realtà troppo aspro e serio piuttosto che troppo allegro e irresponsabile. Avrò occasione di rilevare più avanti che Shaw è, in un senso assai serio, l’esatto contrario di paradossale. In ogni caso, se un qualche vero studioso di Shaw dice che Shaw sta soltanto facendo di lui uno zimbello, possiamo solo dire che di quello studioso è ben superfluo che qualcuno faccia uno zimbello. Ma benché gli scherzi del drammaturgo siano sempre seri e in genere ovvii, egli è davvero influenzato di tempo in tempo da un certo spirito di cui quella teoria del clima è un esempio — uno spirito che si può chiamare soltanto di insensato ingegno. Suppongo che sia una sorta di nemesi dell’arguzia; lo slittamento di una ruota al culmine della sua velocità. Forse è connesso con la natura nomade della sua mente. Quella mancanza di radici, questa lontananza dagli antichi istinti e dalle tradizioni è responsabile di una certa gelida e senza cuore stravaganza di enunciazione su certi argomenti, che rende l’autore davvero non convincente oltre che esagerato; satire che sono SAUGRENU, scherzi che sono piuttosto sciocchi che folli, affermazioni che, persino considerate come menzogne, non hanno alcuna relazione simbolica con la verità. Sono esagerazioni di qualcosa che non esiste. Per esempio, se un uomo chiamasse il giorno di Natale un mero ipocrita pretesto per l’ubriachezza e la gola, ciò sarebbe falso, ma vi sarebbe da qualche parte un fatto nascosto. Ma quando Bernard Shaw dice che il giorno di Natale è soltanto una congiura tenuta in piedi da pollivendoli e vinai per motivi strettamente commerciali, allora dice qualcosa che non è tanto falso quanto sorprendentemente e sconcertantemente sciocco. Potrebbe altrettanto bene dire che i due sessi furono inventati dai gioiellieri che volevano vendere fedi nuziali. Oppure, si prenda il caso della nazionalità e dell’unità della patria. Se un uomo dicesse che tutti i confini fra clan, regni o imperi sono insensati o inesistenti, ciò sarebbe una fallacia, ma una fallacia coerente e filosofica. Ma quando il signor Bernard Shaw dice che l’Inghilterra conta così poco che l’Impero Britannico potrebbe benissimo cedere queste isole alla Germania, egli non solo ha preso la scrofa per l’orecchio sbagliato, ma la scrofa sbagliata per l’orecchio sbagliato; una scrofa mitica, una scrofa che non c’è affatto. Se la Britannia è irreale, l’Impero Britannico dev’essere mille volte più irreale. È come se si dicesse: «Non credo che Michele Scott sia mai esistito; ma sono convinto, a dispetto dell’assurda leggenda, che avesse un’ombra.»
Come già si è detto, dev’esserci un po’ di verità in ogni impressione popolare. E l’impressione che Shaw, l’uomo più selvaggiamente serio del suo tempo, sia un mero artista da caffè-concerto dev’essere riferita a rare esplosioni come queste. Di regola i suoi discorsi sono pieni non solo di sostanza, ma di sostanze, materiali come il maiale, il mogano, il piombo e il cuoio. Non vi è uomo i cui argomenti coprano una più napoleonica mappa di dettaglio. È vero che scherza; ma ovunque si trovi ha scherzi d’attualità, si potrebbe quasi dire scherzi di famiglia. Se parla ai sarti sa alludere all’ultima assurdità sui bottoni. Se parla ai soldati sa cogliere lo squisito ed esatto umorismo dell’ultimo affusto di cannone. Ma quando si è concessa tutta la sua potente praticità, pur corre attraverso di lui questa erratica leggerezza, un’esplosione di inettitudine. È una qualità bizzarra in letteratura. È una sorta di gelida stravaganza; ed è ciò che gli ha procurato tutti i suoi nemici.
The Philosopher
I SHOULD suppose that CAESAR AND CLEOPATRA marks about the turning tide of Bernard Shaw’s fortune and fame. Up to this time he had known glory, but never success. He had been wondered at as something brilliant and barren, like a meteor; but no one would accept him as a sun, for the test of a sun is that it can make something grow. Practically speaking the two qualities of a modern drama are, that it should play and that it should pay. It had been proved over and over again in weighty dramatic criticisms, in careful readers’ reports, that the plays of Shaw could never play or pay; that the public did not want wit and the wars of intellect. And just about the time that this had been finally proved, the plays of Bernard Shaw promised to play like CHARLEY’S AUNT and to pay like Colman’s Mustard. It is a fact in which we can all rejoice, not only because it redeems the reputation of Bernard Shaw, but because it redeems the character of the English people. All that is bravest in human nature, open challenge and unexpected wit and angry conviction, are not so very unpopular as the publishers and managers in their motor-cars have been in the habit of telling us. But exactly because we have come to a turning point in the man’s career I propose to interrupt the mere catalogue of his plays and to treat his latest series rather as the proclamations of an acknowledged prophet. For the last plays, especially MAN AND SUPERMAN, are such that his whole position must be re-stated before attacking them seriously.
For two reasons I have called this concluding series of plays not again by the name of “The Dramatist,” but by the general name of “The Philosopher.” The first reason is that given above, that we have come to the time of his triumph and may therefore treat him as having gained complete possession of a pulpit of his own. But there is a second reason: that it was just about this time that he began to create not only a pulpit of his own, but a church and creed of his own. It is a very vast and universal religion; and it is not his fault that he is the only member of it. The plainer way of putting it is this: that here, in the hour of his earthly victory, there dies in him the old mere denier, the mere dynamiter of criticism. In the warmth of popularity he begins to wish to put his faith positively; to offer some solid key to all creation. Perhaps the irony in the situation is this: that all the crowds are acclaiming him as the blasting and hypercritical buffoon, while he himself is seriously rallying his synthetic power, and with a grave face telling himself that it is time he had a faith to preach. His final success as a sort of charlatan coincides with his first grand failures as a theologian.
For this reason I have deliberately called a halt in his dramatic career, in order to consider these two essential points: What did the mass of Englishmen, who had now learnt to admire him, imagine his point of view to be? and second, What did he imagine it to be? or, if the phrase be premature, What did he imagine it was going to be? In his latest work, especially in Man and Superman, Shaw has become a complete and colossal mystic. That mysticism does grow quite rationally out of his older arguments; but very few people ever troubled to trace the connection. In order to do so it is necessary to say what was, at the time of his first success, the public impression of Shaw’s philosophy.
Now it is an irritating and pathetic thing that the three most popular phrases about Shaw are false. Modern criticism, like all weak things, is overloaded with words. In a healthy condition of language a man finds it very difficult to say the right thing, but at last says it. In this empire of journalese a man finds it so very easy to say the wrong thing that he never thinks of saying anything else. False or meaningless phrases lie so ready to his hand that it is easier to use them than not to use them. These wrong terms picked up through idleness are retained through habit, and so the man has begun to think wrong almost before he has begun to think at all. Such lumbering logomachy is always injurious and oppressive to men of spirit, imagination or intellectual honour, and it has dealt very recklessly and wrongly with Bernard Shaw. He has contrived to get about three newspaper phrases tied to his tail; and those newspaper phrases are all and separately wrong. The three superstitions about him, it will be conceded, are generally these: first that he desires “problem plays,” second that he is “paradoxical,” and third that in his dramas as elsewhere he is specially “a Socialist.” And the interesting thing is that when we come to his philosophy, all these three phrases are quite peculiarly inapplicable.
To take the plays first, there is a general disposition to describe that type of intimate or defiant drama which he approves as “the problem play.” Now the serious modern play is, as a rule, the very reverse of a problem play; for there can be no problem unless both points of view are equally and urgently presented. HAMLET really is a problem play because at the end of it one is really in doubt as to whether upon the author’s showing Hamlet is something more than a man or something less. HENRY IV and Henry V are really problem plays; in this sense, that the reader or spectator is really doubtful whether the high but harsh efficiency, valour, and ambition of Henry V are an improvement on his old blackguard camaraderie; and whether he was not a better man when he was a thief. This hearty and healthy doubt is very common in Shakespeare; I mean a doubt that exists in the writer as well as in the reader. But Bernard Shaw is far too much of a Puritan to tolerate such doubts about points which he counts essential. There is no sort of doubt that the young lady in ARMS AND THE MAN is improved by losing her ideals. There is no sort of doubt that Captain Brassbound is improved by giving up the object of his life. But a better case can be found in something that both dramatists have been concerned with; Shaw wrote CAESAR AND CLEOPATRA; Shakespeare wrote ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA and also JULIUS CAESAR. And exactly what annoys Bernard Shaw about Shakespeare’s version is this: that Shakespeare has an open mind or, in other words, that Shakespeare has really written a problem play. Shakespeare sees quite as clearly as Shaw that Brutus is unpractical and ineffectual; but he also sees, what is quite as plain and practical a fact, that these ineffectual men do capture the hearts and influence the policies of mankind. Shaw would have nothing said in favour of Brutus; because Brutus is on the wrong side in politics. Of the actual problem of public and private morality, as it was presented to Brutus, he takes actually no notice at all. He can write the most energetic and outspoken of propaganda plays; but he cannot rise to a problem play. He cannot really divide his mind and let the two parts speak independently to each other. He has never, so to speak, actually split his head in two; though I daresay there are many other people who are willing to do it for him.
Il Filosofo
SUPPONGO che CESARE E CLEOPATRA segni all’incirca il volgere della marea nella fortuna e nella fama di Bernard Shaw. Fino a quel momento egli aveva conosciuto la gloria, ma mai il successo. Era stato ammirato come qualcosa di brillante e di sterile, come una meteora; ma nessuno voleva accettarlo come un sole, giacché la prova di un sole è che sappia far crescere qualcosa. In pratica le due qualità di un dramma moderno sono che si reciti e che renda. Era stato provato più e più volte, in pesanti critiche drammatiche e in accurate relazioni di lettori, che le commedie di Shaw non avrebbero mai potuto recitarsi né rendere; che il pubblico non voleva arguzia né le guerre dell’intelletto. E proprio all’incirca nel momento in cui ciò era stato definitivamente provato, le commedie di Bernard Shaw promisero di recitarsi come CHARLEY’S AUNT e di rendere come la Senape di Colman. È un fatto di cui possiamo tutti rallegrarci, non solo perché riscatta la reputazione di Bernard Shaw, ma perché riscatta il carattere del popolo inglese. Tutto ciò che è più coraggioso nella natura umana, la sfida aperta e l’arguzia inattesa e l’irata convinzione, non è poi così impopolare come editori e impresari nelle loro automobili hanno avuto l’abitudine di dirci. Ma proprio perché siamo giunti a una svolta nella carriera dell’uomo, mi propongo di interrompere il mero catalogo delle sue commedie e di trattare la sua ultima serie piuttosto come i proclami di un Profeta riconosciuto. Poiché le ultime commedie, specialmente MAN AND SUPERMAN, sono tali che tutta la sua posizione dev’essere riformulata prima di attaccarle seriamente.
Per due ragioni ho intitolato questa serie conclusiva di commedie non di nuovo col nome de «Il Drammaturgo», ma col nome generale de «Il Filosofo». La prima ragione è quella data sopra, che siamo giunti al tempo del suo trionfo e possiamo perciò trattarlo come se avesse preso pieno possesso di un pulpito tutto suo. Ma c’è una seconda ragione: che fu proprio all’incirca in quel tempo che egli cominciò a creare non solo un pulpito tutto suo, ma una chiesa e un credo tutti suoi. È una religione assai vasta e universale; e non è colpa sua se ne è l’unico membro. Il modo più piano di dirlo è questo: che qui, nell’ora della sua vittoria terrena, muore in lui il vecchio mero negatore, il mero dinamitardo della critica. Nel calore della popolarità egli comincia a desiderare di porre la propria fede in positivo; di offrire qualche solida chiave a tutta la creazione. Forse l’ironia della situazione sta in questo: che tutte le folle lo acclamano come il fulminante e ipercritico buffone, mentre egli stesso raccoglie seriamente la propria facoltà sintetica e, con volto grave, dice a se stesso che è tempo che egli abbia una fede da predicare. Il suo definitivo successo come una sorta di ciarlatano coincide con i suoi primi grandi fallimenti come teologo.
Per questa ragione ho deliberatamente fatto una sosta nella sua carriera drammatica, allo scopo di considerare questi due punti essenziali: che cosa immaginava che fosse il suo punto di vista la massa degli Inglesi, che ormai avevano imparato ad ammirarlo? e in secondo luogo, che cosa immaginava egli che fosse? o, se la frase è prematura, che cosa immaginava che sarebbe stato? Nella sua ultima opera, specialmente in Man and Superman, Shaw è diventato un completo e colossale mistico. Quel misticismo cresce del tutto razionalmente dai suoi argomenti più antichi; ma pochissimi si sono mai presi la briga di rintracciarne il nesso. Per farlo è necessario dire quale fosse, al tempo del suo primo successo, la pubblica impressione della filosofia di Shaw.
Ora, è cosa irritante e patetica che le tre frasi più diffuse su Shaw siano false. La critica moderna, come tutte le cose deboli, è sovraccarica di parole. In una condizione sana del linguaggio un uomo trova assai difficile dire la cosa giusta, ma alla fine la dice. In questo impero del gergo giornalistico un uomo trova così facilissimo dire la cosa sbagliata che non pensa mai a dirne un’altra. Frasi false o prive di senso gli stanno così pronte sotto mano che è più facile usarle che non usarle. Questi termini errati, raccolti per pigrizia, vengono trattenuti per abitudine, e così l’uomo ha cominciato a pensar male quasi prima d’aver cominciato a pensare del tutto. Un simile ingombrante battagliar di parole è sempre nocivo e opprimente per gli uomini di spirito, di immaginazione o di onore intellettuale, e ha trattato assai temerariamente e a torto Bernard Shaw. Egli è riuscito a farsi attaccare alla coda circa tre frasi da giornale; e quelle frasi da giornale sono, tutte e ciascuna, sbagliate. Le tre superstizioni sul suo conto, lo si concederà, sono in genere queste: primo, che egli desideri i «drammi a tesi»; secondo, che sia «paradossale»; e terzo, che nei suoi drammi come altrove sia specialmente «un Socialista». E la cosa interessante è che, quando veniamo alla sua filosofia, tutte e tre queste frasi risultano assai peculiarmente inapplicabili.
Per prendere anzitutto le commedie, vi è una disposizione generale a descrivere quel tipo di dramma intimo o provocatorio ch’egli approva come il «dramma a tesi». Ora il serio dramma moderno è, di regola, l’esatto contrario di un dramma a tesi; poiché non vi può essere alcun problema se entrambi i punti di vista non siano presentati con pari e pressante urgenza. AMLETO è davvero un dramma a tesi perché alla sua fine si resta davvero in dubbio se, per quanto l’autore ci mostra, Amleto sia qualcosa di più di un uomo o qualcosa di meno. ENRICO IV ed ENRICO V sono davvero drammi a tesi; in questo senso, che il lettore o lo spettatore resta davvero in dubbio se l’alta ma aspra efficienza, il valore e l’ambizione di Enrico V siano un miglioramento rispetto al suo vecchio cameratismo da furfante; e se non fosse un uomo migliore quand’era un ladro. Questo cordiale e sano dubbio è assai comune in Shakespeare; intendo un dubbio che esiste nello scrittore non meno che nel lettore. Ma Bernard Shaw è troppo Puritano per tollerare simili dubbi su punti ch’egli reputa essenziali. Non v’è alcun genere di dubbio che la giovane signorina in ARMS AND THE MAN migliori perdendo i propri ideali. Non v’è alcun genere di dubbio che il capitano Brassbound migliori rinunciando allo scopo della propria vita. Ma un caso migliore si può trovare in qualcosa di cui entrambi i drammaturghi si sono occupati; Shaw scrisse CESARE E CLEOPATRA; Shakespeare scrisse ANTONIO E CLEOPATRA e anche GIULIO CESARE. Ed esattamente ciò che infastidisce Bernard Shaw nella versione di Shakespeare è questo: che Shakespeare ha una mente aperta o, in altre parole, che Shakespeare ha davvero scritto un dramma a tesi. Shakespeare vede altrettanto chiaramente di Shaw che Bruto è impratico e inefficace; ma vede anche, ciò che è un fatto altrettanto piano e pratico, che questi uomini inefficaci conquistano davvero i cuori e influenzano le politiche dell’umanità. Shaw non vorrebbe che si dicesse nulla in favore di Bruto; perché Bruto sta dalla parte sbagliata in politica. Del reale problema della moralità pubblica e privata, quale fu presentato a Bruto, egli non tiene affatto conto. Sa scrivere il più energico e schietto dei drammi di propaganda; ma non sa elevarsi a un dramma a tesi. Non sa davvero dividere la propria mente e lasciare che le due parti parlino indipendentemente l’una all’altra. Non ha mai, per così dire, davvero spaccato in due la propria testa; benché io osi dire che vi sono molte altre persone disposte a farlo per lui.
Sometimes, especially in his later plays, he allows his clear conviction to spoil even his admirable dialogue, making one side entirely weak, as in an Evangelical tract. I do not know whether in MAJOR BARBARA the young Greek professor was supposed to be a fool. As popular tradition (which I trust more than anything else) declared that he is drawn from a real Professor of my acquaintance, who is anything but a fool, I should imagine not. But in that case I am all the more mystified by the incredibly weak fight which he makes in the play in answer to the elephantine sophistries of Undershaft. It is really a disgraceful case, and almost the only case in Shaw of there being no fair fight between the two sides. For instance, the Professor mentions pity. Mr. Undershaft says with melodramatic scorn, “Pity! the scavenger of the Universe!” Now if any gentleman had said this to me, I should have replied, “If I permit you to escape from the point by means of metaphors, will you tell me whether you disapprove of scavengers? ” Instead of this obvious retort, the miserable Greek professor only says, “Well then, love,” to which Undershaft replies with unnecessary violence that he won’t have the Greek professor’s love, to which the obvious answer of course would be, “How the deuce can you prevent my loving you if I choose to do so?” Instead of this, as far as I remember, that abject Hellenist says nothing at all. I only mention this unfair dialogue, because it marks, I think, the recent hardening, for good or evil, of Shaw out of a dramatist into a mere philosopher, and whoever hardens into a philosopher may be hardening into a fanatic.
And just as there is nothing really problematic in Shaw’s mind, so there is nothing really paradoxical. The meaning of the word paradoxical may indeed be made the subject of argument. In Greek, of course, it simply means something which is against the received opinion; in that sense a missionary remonstrating with South Sea cannibals is paradoxical. But in the much more important world, where words are used and altered in the using, paradox does not mean merely this: it means at least something of which the antinomy or apparent inconsistency is sufficiently plain in the words used, and most commonly of all it means an idea expressed in a form which is verbally contradictory. Thus, for instance, the great saying, “He that shall lose his life, the same shall save it,” is an example of what modern people mean by a paradox. If any learned person should read this book (which seems immeasurably improbable) he can content himself with putting it this way, that the moderns mistakenly say paradox when they should say oxymoron. Ultimately, in any case, it may be agreed that we commonly mean by a paradox some kind of collision between what is seemingly and what is really true.
Now if by paradox we mean truth inherent in a contradiction, as in the saying of Christ that I have quoted, it is a very curious fact that Bernard Shaw is almost entirely without paradox. Moreover, he cannot even understand a paradox. And more than this, paradox is about the only thing in the world that he does not understand. All his splendid vistas and startling suggestions arise from carrying some one clear principle further than it has yet been carried. His madness is all consistency, not inconsistency. As the point can hardly be made clear without examples, let us take one example, the subject of education. Shaw has been all his life preaching to grownup people the profound truth that liberty and responsibility go together; that the reason why freedom is so often easily withheld, is simply that it is a terrible nuisance. This is true, though not the whole truth, of citizens; and so when Shaw comes to children he can only apply to them the same principle that he has already applied to citizens. He begins to play with the Herbert Spencer idea of teaching children by experience; perhaps the most fatuously silly idea that was ever gravely put down in print. On that there is no need to dwell; one has only to ask how the experimental method is to be applied to a precipice; and the theory no longer exists. But Shaw effected a further development, if possible more fantastic. He said that one should never tell a child anything without letting him hear the opposite opinion. That is to say, when you tell Tommy not to hit his sick sister on the temple, you must make sure of the presence of some Nietzscheite professor, who will explain to him that such a course might possibly serve to eliminate the unfit. When you are in the act of telling Susan not to drink out of the bottle labelled “poison,” you must telegraph for a Christian Scientist, who will be ready to maintain that without her own consent it cannot do her any harm. What would happen to a child brought up on Shaw’s principle I cannot conceive; I should think he would commit suicide in his bath. But that is not here the question. The point is that this proposition seems quite sufficiently wild and startling to ensure that its author, if he escapes Hanwell, would reach the front rank of journalists, demagogues, or public entertainers. It is a perfect paradox, if a paradox only means something that makes one jump. But it is not a paradox at all in the sense of a contradiction. It is not a contradiction, but an enormous and outrageous consistency, the one principle of free thought carried to a point to which no other sane man would consent to carry it. Exactly what Shaw does not understand is the paradox; the unavoidable paradox of childhood. Although this child is much better than I, yet I must teach it. Although this being has much purer passions than I, yet I must control it. Although Tommy is quite right to rush towards a precipice, yet he must be stood in the corner for doing it. This contradiction is the only possible condition of having to do with children at all; anyone who talks about a child without feeling this paradox might just as well be talking about a merman. He has never even seen the animal. But this paradox Shaw in his intellectual simplicity cannot see; he cannot see it because it is a paradox. His only intellectual excitement is to carry one idea further and further across the world. It never occurs to him that it might meet another idea, and like the three winds in MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT, they might make a night of it. His only paradox is to pull out one thread or cord of truth longer and longer into waste and fantastic places. He does not allow for that deeper sort of paradox by which two opposite cords of truth become entangled in an inextricable knot. Still less can he be made to realise that it is often this knot which ties safely together the whole bundle of human life.
Talvolta, specialmente nelle sue commedie più tarde, egli lascia che la sua netta convinzione guasti persino il suo mirabile dialogo, rendendo una delle parti interamente debole, come in un opuscolo evangelico. Non so se in MAJOR BARBARA il giovane professore greco fosse inteso come uno sciocco. Poiché la tradizione popolare (a cui presto più fede che a qualsiasi altra cosa) dichiarava ch’egli è ritratto da un vero Professore di mia conoscenza, il quale è tutto fuorché uno sciocco, immagino di no. Ma in tal caso sono tanto più sconcertato dalla battaglia incredibilmente debole ch’egli combatte nella commedia in risposta alle elefantesche sofisticherie di Undershaft. È davvero un caso disonorevole, e quasi l’unico caso in Shaw in cui non vi sia leale battaglia fra le due parti. Per esempio, il Professore menziona la pietà. Il signor Undershaft dice con melodrammatico disprezzo: «La pietà! lo spazzino dell’Universo!» Ora, se un qualsiasi gentiluomo mi avesse detto ciò, avrei replicato: «Se le permetto di sfuggire al punto per mezzo di metafore, vuol dirmi se disapprova gli spazzini?» Invece di questa ovvia risposta, il misero professore greco dice soltanto: «Ebbene, allora, l’amore», al che Undershaft replica con inutile violenza che non vuole l’amore del professore greco, al che l’ovvia risposta sarebbe naturalmente: «Come diavolo può impedirmi di amarla, se scelgo di farlo?» Invece di ciò, per quanto ricordo, quell’abietto ellenista non dice proprio nulla. Menziono questo dialogo sleale solo perché segna, io credo, il recente indurirsi, in bene o in male, di Shaw da drammaturgo in mero filosofo, e chiunque si indurisca in filosofo può indurirsi in fanatico.
E come non v’è nulla di davvero problematico nella mente di Shaw, così non v’è nulla di davvero paradossale. Il significato della parola paradossale può invero esser fatto oggetto di discussione. In greco, s’intende, significa semplicemente qualcosa che è contro l’opinione ricevuta; in tal senso un missionario che rimprovera i cannibali dei Mari del Sud è paradossale. Ma nel mondo assai più importante, in cui le parole si usano e si alterano nell’uso, paradosso non significa soltanto questo: significa almeno qualcosa la cui antinomia o apparente incoerenza è sufficientemente palese nelle parole usate, e più comunemente di tutto significa un’idea espressa in una forma che è verbalmente contraddittoria. Così, per esempio, il grande detto «Chi perderà la sua vita, quello stesso la salverà» è un esempio di ciò che i moderni intendono per paradosso. Se qualche dotto dovesse leggere questo libro (cosa che pare incommensurabilmente improbabile) potrà accontentarsi di metterla così, che i moderni dicono a torto paradosso quando dovrebbero dire ossimoro. In ultimo, in ogni caso, si può convenire che comunemente intendiamo per paradosso una sorta di collisione fra ciò che è apparentemente e ciò che è realmente vero.
Ora, se per paradosso intendiamo la verità insita in una contraddizione, come nel detto di Cristo che ho citato, è cosa assai curiosa che Bernard Shaw sia quasi interamente privo di paradosso. Di più, egli non sa nemmeno comprendere un paradosso. E più ancora di ciò, il paradosso è circa l’unica cosa al mondo che egli non comprende. Tutte le sue splendide prospettive e le sorprendenti suggestioni scaturiscono dallo spingere qualche unico chiaro principio più oltre di quanto sia stato ancora spinto. La sua follia è tutta coerenza, non incoerenza. Poiché il punto difficilmente può esser reso chiaro senza esempi, prendiamone uno, il tema dell’educazione. Shaw è andato per tutta la vita predicando alla gente adulta la profonda verità che libertà e responsabilità vanno insieme; che la ragione per cui la libertà è così spesso facilmente negata è semplicemente che è un tremendo fastidio. Questo è vero, benché non tutta la verità, dei cittadini; e così quando Shaw viene ai bambini non sa che applicare loro lo stesso principio già applicato ai cittadini. Comincia a trastullarsi con l’idea di Herbert Spencer di educare i bambini con l’esperienza; forse l’idea più fatuamente sciocca che sia mai stata gravemente messa nero su bianco. Su di essa non occorre soffermarsi; basta chiedersi come il metodo sperimentale debba applicarsi a un precipizio, e la teoria non esiste più. Ma Shaw operò un ulteriore sviluppo, se possibile più fantastico. Disse che non si dovrebbe mai dire nulla a un bambino senza fargli udire l’opinione opposta. Vale a dire che, quando dici a Tommy di non picchiare sulla tempia la sua sorellina malata, devi assicurarti la presenza di qualche professore nietzschiano, il quale gli spiegherà che un simile atto potrebbe forse servire a eliminare l’inadatto. Quando stai per dire a Susan di non bere dalla bottiglia etichettata «Veleno», devi telegrafare a uno Scientista Cristiano, che sarà pronto a sostenere che senza il consenso di lei essa non può farle alcun male. Che cosa accadrebbe a un bambino allevato secondo il principio di Shaw non riesco a concepirlo; penserei che commetterebbe suicidio nella vasca da bagno. Ma non è questo qui il punto. Il punto è che questa proposizione pare abbastanza folle e sorprendente da assicurare che il suo autore, se scampa a Hanwell, raggiunga il primo rango dei giornalisti, dei demagoghi o dei pubblici intrattenitori. È un perfetto paradosso, se per paradosso si intende soltanto qualcosa che fa sobbalzare. Ma non è affatto un paradosso nel senso di una contraddizione. Non è una contraddizione, ma un’enorme e oltraggiosa coerenza, l’unico principio del libero pensiero spinto a un punto a cui nessun altro uomo sano di mente acconsentirebbe a spingerlo. Esattamente ciò che Shaw non comprende è il paradosso; l’inevitabile paradosso dell’infanzia. Benché questo bambino sia molto migliore di me, pure devo educarlo. Benché questo essere abbia passioni molto più pure delle mie, pure devo controllarlo. Benché Tommy abbia perfettamente ragione a slanciarsi verso un precipizio, pure va messo in castigo nell’angolo per averlo fatto. Questa contraddizione è l’unica condizione possibile dell’aver che fare con i bambini; chiunque parli di un bambino senza sentire questo paradosso potrebbe altrettanto bene parlare di un tritone. Non ha mai neppure visto l’animale. Ma questo paradosso Shaw nella sua semplicità intellettuale non sa vederlo; non sa vederlo perché è un paradosso. La sua unica eccitazione intellettuale è portare un’idea sempre più oltre attraverso il mondo. Non gli viene mai in mente che essa potrebbe incontrare un’altra idea, e, come i tre venti in MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT, potrebbero farne una notte intera. Il suo unico paradosso è tirare un solo filo o cordoncino di verità sempre più a lungo in luoghi desolati e fantastici. Non tiene conto di quella specie più profonda di paradosso per cui due opposti cordoni di verità si intrecciano in un nodo inestricabile. E ancor meno lo si può indurre a comprendere che è spesso questo nodo a legare saldamente insieme l’intero fascio della vita umana.
This blindness to paradox everywhere perplexes his outlook. He cannot understand marriage because he will not understand the paradox of marriage; that the woman is all the more the house for not being the head of it. He cannot understand patriotism, because he will not understand the paradox of patriotism; that one is all the more human for not merely loving humanity. He does not understand Christianity because he will not understand the paradox of Christianity; that we can only really understand all myths when we know that one of them is true. I do not under-rate him for this anti-paradoxical temper; I concede that much of his finest and keenest work in the way of intellectual purification would have been difficult or impossible without it. But I say that here lies the limitation of that lucid and compelling mind; he cannot quite understand life, because he will not accept its contradictions.
Nor is it by any means descriptive of Shaw to call him a Socialist; in so far as that word can be extended to cover an ethical attitude. He is the least social of all Socialists; and I pity the Socialist state that tries to manage him. This anarchism of his is not a question of thinking for himself; every decent man thinks for himself; it would be highly immodest to think for anybody else. Nor is it any instinctive licence or egoism; as I have said before, he is a man of peculiarly acute public conscience. The unmanageable part of him, the fact that he cannot be conceived as part of a crowd or as really and invisibly helping a movement, has reference to another thing in him, or rather to another thing not in him.
The great defect of that fine intelligence is a failure to grasp and enjoy the things commonly called convention and tradition; which are foods upon which all human creatures must feed frequently if they are to live. Very few modern people of course have any idea of what they are. “Convention” is very nearly the same word as “democracy.” It has again and again in history been used as an alternative word to Parliament. So far from suggesting anything stale or sober, the word convention rather conveys a hubbub; it is the coming together of men; every mob is a convention. In its secondary sense it means the common soul of such a crowd, its instinctive anger at the traitor or its instinctive salutation of the flag. Conventions may be cruel, they may be unsuitable, they may even be grossly superstitious or obscene; but there is one thing that they never are. Conventions are never dead. They are always full of accumulated emotions, the piled-up and passionate experiences of many generations asserting what they could not explain. To be inside any true convention, as the Chinese respect for parents or the European respect for children, is to be surrounded by something which whatever else it is is not leaden, lifeless or automatic, something which is taut and tingling with vitality at a hundred points, which is sensitive almost to madness and which is so much alive that it can kill. Now Bernard Shaw has always made this one immense mistake (arising out of that bad progressive education of his), the mistake of treating convention as a dead thing; treating it as if it were a mere physical environment like the pavement or the rain. Whereas it is a result of will; a rain of blessings and a pavement of good intentions. Let it be remembered that I am not discussing in what degree one should allow for tradition; I am saying that men like Shaw do not allow for it at all. If Shaw had found in early life that he was contradicted by Bradshaw’s Railway Guide or even by the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, he would have felt at least that he might be wrong. But if he had found himself contradicted by his father and mother, he would have thought it all the more probable that he was right. If the issue of the last evening paper contradicted him he might be troubled to investigate or explain. That the human tradition of two thousand years contradicted him did not trouble him for an instant. That Marx was not with him was important. That Man was not with him was an irrelevant prehistoric joke. People have talked far too much about the paradoxes of Bernard Shaw. Perhaps his only pure paradox is this almost unconscious one; that he has tended to think that because something has satisfied generations of men it must be untrue.
Shaw is wrong about nearly all the things one learns early in life and while one is still simple. Most human beings start with certain facts of psychology to which the rest of life must be somewhat related. For instance, every man falls in love; and no man falls into free love. When he falls into that he calls it lust, and is always ashamed of it even when he boasts of it. That there is some connection between a love and a vow nearly every human being knows before he is eighteen. That there is a solid and instinctive connection between the idea of sexual ecstasy and the idea of some sort of almost suicidal constancy, this I say is simply the first fact in one’s own psychology; boys and girls know it almost before they know their own language. How far it can be trusted, how it can best be dealt with, all that is another matter. But lovers lust after constancy more than after happiness; if you are in any sense prepared to give them what they ask, then what they ask, beyond all question, is an oath of final fidelity. Lovers may be lunatics; lovers may be children; lovers may be unfit for citizenship and outside human argument; you can take up that position if you will. But lovers do not only desire love; they desire marriage. The root of legal monogamy does not lie (as Shaw and his friends are for ever drearily asserting) in the fact that the man is a mere tyrant and the woman a mere slave. It lies in the fact that if their love for each other is the noblest and freest love conceivable, it can only find its heroic expression in both becoming slaves. I only mention this matter here as a matter which most of us do not need to be taught; for it was the first lesson of life. In after years we may make up what code or compromise about sex we like; but we all know that constancy, jealousy, and the personal pledge are natural and inevitable in sex; we do not feel any surprise when we see them either in a murder or in a valentine. We may or may not see wisdom in early marriages; but we know quite well that wherever the thing is genuine at all, early loves will mean early marriages. But Shaw had not learnt about this tragedy of the sexes, what the rustic ballads of any country on earth would have taught him. He had not learnt, what universal common sense has put into all the folk-lore of the earth, that love cannot be thought of clearly for an instant except as monogamous. The old English ballads never sing the praises of “lovers.” They always sing the praises of “true lovers,” and that is the final philosophy of the question.
Questa cecità al paradosso perplime ovunque la sua visione. Egli non sa comprendere il matrimonio perché non vuole comprendere il paradosso del matrimonio: che la donna è tanto più la casa proprio perché non ne è il capo. Non sa comprendere il patriottismo, perché non vuole comprendere il paradosso del patriottismo: che si è tanto più umani proprio per non amare semplicemente l’umanità. Non comprende il Cristianesimo perché non vuole comprendere il paradosso del Cristianesimo: che possiamo davvero comprendere tutti i miti solo quando sappiamo che uno di essi è vero. Non lo stimo meno per questo temperamento antiparadossale; concedo che molta della sua opera più fine e più acuta nel senso della purificazione intellettuale sarebbe stata difficile o impossibile senza di esso. Ma dico che qui sta il limite di quella mente lucida e stringente; egli non sa comprendere del tutto la vita, perché non vuole accettarne le contraddizioni.
Né è in alcun modo appropriato descrivere Shaw chiamandolo Socialista; per quanto quella parola possa estendersi a coprire un atteggiamento etico. Egli è il meno sociale di tutti i Socialisti; e compiango lo Stato socialista che tenti di governarlo. Questo suo anarchismo non è questione di pensare per proprio conto; ogni uomo dabbene pensa per proprio conto; sarebbe assai immodesto pensare per chiunque altro. Né è alcuna licenza istintiva o egoismo; come ho detto prima, egli è un uomo di coscienza pubblica peculiarmente acuta. La parte ingovernabile di lui, il fatto che non lo si possa concepire come parte di una folla o come impegnato davvero e invisibilmente a favorire un movimento, ha riferimento a un’altra cosa in lui, o piuttosto a un’altra cosa che in lui non c’è.
Il grande difetto di quella fine intelligenza è un’incapacità di afferrare e godere le cose comunemente chiamate convenzione e tradizione; che sono cibi di cui tutte le creature umane devono nutrirsi di frequente se vogliono vivere. Ben poche persone moderne, s’intende, hanno alcuna idea di che cosa esse siano. «Convenzione» è quasi la stessa parola di «democrazia». È stata più e più volte, nella storia, usata come parola alternativa a Parlamento. Ben lungi dal suggerire alcunché di stantio o di posato, la parola convenzione evoca piuttosto un tumulto; è il convenire degli uomini; ogni folla è una convenzione. Nel suo senso secondario significa l’anima comune di una simile folla, la sua ira istintiva contro il traditore o il suo istintivo saluto alla Bandiera. Le convenzioni possono essere crudeli, possono essere inadatte, possono persino essere grossolanamente superstiziose od oscene; ma vi è una cosa che non sono mai. Le convenzioni non sono mai morte. Sono sempre piene di emozioni accumulate, delle ammassate e appassionate esperienze di molte generazioni che affermano ciò che non sapevano spiegare. Essere dentro una qualsiasi vera convenzione, come il rispetto cinese per i genitori o il rispetto europeo per i bambini, è essere circondati da qualcosa che, qualunque altra cosa sia, non è plumbeo, esanime o automatico, qualcosa che è teso e fremente di vitalità in cento punti, che è sensibile quasi fino alla follia e che è così vivo da poter uccidere. Ora Bernard Shaw ha sempre commesso questo unico immenso errore (nato da quella cattiva educazione progressista che ebbe), l’errore di trattare la convenzione come cosa morta; di trattarla come se fosse un mero ambiente fisico, come il selciato o la pioggia. Mentre essa è un risultato della volontà; una pioggia di benedizioni e un selciato di buone intenzioni. Si ricordi che non sto discutendo in che misura si debba tener conto della tradizione; sto dicendo che uomini come Shaw non ne tengono conto affatto. Se Shaw avesse scoperto in gioventù di essere contraddetto dalla Guida Ferroviaria di Bradshaw o persino dall’ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, avrebbe almeno sentito di poter aver torto. Ma se si fosse trovato contraddetto da suo padre e da sua madre, avrebbe pensato tanto più probabile di aver ragione. Se l’ultimo giornale della sera lo contraddicesse, potrebbe darsi la pena di indagare o di spiegare. Che la tradizione umana di duemila anni lo contraddicesse non lo turbava per un istante. Che Marx non fosse con lui era importante. Che l’Uomo non fosse con lui era un’irrilevante e preistorica burla. Si è parlato fin troppo dei paradossi di Bernard Shaw. Forse il suo unico puro paradosso è questo, quasi inconscio: che egli ha teso a pensare che, poiché qualcosa ha soddisfatto generazioni di uomini, esso dev’essere falso.
Shaw ha torto su quasi tutte le cose che si imparano presto nella vita e mentre si è ancora semplici. La maggior parte degli esseri umani parte da certi fatti di psicologia a cui il resto della vita deve in qualche modo riferirsi. Per esempio, ogni uomo cade in amore; e nessun uomo cade nel libero amore. Quando cade in quello lo chiama lussuria, e ne prova sempre vergogna anche quando se ne vanta. Che vi sia una qualche connessione fra un amore e un voto lo sa quasi ogni essere umano prima dei diciott’anni. Che vi sia una solida e istintiva connessione fra l’idea dell’estasi sessuale e l’idea di una sorta di costanza quasi suicida, questo, dico, è semplicemente il primo fatto della propria psicologia; ragazzi e ragazze lo sanno quasi prima di conoscere la propria lingua. Fino a che punto ci si possa fidare di ciò, come lo si possa meglio trattare, tutto questo è un’altra faccenda. Ma gli amanti bramano la costanza più della felicità; se in qualche senso siete disposti a dar loro ciò che chiedono, allora ciò che chiedono, al di là di ogni dubbio, è un giuramento di fedeltà definitiva. Gli amanti possono essere lunatici; gli amanti possono essere bambini; gli amanti possono essere inadatti alla cittadinanza e fuori d’ogni umano argomento; potete assumere quella posizione se volete. Ma gli amanti non desiderano solo l’amore; desiderano il matrimonio. La radice della monogamia legale non sta (come Shaw e i suoi amici asseriscono per sempre tediosamente) nel fatto che l’uomo sia un mero tiranno e la donna una mera schiava. Sta nel fatto che, se il loro amore reciproco è il più nobile e libero amore concepibile, esso può trovare la propria eroica espressione soltanto nel divenire entrambi schiavi. Menziono questa faccenda qui solo come una faccenda che la maggior parte di noi non ha bisogno che gli sia insegnata; poiché fu la prima lezione della vita. Negli anni successivi possiamo comporre sul sesso quel codice o compromesso che ci piaccia; ma tutti sappiamo che la costanza, la gelosia e l’impegno personale sono naturali e inevitabili nel sesso; non proviamo alcuna sorpresa quando li vediamo o in un delitto o in un biglietto di San Valentino. Possiamo o no vedere saggezza nei matrimoni precoci; ma sappiamo benissimo che ovunque la cosa sia autentica, gli amori precoci significheranno matrimoni precoci. Ma Shaw non aveva imparato su questa tragedia dei sessi ciò che le ballate rustiche di qualsiasi paese della terra gli avrebbero insegnato. Non aveva imparato, ciò che il buon senso universale ha messo in tutto il folk-lore della terra, che l’amore non può esser pensato chiaramente per un istante se non come monogamo. Le vecchie ballate inglesi non cantano mai le lodi degli «amanti». Cantano sempre le lodi dei «veri amanti», e questa è la filosofia definitiva della questione.
The same is true of Mr. Shaw’s refusal to understand the love of the land either in the form of patriotism or of private ownership. It is the attitude of an Irishman cut off from the soil of Ireland, retaining the audacity and even cynicism of the national type, but no longer fed from the roots with its pathos or its experience.
This broader and more brotherly rendering of convention must be applied particularly to the conventions of the drama; since that is necessarily the most democratic of all the arts. And it will be found generally that most of the theatrical conventions rest on a real artistic basis. The Greek Unities, for instance, were not proper objects of the meticulous and trivial imitation of Seneca or Gabriel Harvey. But still less were they the right objects for the equally trivial and far more vulgar impatience of men like Macaulay. That a tale should, if possible, be told of one place or one day or a manageable number of characters is an ideal plainly rooted in an aesthetic instinct. But if this be so with the classical drama, it is yet more certainly so with romantic drama, against the somewhat decayed dignity of which Bernard Shaw was largely in rebellion. There was one point in particular upon which the Ibsenites claimed to have reformed the romantic convention which is worthy of special allusion.
Shaw and all the other Ibsenites were fond of insisting that a defect in the romantic drama was its tendency to end with wedding-bells. Against this they set the modern drama of middle-age, the drama which described marriage itself instead of its poetic preliminaries. Now if Bernard Shaw had been more patient with popular tradition, more prone to think that there might be some sense in its survival, he might have seen this particular problem much more clearly. The old playwrights have left us plenty of plays of marriage and middle-age. OTHELLO is as much about what follows the wedding-bells as THE DOLL’S HOUSE. MACBETH is about a middle-aged couple as much as LITTLE EYOLF. But if we ask ourselves what is the real difference, we shall, I think, find that it can fairly be stated thus. The old tragedies of marriage, though not love stories, are like love stories in this, that they work up to some act or stroke which is irrevocable as marriage is irrevocable; to the fact of death or of adultery.
Now the reason why our fathers did not make marriage, in the middle-aged and static sense, the subject of their plays was a very simple one; it was that a play is a very bad place for discussing that topic. You cannot easily make a good drama out of the success or failure of a marriage, just as you could not make a good drama out of the growth of an oak tree or the decay of an empire. As Polonius very reasonably observed, it is too long. A happy love-affair will make a drama simply because it is dramatic; it depends on an ultimate yes or no. But a happy marriage is not dramatic; perhaps it would be less happy if it were. The essence of a romantic heroine is that she asks herself an intense question; but the essence of a sensible wife is that she is much too sensible to ask herself any questions at all. All the things that make monogamy a success are in their nature undramatic things, the silent growth of an instinctive confidence, the common wounds and victories, the accumulation of customs, the rich maturing of old jokes. Sane marriage is an untheatrical thing; it is therefore not surprising that most modern dramatists have devoted themselves to insane marriage.
To summarise; before touching the philosophy which Shaw has ultimately adopted, we must quit the notion that we know it already and that it is hit off in such journalistic terms as these three. Shaw does not wish to multiply problem plays or even problems. He has such scepticism as is the misfortune of his age; but he has this dignified and courageous quality, that he does not come to ask questions but to answer them. He is not a paradox-monger; he is a wild logician, far too simple even to be called a sophist. He understands everything in life except its paradoxes, especially that ultimate paradox that the very things that we cannot comprehend are the things that we have to take for granted. Lastly, he is not especially social or collectivist. On the contrary, he rather dislikes men in the mass, though he can appreciate them individually. He has no respect for collective humanity in its two great forms; either in that momentary form which we call a mob, or in that enduring form which we call a convention.
The general cosmic theory which can so far be traced through the earlier essays and plays of Bernard Shaw may be expressed in the image of Schopenhauer standing on his head. I cheerfully concede that Schopenhauer looks much nicer in that posture than in his original one, but I can hardly suppose that he feels more comfortable. The substance of the change is this. Roughly speaking, Schopenhauer maintained that life is unreasonable. The intellect, if it could be impartial, would tell us to cease; but a blind partiality, an instinct quite distinct from thought, drives us on to take desperate chances in an essentially bankrupt lottery. Shaw seems to accept this dingy estimate of the rational outlook, but adds a somewhat arresting comment. Schopenhauer had said, “Life is unreasonable; so much the worse for all living things.” Shaw said, “Life is unreasonable; so much the worse for reason.” Life is the higher call, life we must follow. It may be that there is some undetected fallacy in reason itself. Perhaps the whole man cannot get inside his own head any more than he can jump down his own throat. But there is about the need to live, to suffer, and to create that imperative quality which can truly be called supernatural, of whose voice it can indeed be said that it speaks with authority, and not as the scribes.
Lo stesso vale per il rifiuto del signor Shaw di comprendere l’amore della terra, sia nella forma del patriottismo sia in quella della proprietà privata. È l’atteggiamento di un Irlandese reciso dal suolo d’Irlanda, che conserva l’audacia e persino il cinismo del tipo nazionale, ma non è più nutrito dalle radici col suo pathos o la sua esperienza.
Questa più ampia e più fraterna resa della convenzione va applicata in particolare alle convenzioni del dramma; poiché quella è necessariamente la più democratica di tutte le arti. E si troverà in genere che la maggior parte delle convenzioni teatrali poggia su una reale base artistica. Le Unità greche, per esempio, non erano oggetti propri della meticolosa e triviale imitazione di Seneca o di Gabriel Harvey. Ma ancor meno erano i giusti oggetti dell’ugualmente triviale e assai più volgare impazienza di uomini come Macaulay. Che un racconto debba, se possibile, svolgersi in un solo luogo o in un solo giorno o con un numero governabile di personaggi è un ideale palesemente radicato in un istinto estetico. Ma se ciò vale per il dramma classico, vale ancor più certamente per il dramma romantico, contro la dignità alquanto decaduta del quale Bernard Shaw era in gran parte in rivolta. Vi era un punto in particolare su cui gli Ibseniani pretendevano d’aver riformato la convenzione romantica, che merita speciale menzione.
Shaw e tutti gli altri Ibseniani amavano insistere sul fatto che un difetto del dramma romantico era la sua tendenza a concludersi con campane nuziali. A ciò contrapponevano il moderno dramma della mezza età, il dramma che descriveva il matrimonio stesso invece dei suoi poetici preliminari. Ora, se Bernard Shaw fosse stato più paziente con la tradizione popolare, più incline a pensare che potesse esservi qualche senso nella sua sopravvivenza, avrebbe potuto vedere questo particolare problema assai più chiaramente. I vecchi drammaturghi ci hanno lasciato molti drammi di matrimonio e di mezza età. OTELLO riguarda ciò che segue le campane nuziali tanto quanto LA CASA DI BAMBOLA. MACBETH riguarda una coppia di mezza età tanto quanto LITTLE EYOLF. Ma se ci chiediamo quale sia la reale differenza, troveremo, io credo, che essa può equamente enunciarsi così. Le vecchie tragedie del matrimonio, benché non siano storie d’amore, somigliano alle storie d’amore in questo, che convergono verso qualche atto o colpo che è irrevocabile come è irrevocabile il matrimonio; verso il fatto della morte o dell’adulterio.
Ora, la ragione per cui i nostri padri non fecero del matrimonio, nel senso della mezza età e statico, il soggetto dei loro drammi era assai semplice: era che un dramma è un pessimo luogo per discutere quell’argomento. Non si può facilmente ricavare un buon dramma dal successo o dal fallimento di un matrimonio, così come non si potrebbe ricavare un buon dramma dalla crescita di una quercia o dal declino di un impero. Come Polonius assai ragionevolmente osservò, è troppo lungo. Un felice affare d’amore farà un dramma semplicemente perché è drammatico; dipende da un ultimo sì o no. Ma un felice matrimonio non è drammatico; forse sarebbe meno felice se lo fosse. L’essenza di un’eroina romantica è che si pone un’intensa domanda; ma l’essenza di una moglie assennata è che è troppo assennata per porsi domanda alcuna. Tutte le cose che fanno della monogamia un successo sono per loro natura cose non drammatiche, la silenziosa crescita di una fiducia istintiva, le ferite e le vittorie comuni, l’accumularsi delle abitudini, il ricco maturare dei vecchi scherzi. Il sano matrimonio è cosa non teatrale; non sorprende perciò che la maggior parte dei drammaturghi moderni si sia dedicata al matrimonio insano.
Per riassumere: prima di toccare la filosofia che Shaw ha in ultimo adottato, dobbiamo abbandonare la nozione di conoscerla già e che essa sia colta in termini giornalistici come questi tre. Shaw non desidera moltiplicare i drammi a tesi né tanto meno i problemi. Ha quello scetticismo che è la sventura della sua epoca; ma ha questa qualità dignitosa e coraggiosa, che non viene a porre domande ma a rispondervi. Non è un mercante di paradossi; è un selvaggio logico, troppo semplice persino per essere chiamato sofista. Comprende ogni cosa nella vita tranne i suoi paradossi, specialmente quell’ultimo paradosso che le cose stesse che non riusciamo a comprendere sono le cose che dobbiamo dare per scontate. Infine, non è particolarmente sociale o collettivista. Al contrario, egli piuttosto detesta gli uomini in massa, benché sappia apprezzarli individualmente. Non ha alcun rispetto per l’umanità collettiva nelle sue due grandi forme; né in quella momentanea che chiamiamo folla, né in quella duratura che chiamiamo convenzione.
La teoria cosmica generale che finora si può rintracciare attraverso i primi saggi e le prime commedie di Bernard Shaw può esprimersi nell’immagine di Schopenhauer che sta ritto sulla testa. Concedo di buon grado che Schopenhauer appaia assai più grazioso in quella postura che in quella originaria, ma stento a supporre che si senta più comodo. La sostanza del cambiamento è questa. Grosso modo, Schopenhauer sosteneva che la vita è irragionevole. L’intelletto, se potesse essere imparziale, ci direbbe di cessare; ma una cieca parzialità, un istinto affatto distinto dal pensiero, ci sospinge a correre rischi disperati in una lotteria essenzialmente in bancarotta. Shaw sembra accettare questa squallida stima della prospettiva razionale, ma aggiunge un commento alquanto sorprendente. Schopenhauer aveva detto: «La vita è irragionevole; tanto peggio per tutte le cose viventi.» Shaw disse: «La vita è irragionevole; tanto peggio per la ragione.» La vita è la chiamata più alta, la vita dobbiamo seguire. Può darsi che vi sia qualche fallacia non individuata nella ragione stessa. Forse l’uomo intero non può entrare nella propria testa più di quanto possa saltar giù nella propria gola. Ma vi è, riguardo alla necessità di vivere, di soffrire e di creare, quella qualità imperativa che può veramente dirsi Soprannaturale, della cui voce si può in verità dire che parla con autorità, e non come gli scribi.
This is the first and finest item of the original Bernard Shaw creed: that if reason says that life is irrational, life must be content to reply that reason is lifeless; life is the primary thing, and if reason impedes it, then reason must be trodden down into the mire amid the most abject superstitions. In the ordinary sense it would be specially absurd to suggest that Shaw desires man to be a mere animal. For that is always associated with lust or incontinence; and Shaw’s ideals are strict, hygienic, and even, one might say, old-maidish. But there is a mystical sense in which one may say literally that Shaw desires man to be an animal. That is, he desires him to cling first and last to life, to the spirit of animation, to the thing which is common to him and the birds and plants. Man should have the blind faith of a beast: he should be as mystically immutable as a cow, and as deaf to sophistries as a fish. Shaw does not wish him to be a philosopher or an artist; he does not even wish him to be a man, so much as he wishes him to be, in this holy sense, an animal. He must follow the flag of life as fiercely from conviction as all other creatures follow it from instinct.
But this Shavian worship of life is by no means lively. It has nothing in common either with the braver or the baser forms of what we commonly call optimism. It has none of the omnivorous exultation of Walt Whitman or the fiery pantheism of Shelley. Bernard Shaw wishes to show himself not so much as an optimist, but rather as a sort of faithful and contented pessimist. This contradiction is the key to nearly all his early and more obvious contradictions and to many which remain to the end. Whitman and many modern idealists have talked of taking even duty as a pleasure; it seems to me that Shaw takes even pleasure as a duty. In a queer way he seems to see existence as an illusion and yet as an obligation. To every man and woman, bird, beast, and flower, life is a love-call to be eagerly followed. To Bernard Shaw it is merely a military bugle to be obeyed. In short, he fails to feel that the command of Nature (if one must use the anthropomorphic fable of Nature instead of the philosophic term God) can be enjoyed as well as obeyed. He paints life at its darkest and then tells the babe unborn to take the leap in the dark. That is heroic; and to my instinct at least Schopenhauer looks like a pigmy beside his pupil. But it is the heroism of a morbid and almost asphyxiated age. It is awful to think that this world which so many poets have praised has even for a time been depicted as a man-trap into which we may just have the manhood to jump. Think of all those ages through which men have talked of having the courage to die. And then remember that we have actually fallen to talking about having the courage to live.
It is exactly this oddity or dilemma which may be said to culminate in the crowning work of his later and more constructive period, the work in which he certainly attempted, whether with success or not, to state his ultimate and cosmic vision; I mean the play called MAN AND SUPERMAN. In approaching this play we must keep well in mind the distinction recently drawn: that Shaw follows the banner of life, but austerely, not joyously. For him nature has authority, but hardly charm. But before we approach it it is necessary to deal with three things that lead up to it. First it is necessary to speak of what remained of his old critical and realistic method; and then it is necessary to speak of the two important influences which led up to his last and most important change of outlook.
First, since all our spiritual epochs overlap, and a man is often doing the old work while he is thinking of the new, we may deal first with what may be fairly called his last two plays of pure worldly criticism. These are MAJOR BARBARa and JOHN BULL’S OTHER ISLAND. Major Barbara indeed contains a strong religious element; but, when all is said, the whole point of the play is that the religious element is defeated. Moreover, the actual expressions of religion in the play are somewhat unsatisfactory as expressions of religion—or even of reason. I must frankly say that Bernard Shaw always seems to me to use the word God not only without any idea of what it means, but without one moment’s thought about what it could possibly mean. He said to some atheist, “Never believe in a God that you cannot improve on.” The atheist (being a sound theologian) naturally replied that one should not believe in a God whom one could improve on; as that would show that he was not God. In the same style in MAJOR BARBARa the heroine ends by suggesting that she will serve God without personal hope, so that she may owe nothing to God and He owe everything to her. It does not seem to strike her that if God owes everything to her He is not God. These things affect me merely as tedious perversions of a phrase. It is as if you said, “I will never have a father unless I have begotten him.”
But the real sting and substance of MAJOR BARBARA is much more practical and to the point. It expresses not the new spirituality but the old materialism of Bernard Shaw. Almost every one of Shaw’s plays is an expanded epigram. But the epigram is not expanded (as with most people) into a hundred commonplaces. Rather the epigram is expanded into a hundred other epigrams; the work is at least as brilliant in detail as it is in design. But it is generally possible to discover the original and pivotal epigram which is the centre and purpose of the play. It is generally possible, even amid that blinding jewellery of a million jokes, to discover the grave, solemn and sacred joke for which the play itself was written.
The ultimate epigram of MAJOR BARBARA can be put thus. People say that poverty is no crime; Shaw says that poverty is a crime; that it is a crime to endure it, a crime to be content with it, that it is the mother of all crimes of brutality, corruption, and fear. If a man says to Shaw that he is born of poor but honest parents, Shaw tells him that the very word “but” shows that his parents were probably dishonest. In short, he maintains here what he had maintained elsewhere: that what the people at this moment require is not more patriotism or more art or more religion or more morality or more sociology, but simply more money. The evil is not ignorance or decadence or sin or pessimism; the evil is poverty. The point of this particular drama is that even the noblest enthusiasm of the girl who becomes a Salvation Army officer fails under the brute money power of her father who is a modern capitalist. When I have said this it will be clear why this play, fine and full of bitter sincerity as it is, must in a manner be cleared out of the way before we come to talk of Shaw’s final and serious faith. For his serious faith is in the sanctity of human will, in the divine capacity for creation and choice rising higher than environment and doom; and so far as that goes, MAJOR BARBARa is not only apart from his faith but against his faith. MAJOR BARBARa is an account of environment victorious over heroic will. There are a thousand answers to the ethic in MAJOR BARBARa which I should be inclined to offer. I might point out that the rich do not so much buy honesty as curtains to cover dishonesty: that they do not so much buy health as cushions to comfort disease. And I might suggest that the doctrine that poverty degrades the poor is much more likely to be used as an argument for keeping them powerless than as an argument for making them rich. But there is no need to find such answers to the materialistic pessimism of MAJOR BARBARA. The best answer to it is in Shaw’s own best and crowning philosophy, with which we shall shortly be concerned.
Questo è il primo e più bello articolo del credo originario di Bernard Shaw: che se la ragione dice che la vita è irrazionale, la vita debba accontentarsi di replicare che la ragione è priva di vita; la vita è la cosa primaria, e se la ragione la ostacola, allora la ragione dev’essere calpestata nel fango tra le più abbiette superstizioni. Nel senso ordinario sarebbe particolarmente assurdo suggerire che Shaw desideri che l’uomo sia un mero animale. Poiché ciò è sempre associato alla lussuria o all’incontinenza; e gli ideali di Shaw sono rigorosi, igienici e persino, si potrebbe dire, da zitella. Ma vi è un senso mistico in cui si può dire letteralmente che Shaw desideri che l’uomo sia un animale. Vale a dire, egli desidera che si aggrappi in prima e in ultima istanza alla vita, allo spirito dell’animazione, a ciò che gli è comune con gli uccelli e le piante. L’uomo dovrebbe avere la cieca fede di una bestia: dovrebbe essere misticamente immutabile come una mucca, e sordo ai sofismi come un pesce. Shaw non desidera che egli sia un filosofo o un artista; non desidera nemmeno che sia un uomo, quanto piuttosto che sia, in questo senso sacro, un animale. Deve seguire la bandiera della vita con la stessa ferocia per convinzione con cui tutte le altre creature la seguono per istinto.
Ma questo culto shaviano della vita non è affatto vivace. Non ha nulla in comune né con le forme più coraggiose né con quelle più vili di ciò che comunemente chiamiamo ottimismo. Non ha nulla dell’esultanza onnivora di Walt Whitman o dell’infuocato panteismo di Shelley. Bernard Shaw desidera mostrarsi non tanto come un ottimista, quanto piuttosto come una sorta di pessimista fedele e appagato. Questa contraddizione è la chiave di quasi tutte le sue prime e più evidenti contraddizioni, e di molte che permangono fino alla fine. Whitman e molti idealisti moderni hanno parlato di prendere persino il dovere come un piacere; a me sembra che Shaw prenda persino il piacere come un dovere. In un modo bizzarro egli sembra vedere l’esistenza come un’illusione e tuttavia come un obbligo. Per ogni uomo e donna, uccello, bestia e fiore, la vita è un richiamo d’amore da seguire con ardore. Per Bernard Shaw è soltanto una tromba militare a cui obbedire. In breve, egli non riesce a sentire che il comando della Natura (se si deve usare l’antropomorfica favola della Natura invece del termine filosofico Dio) possa essere goduto oltre che obbedito. Egli dipinge la vita nel suo aspetto più tetro e poi dice al bimbo non nato di compiere il salto nel buio. Ciò è eroico; e al mio istinto almeno Schopenhauer appare un pigmeo accanto al suo allievo. Ma è l’eroismo di un’epoca morbosa e quasi asfissiata. È spaventoso pensare che questo mondo, che tanti poeti hanno lodato, sia stato anche solo per un tempo raffigurato come una trappola per uomini nella quale possiamo appena avere la virilità di saltare. Pensate a tutte quelle epoche nelle quali gli uomini hanno parlato di avere il coraggio di morire. E poi ricordate che siamo effettivamente scesi a parlare di avere il coraggio di vivere.
È esattamente questa stranezza o questo dilemma che si può dire culmini nell’opera che corona il suo periodo più tardo e più costruttivo, l’opera nella quale egli certamente tentò, con successo o meno, di enunciare la sua visione ultima e cosmica; intendo il dramma intitolato UOMO E SUPERUOMO. Nell’accostarci a questo dramma dobbiamo tenere bene a mente la distinzione tracciata poco fa: che Shaw segue la bandiera della vita, ma austeramente, non gioiosamente. Per lui la natura ha autorità, ma ben poco fascino. Ma prima di accostarci ad esso è necessario trattare tre cose che vi conducono. Anzitutto è necessario parlare di ciò che rimase del suo vecchio metodo critico e realistico; e poi è necessario parlare delle due importanti influenze che condussero al suo ultimo e più importante mutamento di prospettiva.
Anzitutto, poiché tutte le nostre epoche spirituali si sovrappongono, e un uomo compie spesso l’opera vecchia mentre pensa a quella nuova, possiamo trattare per primi quelli che si possono ben chiamare i suoi ultimi due drammi di pura critica mondana. Sono MAGGIORE BARBARA e L’ALTRA ISOLA DI JOHN BULL. Maggiore Barbara contiene invero un forte elemento religioso; ma, a dirla tutta, il punto centrale del dramma è che l’elemento religioso viene sconfitto. Inoltre, le effettive espressioni di religione nel dramma sono alquanto insoddisfacenti come espressioni di religione—o persino di ragione. Devo francamente dire che Bernard Shaw mi sembra sempre usare la parola Dio non solo senza alcuna idea di ciò che essa significhi, ma senza un solo istante di riflessione su ciò che essa potrebbe mai significare. Disse a un certo ateo: «Non credete mai in un Dio che non possiate migliorare». L’ateo (essendo un solido teologo) replicò naturalmente che non si dovrebbe credere in un Dio che si potesse migliorare; giacché ciò mostrerebbe che egli non era Dio. Nello stesso stile, in MAGGIORE BARBARA l’eroina finisce col suggerire che servirà Dio senza speranza personale, così da non dovere nulla a Dio ed Egli dovere tutto a lei. Non sembra colpirla il fatto che, se Dio deve tutto a lei, allora Egli non è Dio. Queste cose mi toccano soltanto come tediose perversioni di una frase. È come se diceste: «Non avrò mai un padre a meno che non l’abbia generato io».
Ma il vero pungiglione e la vera sostanza di MAGGIORE BARBARA sono assai più pratici e pertinenti. Essa esprime non la nuova spiritualità ma il vecchio materialismo di Bernard Shaw. Quasi ogni dramma di Shaw è un epigramma dilatato. Ma l’epigramma non viene dilatato (come nella maggior parte delle persone) in cento luoghi comuni. Piuttosto l’epigramma viene dilatato in cento altri epigrammi; l’opera è brillante nei dettagli almeno quanto lo è nell’impianto. Ma è generalmente possibile scoprire l’epigramma originario e cardine che è il centro e lo scopo del dramma. È generalmente possibile, persino in mezzo a quell’accecante gioielleria di un milione di battute, scoprire la grave, solenne e sacra battuta per la quale il dramma stesso fu scritto.
L’epigramma ultimo di MAGGIORE BARBARA si può formulare così. La gente dice che la povertà non è un delitto; Shaw dice che la povertà è un delitto; che è un delitto sopportarla, un delitto accontentarsene, che essa è la madre di tutti i delitti di brutalità, corruzione e paura. Se un uomo dice a Shaw di essere nato da genitori poveri ma onesti, Shaw gli fa notare che la parola stessa «ma» mostra che i suoi genitori erano probabilmente disonesti. In breve, egli sostiene qui ciò che aveva sostenuto altrove: che ciò di cui il popolo in questo momento ha bisogno non è più patriottismo o più arte o più religione o più moralità o più sociologia, ma semplicemente più denaro. Il male non è l’ignoranza o la decadenza o il peccato o il pessimismo; il male è la povertà. Il punto di questo particolare dramma è che persino il più nobile entusiasmo della ragazza che diventa ufficiale dell’Esercito della Salvezza soccombe sotto il bruto potere del denaro del padre, che è un capitalista moderno. Detto questo, sarà chiaro perché questo dramma, per quanto pregevole e colmo di amara sincerità, debba in un certo modo essere tolto di mezzo prima che veniamo a parlare della fede ultima e seria di Shaw. Poiché la sua fede seria è nella santità della volontà umana, nella divina capacità di creazione e scelta che si eleva più in alto dell’ambiente e del fato; e per quel che concerne ciò, MAGGIORE BARBARA non solo è estranea alla sua fede ma è contro la sua fede. MAGGIORE BARBARA è il resoconto dell’ambiente vittorioso sulla volontà eroica. Vi sono mille risposte all’etica di MAGGIORE BARBARA che sarei incline a offrire. Potrei far notare che i ricchi non comprano tanto l’onestà quanto tende per coprire la disonestà: che non comprano tanto la salute quanto cuscini per lenire la malattia. E potrei suggerire che la dottrina secondo cui la povertà degrada i poveri ha molte più probabilità di essere usata come argomento per mantenerli impotenti che come argomento per renderli ricchi. Ma non c’è bisogno di trovare simili risposte al pessimismo materialistico di MAGGIORE BARBARA. La risposta migliore ad esso si trova nella stessa filosofia migliore e culminante di Shaw, di cui ci occuperemo tra breve.
JOHN BULL’S OTHER ISLAND represents a realism somewhat more tinged with the later transcendentalism of its author. In one sense, of course, it is a satire on the conventional Englishman, who is never so silly or sentimental as when he sees silliness and sentiment in the Irishman. Broadbent, whose mind is all fog and his morals all gush, is firmly persuaded that he is bringing reason and order among the Irish, whereas in truth they are all smiling at his illusions with the critical detachment of so many devils. There have been many plays depicting the absurd Paddy in a ring of Anglo-Saxons; the first purpose of this play is to depict the absurd Anglo-Saxon in a ring of ironical Paddies. But it has a second and more subtle purpose, which is very finely contrived. It is suggested that when all is said and done there is in this preposterous Englishman a certain creative power which comes from his simplicity and optimism, from his profound resolution rather to live life than to criticise it. I know no finer dialogue of philosophical cross-purposes than that in which Broadbent boasts of his common-sense, and his subtler Irish friend mystifies him by telling him that he, Broadbent, has no common-sense, but only inspiration. The Irishman admits in Broadbent a certain unconscious spiritual force even in his very stupidity. Lord Rosebery coined the very clever phrase “a practical mystic.” Shaw is here maintaining that all practical men are practical mystics. And he is really maintaining also that the most practical of all the practical mystics is the one who is a fool.
There is something unexpected and fascinating about this reversal of the usual argument touching enterprise and the business man; this theory that success is created not by intelligence, but by a certain half-witted and yet magical instinct. For Bernard Shaw, apparently, the forests of factories and the mountains of money are not the creations of human wisdom or even of human cunning; they are rather manifestations of the sacred maxim which declares that God has chosen the foolish things of the earth to confound the wise. It is simplicity and even innocence that has made Manchester. As a philosophical fancy this is interesting or even suggestive; but it must be confessed that as a criticism of the relations of England to Ireland it is open to a strong historical objection. The one weak point in JOHN BULL’S OTHER ISLANd is that it turns on the fact that Broadbent succeeds in Ireland. But as a matter of fact Broadbent has not succeeded in Ireland. If getting what one wants is the test and fruit of this mysterious strength, then the Irish peasants are certainly much stronger than the English merchants; for in spite of all the efforts of the merchants, the land has remained a land of peasants. No glorification of the English practicality as if it were a universal thing can ever get over the fact that we have failed in dealing with the one white people in our power who were markedly unlike ourselves. And the kindness of Broadbent has failed just as much as his common-sense; because he was dealing with a people whose desire and ideal were different from his own. He did not share the Irish passion for small possession in land or for the more pathetic virtues of Christianity. In fact the kindness of Broadbent has failed for the same reason that the gigantic kindness of Shaw has failed. The roots are different; it is like tying the tops of two trees together. Briefly, the philosophy of JOHN BULL’S OTHER ISLAND is quite effective and satisfactory except for this incurable fault: the fact that John Bull’s other island is not John Bull’s.
This clearing off of his last critical plays we may classify as the first of the three facts which lead up to MAN AND SUPERMAN. The second of the three facts may be found, I think, in Shaw’s discovery of Nietzsche. This eloquent sophist has an influence upon Shaw and his school which it would require a separate book adequately to study. By descent Nietzsche was a Pole, and probably a Polish noble; and to say that he was a Polish noble is to say that he was a frail, fastidious, and entirely useless anarchist. He had a wonderful poetic wit; and is one of the best rhetoricians of the modern world. He had a remarkable power of saying things that master the reason for a moment by their gigantic unreasonableness; as, for instance, “Your life is intolerable without immortality; but why should not your life be intolerable?” His whole work is shot through with the pangs and fevers of his physical life, which was one of extreme bad health; and in early middle age his brilliant brain broke down into impotence and darkness. All that was true in his teaching was this: that if a man looks fine on a horse it is so far irrelevant to tell him that he would be more economical on a donkey or more humane on a tricycle. In other words, the mere achievement of dignity, beauty, or triumph is strictly to be called a good thing. I do not know if Nietzsche ever used the illustration; but it seems to me that all that is creditable or sound in Nietzsche could be stated in the derivation of one word, the word “valour.” Valour means VALEUR; it means a value; courage is itself a solid good; it is an ultimate virtue; valour is in itself VALID. In so far as he maintained this Nietzsche was only taking part in that great Protestant game of see-saw which has been the amusement of northern Europe since the sixteenth century. Nietzsche imagined he was rebelling against ancient morality; as a matter of fact he was only rebelling against recent morality, against the half-baked impudence of the utilitarians and the materialists. He thought he was rebelling against Christianity; curiously enough he was rebelling solely against the special enemies of Christianity, against Herbert Spencer and Mr. Edward Clodd. Historic Christianity has always believed in the valour of St. Michael riding in front of the Church Militant; and in an ultimate and absolute pleasure, not indirect or utilitarian, the intoxication of the spirit, the wine of the blood of God.
JOHN BULL’S OTHER ISLAND rappresenta un realismo in qualche modo più venato del più tardo trascendentalismo del suo autore. In un senso, naturalmente, è una satira contro l’inglese convenzionale, che non è mai tanto sciocco o sentimentale come quando scorge sciocchezza e sentimento nell’irlandese. Broadbent, la cui mente è tutta nebbia e la cui morale è tutta effusione, è fermamente persuaso di portare ragione e ordine fra gli irlandesi, mentre in verità essi sorridono tutti delle sue illusioni con il distacco critico di altrettanti diavoli. Vi sono state molte commedie che raffiguravano l’assurdo Paddy in un cerchio di anglosassoni; il primo scopo di questa commedia è raffigurare l’assurdo anglosassone in un cerchio di ironici Paddy. Ma ha un secondo e più sottile scopo, congegnato con grande finezza. Si suggerisce che, tutto sommato, vi sia in questo assurdo inglese una certa potenza creatrice che nasce dalla sua semplicità e dal suo ottimismo, dalla sua profonda risoluzione a vivere la vita piuttosto che a criticarla. Non conosco dialogo più bello di equivoci filosofici di quello in cui Broadbent si vanta del proprio buon senso, e il suo più sottile amico irlandese lo sconcerta dicendogli che egli, Broadbent, non ha alcun buon senso, ma soltanto ispirazione. L’irlandese riconosce in Broadbent una certa inconscia forza spirituale perfino nella sua stessa stupidità. Lord Rosebery coniò la frase assai arguta di «mistico pratico». Shaw qui sostiene che tutti gli uomini pratici sono mistici pratici. E in realtà sostiene anche che il più pratico di tutti i mistici pratici è colui che è uno sciocco.
C’è qualcosa di inaspettato e affascinante in questo capovolgimento del consueto argomento riguardo all’impresa e a l’uomo d’affari; questa teoria secondo cui il successo è creato non dall’intelligenza, ma da un certo istinto scemo e tuttavia magico. Per Bernard Shaw, a quanto pare, le foreste di fabbriche e le montagne di denaro non sono creazioni della saggezza umana né della scaltrezza umana; sono piuttosto manifestazioni della sacra massima che dichiara come Dio abbia scelto le cose stolte della terra per confondere i sapienti. È la semplicità e perfino l’innocenza che ha fatto Manchester. Come fantasia filosofica ciò è interessante o perfino suggestivo; ma va confessato che come critica dei rapporti dell’Inghilterra con l’Irlanda si presta a una forte obiezione storica. L’unico punto debole di JOHN BULL’S OTHER ISLAND è che ruota attorno al fatto che Broadbent riesce in Irlanda. Ma in realtà Broadbent non è riuscito in Irlanda. Se ottenere ciò che si vuole è la prova e il frutto di questa misteriosa forza, allora i contadini irlandesi sono certamente assai più forti dei mercanti inglesi; poiché, malgrado tutti gli sforzi dei mercanti, la terra è rimasta una terra di contadini. Nessuna glorificazione della praticità inglese come se fosse una cosa universale potrà mai superare il fatto che abbiamo fallito nel trattare con l’unico popolo bianco in nostro potere che fosse spiccatamente diverso da noi. E la bontà di Broadbent è fallita tanto quanto il suo buon senso; perché aveva a che fare con un popolo il cui desiderio e il cui ideale erano diversi dai suoi. Non condivideva la passione irlandese per il piccolo possesso della terra né per le più patetiche virtù del Cristianesimo. Di fatto la bontà di Broadbent è fallita per la stessa ragione per cui è fallita la gigantesca bontà di Shaw. Le radici sono diverse; è come legare insieme le cime di due alberi. In breve, la filosofia di JOHN BULL’S OTHER ISLAND è del tutto efficace e soddisfacente tranne che per questo difetto incurabile: il fatto che l’altra isola di John Bull non è di John Bull.
Questo sgombrare del campo dalle sue ultime commedie critiche possiamo classificarlo come il primo dei tre fatti che conducono a MAN AND SUPERMAN. Il secondo dei tre fatti si può trovare, credo, nella scoperta di Nietzsche da parte di Shaw. Questo eloquente sofista ha su Shaw e sulla sua scuola un’influenza che richiederebbe un libro a parte per essere studiata adeguatamente. Per discendenza Nietzsche era un polacco, e probabilmente un nobile polacco; e dire che era un nobile polacco è dire che era un anarchico fragile, schizzinoso e del tutto inutile. Aveva un meraviglioso spirito poetico; ed è uno dei migliori retori del mondo moderno. Aveva una notevole capacità di dire cose che soggiogano la ragione per un istante con la loro gigantesca irragionevolezza; come, per esempio: «La tua vita è intollerabile senza l’immortalità; ma perché la tua vita non dovrebbe essere intollerabile?». Tutta la sua opera è trapassata dalle fitte e dalle febbri della sua vita fisica, che fu di pessima salute; e nella prima maturità il suo brillante cervello crollò nell’impotenza e nelle tenebre. Tutto ciò che vi era di vero nel suo insegnamento era questo: che se un uomo fa bella figura su un cavallo è del tutto irrilevante dirgli che sarebbe più economico su un asino o più umano su un triciclo. In altre parole, il semplice conseguimento di dignità, bellezza o trionfo deve rigorosamente essere chiamato una cosa buona. Non so se Nietzsche abbia mai usato questa immagine; ma mi sembra che tutto ciò che vi è di lodevole o di sano in Nietzsche potrebbe esprimersi nella derivazione di una sola parola, la parola «valore». Valore vuol dire VALEUR; significa un valore; il coraggio è di per sé un bene solido; è una virtù ultima; il valore è in sé VALIDO. Nella misura in cui sosteneva questo, Nietzsche non faceva che prendere parte a quel grande gioco protestante dell’altalena che è stato il divertimento dell’Europa settentrionale fin dal Cinquecento. Nietzsche immaginava di ribellarsi contro l’antica morale; in realtà si ribellava soltanto contro la morale recente, contro la sventata impudenza degli utilitaristi e dei materialisti. Credeva di ribellarsi contro il Cristianesimo; ma, cosa abbastanza curiosa, si ribellava unicamente contro i nemici particolari del Cristianesimo, contro Herbert Spencer e il signor Edward Clodd. Il Cristianesimo storico ha sempre creduto nel valore di San Michele che cavalca alla testa della Chiesa Militante; e in un piacere ultimo e assoluto, non indiretto né utilitario, l’ebbrezza dello spirito, il vino del sangue di Dio.
There are indeed doctrines of Nietzsche that are not Christian, but then, by an entertaining coincidence, they are also not true. His hatred of pity is not Christian, but that was not his doctrine but his disease. Invalids are often hard on invalids. And there is another doctrine of his that is not Christianity, and also (by the same laughable accident) not common-sense; and it is a most pathetic circumstance that this was the one doctrine which caught the eye of Shaw and captured him. He was not influenced at all by the morbid attack on mercy. It would require more than ten thousand mad Polish professors to make Bernard Shaw anything but a generous and compassionate man. But it is certainly a nuisance that the one Nietzsche doctrine which attracted him was not the one Nietzsche doctrine that is human and rectifying. Nietzsche might really have done some good if he had taught Bernard Shaw to draw the sword, to drink wine, or even to dance. But he only succeeded in putting into his head a new superstition, which bids fair to be the chief superstition of the dark ages which are possibly in front of us— I mean the superstition of what is called the Superman.
In one of his least convincing phrases, Nietzsche had said that just as the ape ultimately produced the man, so should we ultimately produce something higher than the man. The immediate answer, of course, is sufficiently obvious: the ape did not worry about the man, so why should we worry about the Superman? If the Superman will come by natural selection, may we leave it to natural selection? If the Superman will come by human selection, what sort of Superman are we to select? If he is simply to be more just, more brave, or more merciful, then Zarathustra sinks into a Sunday-school teacher; the only way we can work for it is to be more just, more brave, and more merciful; sensible advice, but hardly startling. If he is to be anything else than this, why should we desire him, or what else are we to desire? These questions have been many times asked of the Nietzscheites, and none of the Nietzscheites have even attempted to answer them.
The keen intellect of Bernard Shaw would, I think, certainly have seen through this fallacy and verbiage had it not been that another important event about this time came to the help of Nietzsche and established the Superman on his pedestal. It is the third of the things which I have called stepping-stones to MAN AND SUPERMAN, and it is very important. It is nothing less than the break-down of one of the three intellectual supports upon which Bernard Shaw had reposed through all his confident career. At the beginning of this book I have described the three ultimate supports of Shaw as the Irishman, the Puritan, and the Progressive. They are the three legs of the tripod upon which the prophet sat to give the oracle; and one of them broke. Just about this time suddenly, by a mere shaft of illumination, Bernard Shaw ceased to believe in progress altogether.
It is generally implied that it was reading Plato that did it. That philosopher was very well qualified to convey the first shock of the ancient civilisation to Shaw, who had always thought instinctively of civilisation as modern. This is not due merely to the daring splendour of the speculations and the vivid picture of Athenian life, it is due also to something analogous in the personalities of that particular ancient Greek and this particular modern Irishman. Bernard Shaw has much affinity to Plato—in his instinctive elevation of temper, his courageous pursuit of ideas as far as they will go, his civic idealism; and also, it must be confessed, in his dislike of poets and a touch of delicate inhumanity. But whatever influence produced the change, the change had all the dramatic suddenness and completeness which belongs to the conversions of great men. It had been perpetually implied through all the earlier works not only that mankind is constantly improving, but that almost everything must be considered in the light of this fact. More than once he seemed to argue, in comparing the dramatists of the sixteenth with those of the nineteenth century, that the latter had a definite advantage merely because they were of the nineteenth century and not of the sixteenth. When accused of impertinence towards the greatest of the Elizabethans, Bernard Shaw had said, “Shakespeare is a much taller man than I. but I stand on his shoulders”—an epigram which sums up this doctrine with characteristic neatness. But Shaw fell off Shakespeare’s shoulders with a crash. This chronological theory that Shaw stood on Shakespeare’s shoulders logically involved the supposition that Shakespeare stood on Plato’s shoulders. And Bernard Shaw found Plato from his point of view so much more advanced than Shakespeare that he decided in desperation that all three were equal.
Such failure as has partially attended the idea of human equality is very largely due to the fact that no party in the modern state has heartily believed in it. Tories and Radicals have both assumed that one set of men were in essentials superior to mankind. The only difference was that the Tory superiority was a superiority of place; while the Radical superiority is a superiority of time. The great objection to Shaw being on Shakespeare’s shoulders is a consideration for the sensations and personal dignity of Shakespeare. It is a democratic objection to anyone being on anyone else’s shoulders. Eternal human nature refuses to submit to a man who rules merely by right of birth. To rule by right of century is to rule by right of birth. Shaw found his nearest kinsman in remote Athens, his remotest enemies in the closest historical proximity; and he began to see the enormous average and the vast level of mankind. If progress swung constantly between such extremes it could not be progress at all. The paradox was sharp but undeniable; if life had such continual ups and downs, it was upon the whole flat. With characteristic sincerity and love of sensation he had no sooner seen this than he hastened to declare it. In the teeth of all his previous pronouncements he emphasised and re-emphasised in print that man had not progressed at all; that ninety-nine hundredths of a man in a cave were the same as ninety-nine hundredths of a man in a suburban villa.
Vi sono in effetti dottrine di Nietzsche che non sono cristiane, ma allora, per una divertente coincidenza, non sono neppure vere. Il suo odio per la pietà non è cristiano, ma quella non era la sua dottrina bensì la sua malattia. Gli infermi sono spesso duri con gli infermi. E c’è un’altra sua dottrina che non è cristianesimo, e neppure (per lo stesso ridicolo accidente) buon senso; ed è una circostanza quanto mai patetica che sia stata proprio questa la dottrina che colpì l’occhio di Shaw e lo conquistò. Egli non fu affatto influenzato dal morboso attacco alla misericordia. Ci vorrebbero più di diecimila folli professori polacchi per fare di Bernard Shaw qualcosa di diverso da un uomo generoso e compassionevole. Ma è certo una seccatura che l’unica dottrina nietzschiana che lo attrasse non fosse l’unica dottrina nietzschiana che è umana e correttiva. Nietzsche avrebbe potuto davvero fare del bene se avesse insegnato a Bernard Shaw a sguainare la spada, a bere vino, o anche a danzare. Ma riuscì soltanto a mettergli in testa una nuova superstizione, che promette di essere la superstizione principale dei secoli bui che forse ci stanno davanti: intendo la superstizione di ciò che viene chiamato il Superuomo.
In una delle sue frasi meno convincenti, Nietzsche aveva detto che, come la scimmia alla fine produsse l’uomo, così noi dovremmo alla fine produrre qualcosa di più alto dell’uomo. La risposta immediata, naturalmente, è abbastanza ovvia: la scimmia non si preoccupò dell’uomo, dunque perché noi dovremmo preoccuparci del Superuomo? Se il Superuomo verrà per selezione naturale, non possiamo lasciarlo alla selezione naturale? Se il Superuomo verrà per selezione umana, che sorta di Superuomo dovremo selezionare? Se dev’essere semplicemente più giusto, più coraggioso, o più misericordioso, allora Zarathustra scade a maestro di scuola domenicale; l’unico modo in cui possiamo lavorare per lui è essere più giusti, più coraggiosi, e più misericordiosi; consiglio sensato, ma poco sorprendente. Se dev’essere qualcosa di diverso da questo, perché dovremmo desiderarlo, o che altro dovremmo desiderare? Queste domande sono state poste molte volte ai nietzscheani, e nessuno dei nietzscheani ha mai neppure tentato di rispondervi.
Il penetrante intelletto di Bernard Shaw avrebbe, credo, certamente visto attraverso questa fallacia e questa verbosità, se non fosse stato che un altro importante evento intorno a questo tempo venne in aiuto di Nietzsche e collocò il Superuomo sul suo piedistallo. È la terza delle cose che ho chiamato pietre miliari verso UOMO E SUPERUOMO, ed è molto importante. Non è nulla di meno che il crollo di uno dei tre sostegni intellettuali su cui Bernard Shaw aveva riposato per tutta la sua sicura carriera. All’inizio di questo libro ho descritto i tre sostegni ultimi di Shaw come l’irlandese, il puritano e il progressista. Sono le tre gambe del tripode su cui il profeta sedeva per rendere l’oracolo; e una di esse si spezzò. Proprio intorno a questo tempo, improvvisamente, per un mero lampo di illuminazione, Bernard Shaw cessò di credere del tutto nel progresso.
Si sottintende generalmente che fu la lettura di Platone a produrre l’effetto. Quel filosofo era assai bene qualificato per trasmettere il primo urto dell’antica civiltà a Shaw, che aveva sempre pensato istintivamente alla civiltà come a qualcosa di moderno. Ciò non è dovuto soltanto all’audace splendore delle speculazioni e al vivido quadro della vita ateniese, ma anche a qualcosa di analogo nelle personalità di quel particolare antico greco e di questo particolare irlandese moderno. Bernard Shaw ha molta affinità con Platone: nella sua istintiva elevazione di temperamento, nel suo coraggioso perseguire le idee fin dove esse vogliono spingersi, nel suo idealismo civico; e anche, va confessato, nella sua avversione per i poeti e in un tocco di delicata disumanità. Ma qualunque influenza abbia prodotto il cambiamento, esso ebbe tutta la drammatica subitaneità e completezza che appartengono alle conversioni dei grandi uomini. Attraverso tutte le opere precedenti si era continuamente sottinteso non soltanto che il genere umano migliora costantemente, ma che quasi tutto va considerato alla luce di questo fatto. Più di una volta egli parve argomentare, confrontando i drammaturghi del Cinquecento con quelli dell’Ottocento, che questi ultimi avessero un preciso vantaggio semplicemente perché appartenevano all’Ottocento e non al Cinquecento. Quando fu accusato di impertinenza verso il più grande degli elisabettiani, Bernard Shaw aveva detto: «Shakespeare è un uomo molto più alto di me, ma io sto sulle sue spalle»: un epigramma che riassume questa dottrina con caratteristica precisione. Ma Shaw cadde dalle spalle di Shakespeare con un tonfo. Questa teoria cronologica secondo cui Shaw stava sulle spalle di Shakespeare implicava logicamente la supposizione che Shakespeare stesse sulle spalle di Platone. E Bernard Shaw trovò Platone, dal suo punto di vista, tanto più avanzato di Shakespeare che decise per disperazione che tutti e tre fossero uguali.
L’insuccesso che ha parzialmente accompagnato l’idea dell’uguaglianza umana è dovuto in larga misura al fatto che nessun partito nello Stato moderno vi ha creduto di cuore. Tories e Radicali hanno entrambi supposto che un certo gruppo di uomini fosse essenzialmente superiore al genere umano. L’unica differenza era che la superiorità dei Tories era una superiorità di luogo, mentre la superiorità dei Radicali è una superiorità di tempo. La grande obiezione a che Shaw stia sulle spalle di Shakespeare è un riguardo per le sensazioni e la dignità personale di Shakespeare. È un’obiezione democratica a che chiunque stia sulle spalle di chiunque altro. L’eterna natura umana rifiuta di sottomettersi a un uomo che governa per mero diritto di nascita. Governare per diritto di secolo è governare per diritto di nascita. Shaw trovò il suo parente più prossimo nella remota Atene, i suoi nemici più remoti nella più stretta prossimità storica; e cominciò a vedere l’enorme media e il vasto livello del genere umano. Se il progresso oscillava costantemente tra tali estremi, non poteva affatto essere progresso. Il paradosso era acuto ma innegabile: se la vita aveva simili continui alti e bassi, era nel complesso piatta. Con caratteristica sincerità e amore per la sensazione, non appena ebbe visto questo si affrettò a dichiararlo. A dispetto di tutte le sue precedenti affermazioni, sottolineò e ribadì in stampa che l’uomo non aveva affatto progredito; che novantanove centesimi di un uomo in una caverna erano gli stessi di novantanove centesimi di un uomo in una villa suburbana.
It is characteristic of him to say that he rushed into print with a frank confession of the failure of his old theory. But it is also characteristic of him that he rushed into print also with a new alternative theory, quite as definite, quite as confident, and, if one may put it so, quite as infallible as the old one. Progress had never happened hitherto, because it had been sought solely through education. Education was rubbish. “Fancy,” said he, “trying to produce a greyhound or a racehorse by education!” The man of the future must not be taught; he must be bred. This notion of producing superior human beings by the methods of the stud-farm had often been urged, though its difficulties had never been cleared up. I mean its practical difficulties; its moral difficulties, or rather impossibilities, for any animal fit to be called a man need scarcely be discussed. But even as a scheme it had never been made clear. The first and most obvious objection to it of course is this: that if you are to breed men as pigs, you require some overseer who is as much more subtle than a man as a man is more subtle than a pig. Such an individual is not easy to find.
It was, however, in the heat of these three things, the decline of his merely destructive realism, the discovery of Nietzsche, and the abandonment of the idea of a progressive education of mankind, that he attempted what is not necessarily his best, but certainly his most important work. The two things are by no means necessarily the same. The most important work of Milton is PARADISE LOST; his best work is LYCIDAS. There are other places in which Shaw’s argument is more fascinating or his wit more startling than in MAN AND SUPERMAN; there are other plays that he has made more brilliant. But I am sure that there is no other play that he wished to make more brilliant. I will not say that he is in this case more serious than elsewhere; for the word serious is a double-meaning and double-dealing word, a traitor in the dictionary. It sometimes means solemn, and it sometimes means sincere. A very short experience of private and public life will be enough to prove that the most solemn people are generally the most insincere. A somewhat more delicate and detailed consideration will show also that the most sincere men are generally not solemn; and of these is Bernard Shaw. But if we use the word serious in the old and Latin sense of the word “grave,” which means weighty or valid, full of substance, then we may say without any hesitation that this is the most serious play of the most serious man alive.
The outline of the play is, I suppose, by this time sufficiently well known. It has two main philosophic motives. The first is that what he calls the life-force (the old infidels called it Nature, which seems a neater word, and nobody knows the meaning of either of them) desires above all things to make suitable marriages, to produce a purer and prouder race, or eventually to produce a Superman. The second is that in this effecting of racial marriages the woman is a more conscious agent than the man. In short, that woman disposes a long time before man proposes. In this play, therefore, woman is made the pursuer and man the pursued. It cannot be denied, I think, that in this matter Shaw is handicapped by his habitual hardness of touch, by his lack of sympathy with the romance of which he writes, and to a certain extent even by his own integrity and right conscience. Whether the man hunts the woman or the woman the man, at least it should be a splendid pagan hunt; but Shaw is not a sporting man. Nor is he a pagan, but a Puritan. He cannot recover the impartiality of paganism which allowed Diana to propose to Endymion without thinking any the worse of her. The result is that while he makes Anne, the woman who marries his hero, a really powerful and convincing woman, he can only do it by making her a highly objectionable woman. She is a liar and a bully, not from sudden fear or excruciating dilemma; she is a liar and a bully in grain; she has no truth or magnanimity in her. The more we know that she is real, the more we know that she is vile. In short, Bernard Shaw is still haunted with his old impotence of the unromantic writer; he cannot imagine the main motives of human life from the inside. We are convinced successfully that Anne wishes to marry Tanner, but in the very process we lose all power of conceiving why Tanner should ever consent to marry Anne. A writer with a more romantic strain in him might have imagined a woman choosing her lover without shamelessness and magnetising him without fraud. Even if the first movement were feminine, it need hardly be a movement like this. In truth, of course, the two sexes have their two methods of attraction, and in some of the happiest cases they are almost simultaneous. But even on the most cynical showing they need not be mixed up. It is one thing to say that the mousetrap is not there by accident. It is another to say (in the face of ocular experience) that the mousetrap runs after the mouse.
But whenever Shaw shows the Puritan hardness or even the Puritan cheapness, he shows something also of the Puritan nobility, of the idea that sacrifice is really a frivolity in the face of a great purpose. The reasonableness of Calvin and his followers will by the mercy of heaven be at last washed away; but their unreasonableness will remain an eternal splendour. Long after we have let drop the fancy that Protestantism was rational it will be its glory that it was fanatical. So it is with Shaw. To make Anne a real woman, even a dangerous woman, he would need to be something stranger and softer than Bernard Shaw. But though I always argue with him whenever he argues, I confess that he always conquers me in the one or two moments when he is emotional.
È caratteristico di lui il precipitarsi in stampa con una franca confessione del fallimento della sua vecchia teoria. Ma è anche caratteristico di lui il precipitarsi in stampa anche con una nuova teoria alternativa, altrettanto precisa, altrettanto sicura, e, se così si può dire, altrettanto infallibile della vecchia. Il progresso non era mai avvenuto finora, perché era stato cercato unicamente attraverso l’educazione. L’educazione era spazzatura. «Figuratevi», diceva, «cercare di produrre un levriero o un cavallo da corsa con l’educazione!» L’uomo del futuro non dev’essere istruito; dev’essere allevato. Questa nozione di produrre esseri umani superiori con i metodi dell’allevamento era stata spesso perorata, sebbene le sue difficoltà non fossero mai state chiarite. Intendo le sue difficoltà pratiche; le sue difficoltà morali, o piuttosto impossibilità, per qualsiasi animale degno di essere chiamato uomo, non hanno quasi bisogno di essere discusse. Ma anche come semplice progetto non era mai stata resa chiara. La prima e più ovvia obiezione ad essa è naturalmente questa: che se si vogliono allevare gli uomini come i maiali, occorre un sorvegliante che sia tanto più sottile di un uomo quanto un uomo è più sottile di un maiale. Un simile individuo non è facile da trovare.
Fu tuttavia nella foga di queste tre cose — il declino del suo realismo meramente distruttivo, la scoperta di Nietzsche, e l’abbandono dell’idea di un’educazione progressiva del genere umano — che egli tentò quella che non è necessariamente la sua opera migliore, ma certamente la sua opera più importante. Le due cose non sono affatto necessariamente le stesse. L’opera più importante di Milton è IL PARADISO PERDUTO; la sua opera migliore è LYCIDAS. Vi sono altri luoghi in cui l’argomentazione di Shaw è più affascinante o il suo spirito più sorprendente che in UOMO E SUPERUOMO; vi sono altre commedie che egli ha reso più brillanti. Ma sono certo che non c’è altra commedia che egli abbia desiderato rendere più brillante. Non dirò che in questo caso egli sia più serio che altrove; poiché la parola serio ha un doppio significato ed è parola dal doppio gioco, una traditrice nel dizionario. Talvolta significa solenne, e talvolta significa sincero. Una brevissima esperienza della vita privata e pubblica basterà a provare che le persone più solenni sono generalmente le più insincere. Una considerazione un po’ più delicata e dettagliata mostrerà anche che gli uomini più sinceri non sono generalmente solenni; e tra questi è Bernard Shaw. Ma se usiamo la parola serio nel vecchio senso latino della parola «grave», che significa pesante o valido, pieno di sostanza, allora possiamo dire senza alcuna esitazione che questa è la più seria commedia del più serio uomo vivente.
Il tracciato della commedia è, suppongo, a quest’ora sufficientemente ben noto. Ha due principali motivi filosofici. Il primo è che ciò che egli chiama la forza vitale (i vecchi infedeli la chiamavano Natura, che sembra parola più elegante, e nessuno conosce il significato dell’una né dell’altra) desidera sopra ogni cosa combinare matrimoni adatti, produrre una razza più pura e più fiera, o infine produrre un Superuomo. Il secondo è che in questo attuare i matrimoni razziali la donna è agente più consapevole dell’uomo. In breve, che la donna dispone molto tempo prima che l’uomo proponga. In questa commedia, dunque, la donna è fatta cacciatrice e l’uomo il cacciato. Non si può negare, credo, che in questa faccenda Shaw sia svantaggiato dalla sua abituale durezza di tocco, dalla sua mancanza di simpatia per il romanticismo di cui scrive, e in una certa misura persino dalla sua stessa integrità e dalla sua retta coscienza. Che l’uomo cacci la donna o la donna l’uomo, dovrebbe almeno essere una splendida caccia pagana; ma Shaw non è uomo da sport. Né è pagano, bensì puritano. Non può recuperare l’imparzialità del paganesimo che permetteva a Diana di proporsi a Endimione senza per questo pensarne peggio di lei. Il risultato è che, mentre fa di Anne, la donna che sposa il suo eroe, una donna davvero potente e convincente, egli può farlo soltanto rendendola una donna assai riprovevole. È una bugiarda e una prepotente, non per improvvisa paura o per lacerante dilemma; è una bugiarda e una prepotente fino al midollo; non ha in sé verità né magnanimità. Più sappiamo che è reale, più sappiamo che è vile. In breve, Bernard Shaw è ancora perseguitato dalla sua vecchia impotenza di scrittore non romantico; non riesce a immaginare dall’interno i moventi principali della vita umana. Siamo convinti con successo che Anne desidera sposare Tanner, ma nel procedimento stesso perdiamo ogni facoltà di concepire perché mai Tanner dovrebbe acconsentire a sposare Anne. Uno scrittore con una vena più romantica in sé avrebbe potuto immaginare una donna che sceglie il suo amante senza spudoratezza e lo magnetizza senza frode. Anche se il primo movimento fosse femminile, non avrebbe bisogno di essere un movimento come questo. In verità, naturalmente, i due sessi hanno i loro due metodi di attrazione, e in alcuni dei casi più felici sono quasi simultanei. Ma anche nella prospettiva più cinica non hanno bisogno di essere confusi. Una cosa è dire che la trappola per topi non è lì per caso. Altra cosa è dire (a dispetto dell’esperienza oculare) che la trappola per topi corre dietro al topo.
Ma ogniqualvolta Shaw mostra la durezza puritana o persino la meschinità puritana, mostra anche qualcosa della nobiltà puritana, dell’idea che il sacrificio sia davvero una frivolezza di fronte a un grande scopo. La ragionevolezza di Calvino e dei suoi seguaci sarà infine, per la misericordia del cielo, dilavata via; ma la loro irragionevolezza rimarrà un eterno splendore. Molto dopo che avremo lasciato cadere la fantasia che il protestantesimo fosse razionale, sarà sua gloria l’essere stato fanatico. Così è di Shaw. Per fare di Anne una donna reale, persino una donna pericolosa, egli avrebbe bisogno di essere qualcosa di più strano e di più tenero di Bernard Shaw. Ma per quanto io discuta sempre con lui ogniqualvolta egli argomenta, confesso che egli mi vince sempre in quell’uno o due istanti in cui è commosso.
There is one really noble moment when Anne offers for all her cynical husband-hunting the only defence that is really great enough to cover it. “It will not be all happiness for me. Perhaps death.” And the man rises also at that real crisis, saying, “Oh, that clutch holds and hurts. What have you grasped in me? Is there a father’s heart as well as a mother’s?” That seems to me actually great; I do not like either of the characters an atom more than formerly; but I can see shining and shaking through them at that instant the splendour of the God that made them and of the image of God who wrote their story.
A logician is like a liar in many respects, but chiefly in the fact that he should have a good memory. That cutting and inquisitive style which Bernard Shaw has always adopted carries with it an inevitable criticism. And it cannot be denied that this new theory of the supreme importance of sound sexual union, wrought by any means, is hard logically to reconcile with Shaw’s old diatribes against sentimentalism and operatic romance. If Nature wishes primarily to entrap us into sexual union, then all the means of sexual attraction, even the most maudlin or theatrical, are justified at one stroke. The guitar of the troubadour is as practical as the plough-share of the husbandman. The waltz in the ballroom is as serious as the debate in the parish council. The justification of Anne, as the potential mother of Superman, is really the justification of all the humbugs and sentimentalists whom Shaw had been denouncing as a dramatic critic and as a dramatist since the beginning of his career. It was to no purpose that the earlier Bernard Shaw said that romance was all moonshine. The moonshine that ripens love is now as practical as the sunshine that ripens corn. It was vain to say that sexual chivalry was all rot; it might be as rotten as manure—and also as fertile. It is vain to call first love a fiction; it may be as fictitious as the ink of the cuttle or the doubling of the hare; as fictitious, as efficient, and as indispensable. It is vain to call it a self-deception; Schopenhauer said that all existence was a self-deception; and Shaw’s only further comment seems to be that it is right to be deceived. To MAN AND SUPERMAN, as to all his plays, the author attaches a most fascinating preface at the beginning. But I really think that he ought also to attach a hearty apology at the end; an apology to all the minor dramatists or preposterous actors whom he had cursed for romanticism in his youth. Whenever he objected to an actress for ogling she might reasonably reply, “But this is how I support my friend Anne in her sublime evolutionary effort.” Whenever he laughed at an old-fashioned actor for ranting, the actor might answer, “My exaggeration is not more absurd than the tail of a peacock or the swagger of a cock; it is the way I preach the great fruitful lie of the life-force that I am a very fine fellow.” We have remarked the end of Shaw’s campaign in favour of progress. This ought really to have been the end of his campaign against romance. All the tricks of love that he called artificial become natural; because they become Nature. All the lies of love become truths; indeed they become the Truth.
The minor things of the play contain some thunderbolts of good thinking. Throughout this brief study I have deliberately not dwelt upon mere wit, because in anything of Shaw’s that may be taken for granted. It is enough to say that this play which is full of his most serious quality is as full as any of his minor sort of success. In a more solid sense two important facts stand out: the first is the character of the young American; the other is the character of Straker, the chauffeur. In these Shaw has realised and made vivid two most important facts. First, that America is not intellectually a go-ahead country, but both for good and evil an old-fashioned one. It is full of stale culture and ancestral simplicity, just as Shaw’s young millionaire quotes Macaulay and piously worships his wife. Second, he has pointed out in the character of Straker that there has arisen in our midst a new class that has education without breeding. Straker is the man who has ousted the hansom-cabman, having neither his coarseness nor his kindliness. Great sociological credit is due to the man who has first clearly observed that Straker has appeared. How anybody can profess for a moment to be glad that he has appeared, I do not attempt to conjecture.
Appended to the play is an entertaining though somewhat mysterious document called “The Revolutionist’s Handbook.” It contains many very sound remarks; this, for example, which I cannot too much applaud: “If you hit your child, be sure that you hit him in anger.” If that principle had been properly understood, we should have had less of Shaw’s sociological friends and their meddling with the habits and instincts of the poor. But among the fragments of advice also occurs the following suggestive and even alluring remark: “Every man over forty is a scoundrel.” On the first personal opportunity I asked the author of this remarkable axiom what it meant. I gathered that what it really meant was something like this: that every man over forty had been all the essential use that he was likely to be, and was therefore in a manner a parasite. It is gratifying to reflect that Bernard Shaw has sufficiently answered his own epigram by continuing to pour out treasures both of truth and folly long after this allotted time. But if the epigram might be interpreted in a rather looser style as meaning that past a certain point a man’s work takes on its final character and does not greatly change the nature of its merits, it may certainly be said that with MAN AND SUPERMAN, Shaw reaches that stage. The two plays that have followed it, though of very great interest in themselves, do not require any revaluation of, or indeed any addition to, our summary of his genius and success. They are both in a sense casts back to his primary energies; the first in a controversial and the second in a technical sense. Neither need prevent our saying that the moment when John Tanner and Anne agree that it is doom for him and death for her and life only for the thing unborn, is the peak of his utterance as a prophet.
C’è un momento davvero nobile quando Anne offre, per tutta la sua cinica caccia al marito, l’unica difesa che sia davvero abbastanza grande da coprirla. «Non sarà tutta felicità per me. Forse la morte.» E anche l’uomo si leva a quella vera crisi, dicendo: «Oh, quella stretta afferra e fa male. Che cosa hai ghermito in me? C’è un cuore di padre oltre che un cuore di madre?» Questo mi sembra davvero grande; non mi piace nessuno dei due personaggi un atomo più di prima; ma posso vedere brillare e tremare attraverso di essi, in quell’istante, lo splendore del Dio che li fece e dell’immagine di Dio che ne scrisse la storia.
Un logico è simile a un bugiardo sotto molti aspetti, ma soprattutto nel fatto che dovrebbe avere buona memoria. Quello stile tagliente e inquisitivo che Bernard Shaw ha sempre adottato porta con sé un’inevitabile critica. E non si può negare che questa nuova teoria della suprema importanza di una sana unione sessuale, realizzata con qualsiasi mezzo, sia logicamente difficile da conciliare con le vecchie diatribe di Shaw contro il sentimentalismo e il romanticismo d’opera. Se la Natura desidera principalmente irretirci nell’unione sessuale, allora tutti i mezzi di attrazione sessuale, anche i più svenevoli o teatrali, sono giustificati in un sol colpo. La chitarra del trovatore è pratica quanto il vomere dell’agricoltore. Il valzer nella sala da ballo è serio quanto il dibattito nel consiglio parrocchiale. La giustificazione di Anne, come potenziale madre del Superuomo, è in realtà la giustificazione di tutti gli imbroglioni e i sentimentali che Shaw aveva denunciato come critico teatrale e come drammaturgo fin dall’inizio della sua carriera. Fu inutile che il più antico Bernard Shaw dicesse che il romanticismo era tutta luce di luna. La luce di luna che matura l’amore è ora pratica quanto la luce del sole che matura il grano. Fu vano dire che la cavalleria sessuale era tutta fandonia; poteva essere marcia come il letame, e anche altrettanto fertile. È vano chiamare finzione il primo amore; può essere fittizio come l’inchiostro della seppia o le giravolte della lepre; altrettanto fittizio, altrettanto efficiente e altrettanto indispensabile. È vano chiamarlo un autoinganno; Schopenhauer diceva che tutta l’esistenza era un autoinganno; e l’unico ulteriore commento di Shaw sembra essere che è giusto essere ingannati. A UOMO E SUPERUOMO, come a tutte le sue commedie, l’autore appone all’inizio una prefazione quanto mai affascinante. Ma penso davvero che dovrebbe apporvi anche, alla fine, delle sentite scuse; delle scuse a tutti i drammaturghi minori o agli attori assurdi che aveva maledetto per il loro romanticismo nella sua giovinezza. Ogniqualvolta obiettava a un’attrice il fare gli occhi dolci, ella potrebbe ragionevolmente replicare: «Ma è così che sostengo la mia amica Anne nel suo sublime sforzo evolutivo.» Ogniqualvolta rideva di un attore all’antica per la sua declamazione, l’attore potrebbe rispondere: «La mia esagerazione non è più assurda della coda di un pavone o del pavoneggiarsi di un gallo; è il modo in cui predico la grande e feconda menzogna della forza vitale, cioè che sono un tipo davvero eccellente.» Abbiamo osservato la fine della campagna di Shaw a favore del progresso. Questa avrebbe dovuto davvero essere la fine della sua campagna contro il romanticismo. Tutti i trucchi dell’amore che egli chiamava artificiali divengono naturali; perché divengono Natura. Tutte le menzogne dell’amore divengono verità; anzi, divengono la Verità.
Le cose minori della commedia contengono alcune folgori di buon pensiero. In tutto questo breve studio ho deliberatamente evitato di soffermarmi sul mero spirito, perché in qualsiasi cosa di Shaw esso può darsi per scontato. Basti dire che questa commedia, che è piena della sua qualità più seria, è piena quanto qualsiasi altra del suo genere minore di successo. In un senso più solido spiccano due fatti importanti: il primo è il carattere del giovane americano; l’altro è il carattere di Straker, l’autista. In questi Shaw ha colto e reso vividi due fatti importantissimi. Primo, che l’America non è intellettualmente un paese all’avanguardia, ma, nel bene e nel male, un paese all’antica. È piena di cultura stantia e di semplicità ancestrale, proprio come il giovane milionario di Shaw cita Macaulay e adora piamente sua moglie. Secondo, egli ha additato nel carattere di Straker che è sorta in mezzo a noi una nuova classe che ha educazione senza allevamento. Straker è l’uomo che ha soppiantato il vetturino della carrozza, non avendo né la sua rozzezza né la sua bonarietà. Grande merito sociologico spetta all’uomo che per primo ha chiaramente osservato che Straker è apparso. Come si possa per un momento professare di rallegrarsi che sia apparso, non tento di congetturare.
Alla commedia è annesso un documento divertente sebbene alquanto misterioso, intitolato «Il Manuale del Rivoluzionario». Contiene molte osservazioni assai sensate; questa, per esempio, che non posso applaudire abbastanza: «Se colpisci il tuo figlio, assicurati di colpirlo con ira.» Se questo principio fosse stato debitamente compreso, avremmo avuto meno amici sociologi di Shaw e delle loro intromissioni nelle abitudini e negli istinti dei poveri. Ma tra i frammenti di consiglio ricorre anche la seguente osservazione suggestiva e persino allettante: «Ogni uomo oltre i quaranta è un mascalzone.» Alla prima occasione personale chiesi all’autore di questo notevole assioma che cosa significasse. Compresi che ciò che davvero significava era qualcosa di simile a questo: che ogni uomo oltre i quaranta era già stato tutto l’uso essenziale che verosimilmente sarebbe stato, ed era perciò in un certo modo un parassita. È gratificante riflettere che Bernard Shaw ha sufficientemente risposto al proprio epigramma continuando a riversare tesori tanto di verità quanto di follia molto tempo dopo questo termine assegnato. Ma se l’epigramma potesse essere interpretato in uno stile un po’ più libero, come a significare che oltre un certo punto l’opera di un uomo assume il suo carattere definitivo e non muta granché la natura dei suoi pregi, si può certamente dire che con UOMO E SUPERUOMO Shaw raggiunge quello stadio. Le due commedie che l’hanno seguito, sebbene di grandissimo interesse in se stesse, non richiedono alcuna rivalutazione, né in verità alcuna aggiunta, al nostro compendio del suo genio e del suo successo. Sono entrambe, in un certo senso, un ritorno alle sue energie primarie; la prima in senso polemico e la seconda in senso tecnico. Nessuna delle due deve impedirci di dire che il momento in cui John Tanner e Anne convengono che è condanna per lui e morte per lei, e vita soltanto per la cosa non ancora nata, è il vertice della sua parola di profeta.
The two important plays that he has since given us are THE DOCTOR’S DILEMMa and GETTING MARRIED. The first is as regards its most amusing and effective elements a throw-back to his old game of guying the men of science. It was a very good game, and he was an admirable player. The actual story of the DOCTOR’S DILEMMa itself seems to me less poignant and important than the things with which Shaw had lately been dealing. First of all, as has been said, Shaw has neither the kind of justice nor the kind of weakness that goes to make a true problem. We cannot feel the Doctor’s Dilemma, because we cannot really fancy Bernard Shaw being in a dilemma. His mind is both fond of abruptness and fond of finality; he always makes up his mind when he knows the facts and sometimes before. Moreover, this particular problem (though Shaw is certainly, as we shall see, nearer to pure doubt about it than about anything else) does not strike the critic as being such an exasperating problem after all. An artist of vast power and promise, who is also a scamp of vast profligacy and treachery, has a chance of life if specially treated for a special disease. The modern doctors (and even the modern dramatist) are in doubt whether he should be specially favoured because he is aesthetically important or specially disregarded because he is ethically anti-social. They see-saw between the two despicable modern doctrines, one that geniuses should be worshipped like idols and the other that criminals should be merely wiped out like germs. That both clever men and bad men ought to be treated like men does not seem to occur to them. As a matter of fact, in these affairs of life and death one never does think of such distinctions. Nobody does shout out at sea, “Bad citizen over-board!” I should recommend the doctor in his dilemma to do exactly what I am sure any decent doctor would do without any dilemma at all: to treat the man simply as a man, and give him no more and no less favour than he would to anybody else. In short, I am sure a practical physician would drop all these visionary, unworkable modern dreams about type and criminology and go back to the plain business-like facts of the French Revolution and the Rights of Man.
The other play, GETTING MARRIED, is a point in Shaw’s career, but only as a play, not, as usual, as a heresy. It is nothing but a conversation about marriage and one cannot agree or disagree with the view of marriage, because all views are given which are held by anybody, and some (I should think) which are held by nobody. But its technical quality is of some importance in the life of its author. It is worth consideration as a play, because it is not a play at all. It marks the culmination and completeness of that victory of Bernard Shaw over the British public, or rather over their official representatives, of which I have spoken. Shaw had fought a long fight with business men, those incredible people, who assured him that it was useless to have wit without murders, and that a good joke, which is the most popular thing everywhere else, was quite unsalable in the theatrical world. In spite of this he had conquered by his wit and his good dialogue; and by the time of which we now speak he was victorious and secure. All his plays were being produced as a matter of course in England and as a matter of the fiercest fashion and enthusiasm in America and Germany. No one who knows the nature of the man will doubt that under such circumstances his first act would be to produce his wit naked and unashamed. He had been told that he could not support a slight play by mere dialogue. He therefore promptly produced mere dialogue without the slightest play for it to support. Getting Married is no more a play than Cicero’s dialogue DE AMICTIâ, and not half so much a play as Wilson’s NOCTES AMBROSIANAE. But though it is not a play, it was played, and played successfully. Everyone who went into the theatre felt that he was only eavesdropping at an accidental conversation. But the conversation was so sparkling and sensible that he went on eavesdropping. This, I think, as it is the final play of Shaw, is also, and fitly, his final triumph. He is a good dramatist and sometimes even a great dramatist. But the occasions when we get glimpses of him as really a great man are on these occasions when he is utterly undramatic.
From first to last Bernard Shaw has been nothing but a conversationalist. It is not a slur to say so; Socrates was one, and even Christ Himself. He differs from that divine and that human prototype in the fact that, like most modern people, he does to some extent talk in order to find out what he thinks; whereas they knew it beforehand. But he has the virtues that go with the talkative man; one of which is humility. You will hardly ever find a really proud man talkative; he is afraid of talking too much. Bernard Shaw offered himself to the world with only one great qualification, that he could talk honestly and well. He did not speak; he talked to a crowd. He did not write; he talked to a typewriter. He did not really construct a play; he talked through ten mouths or masks instead of through one. His literary power and progress began in casual conversations— and it seems to me supremely right that it should end in one great and casual conversation. His last play is nothing but garrulous talking, that great thing called gossip. And I am happy to say that the play has been as efficient and successful as talk and gossip have always been among the children of men.
Of his life in these later years I have made no pretence of telling even the little that there is to tell. Those who regard him as a mere self-advertising egotist may be surprised to hear that there is perhaps no man of whose private life less could be positively said by an outsider. Even those who know him can make little but a conjecture of what has lain behind this splendid stretch of intellectual self-expression; I only make my conjecture like the rest. I think that the first great turning-point in Shaw’s life (after the early things of which I have spoken, the taint of drink in the teetotal home, or the first fight with poverty) was the deadly illness which fell upon him, at the end of his first flashing career as a Saturday Reviewer. I know it would goad Shaw to madness to suggest that sickness could have softened him. That is why I suggest it. But I say for his comfort that I think it hardened him also; if that can be called hardening which is only the strengthening of our souls to meet some dreadful reality. At least it is certain that the larger spiritual ambitions, the desire to find a faith and found a church, come after that time. I also mention it because there is hardly anything else to mention; his life is singularly free from landmarks, while his literature is so oddly full of surprises. His marriage to Miss Payne-Townsend, which occurred not long after his illness, was one of those quite successful things which are utterly silent. The placidity of his married life may be sufficiently indicated by saying that (as far as I can make out) the most important events in it were rows about the Executive of the Fabian Society. If such ripples do not express a still and lake-like life, I do not know what would. Honestly, the only thing in his later career that can be called an event is the stand made by Shaw at the Fabians against the sudden assault of Mr. H. G. Wells, which, after scenes of splendid exasperations, ended in Wells’ resignation. There was another slight ruffling of the calm when Bernard Shaw said some quite sensible things about Sir Henry Irving. But on the whole we confront the composure of one who has come into his own.
Le due importanti commedie che ci ha dato da allora sono IL DILEMMA DEL DOTTORE e SPOSARSI. La prima è, per quanto riguarda i suoi elementi più divertenti ed efficaci, un ritorno al suo vecchio gioco di prendersi gioco degli uomini di scienza. Era un ottimo gioco, ed egli era un giocatore ammirevole. La vicenda stessa del DILEMMA DEL DOTTORE mi sembra meno struggente e importante delle cose di cui Shaw si era occupato di recente. Anzitutto, come si è detto, Shaw non ha né quel genere di giustizia né quel genere di debolezza che occorrono a comporre un vero problema. Non riusciamo a sentire il Dilemma del Dottore, perché non riusciamo davvero a immaginare Bernard Shaw alle prese con un dilemma. La sua mente ama insieme la bruschezza e la finalità; si decide sempre quando conosce i fatti, e talvolta prima. Inoltre questo particolare problema (per quanto Shaw sia certamente, come vedremo, più vicino al puro dubbio su di esso che su qualsiasi altra cosa) non colpisce il critico come un problema poi così esasperante. Un artista di vasto potere e di vaste promesse, che è anche un mascalzone di vasta dissolutezza e slealtà, ha una possibilità di vita se trattato in modo speciale per una speciale malattia. I dottori moderni (e persino il drammaturgo moderno) sono in dubbio se egli debba essere specialmente favorito perché è esteticamente importante, oppure specialmente trascurato perché è eticamente antisociale. Oscillano tra le due spregevoli dottrine moderne: l’una che i geni vadano adorati come idoli, e l’altra che i criminali vadano semplicemente eliminati come germi. Che tanto gli uomini ingegnosi quanto gli uomini malvagi debbano essere trattati come uomini non sembra venir loro in mente. In realtà, in queste faccende di vita e di morte non si pensa mai a simili distinzioni. Nessuno grida in mare: «Cattivo cittadino a mare!» Raccomanderei al dottore, nel suo dilemma, di fare esattamente ciò che sono certo qualsiasi dottore dabbene farebbe senza alcun dilemma: trattare l’uomo semplicemente come un uomo, e non concedergli né più né meno favore di quanto ne concederebbe a chiunque altro. In breve, sono certo che un medico pratico lascerebbe cadere tutti questi visionari e impraticabili sogni moderni sul tipo e sulla criminologia, e tornerebbe ai semplici fatti concreti della Rivoluzione Francese e dei Diritti dell’Uomo.
L’altra commedia, SPOSARSI, è un punto notevole nella carriera di Shaw, ma solo come commedia, non, come al solito, come eresia. Non è nient’altro che una conversazione sul matrimonio, e non ci si può trovare d’accordo o in disaccordo con la sua visione del matrimonio, perché vi sono esposte tutte le vedute che chiunque sostenga, e alcune (a mio avviso) che nessuno sostiene. Ma la sua qualità tecnica è di una certa importanza nella vita del suo autore. Merita considerazione come commedia, perché non è affatto una commedia. Segna il culmine e il compimento di quella vittoria di Bernard Shaw sul pubblico britannico, o piuttosto sui suoi rappresentanti ufficiali, di cui ho parlato. Shaw aveva combattuto una lunga lotta con gli uomini d’affari, quella gente incredibile, che gli assicurava che era inutile avere spirito senza omicidi, e che una buona battuta, che è la cosa più popolare dappertutto altrove, era del tutto invendibile nel mondo del teatro. Nonostante ciò egli aveva conquistato col suo spirito e col suo buon dialogo; e al tempo di cui ora parliamo era vittorioso e sicuro. Tutte le sue commedie venivano rappresentate come cosa ovvia in Inghilterra e come cosa della moda e dell’entusiasmo più accesi in America e in Germania. Nessuno che conosca la natura dell’uomo dubiterà che in tali circostanze il suo primo atto sarebbe stato produrre il suo spirito nudo e senza vergogna. Gli era stato detto che non poteva sostenere una commedia esile col mero dialogo. Egli produsse pertanto prontamente il mero dialogo senza la benché minima commedia da sostenere. Sposarsi non è più una commedia del dialogo di Cicerone DE AMICTIâ, e nemmeno per metà tanto una commedia quanto le NOCTES AMBROSIANAE di Wilson. Ma sebbene non sia una commedia, fu rappresentata, e rappresentata con successo. Chiunque entrasse in teatro sentiva di stare soltanto origliando una conversazione casuale. Ma la conversazione era così scintillante e sensata che egli continuava a origliare. Questa, credo, essendo la commedia finale di Shaw, è anche, e a ragione, il suo trionfo finale. Egli è un buon drammaturgo e talvolta persino un grande drammaturgo. Ma le occasioni in cui lo intravediamo davvero come un grande uomo sono queste occasioni in cui è del tutto non drammatico.
Dal principio alla fine Bernard Shaw non è stato altro che un conversatore. Non è un’offesa dirlo; Socrate lo fu, e persino Cristo stesso. Egli differisce da quel prototipo divino e da quello umano nel fatto che, come la maggior parte delle persone moderne, parla in una certa misura per scoprire ciò che pensa; mentre essi lo sapevano in anticipo. Ma egli ha le virtù che accompagnano l’uomo loquace; una delle quali è l’umiltà. Difficilmente troverete un uomo davvero orgoglioso che sia loquace; egli ha paura di parlare troppo. Bernard Shaw si offrì al mondo con una sola grande qualifica, cioè che sapeva parlare onestamente e bene. Egli non arringava; parlava a una folla. Non scriveva; parlava a una macchina da scrivere. Non costruiva davvero una commedia; parlava attraverso dieci bocche o maschere invece che attraverso una. Il suo potere e il suo progresso letterario cominciarono in conversazioni casuali, e mi sembra supremamente giusto che dovessero finire in una grande e casuale conversazione. La sua ultima commedia non è nient’altro che garrulo chiacchierare, quella grande cosa chiamata pettegolezzo. E sono felice di dire che la commedia è stata efficiente e riuscita quanto la chiacchiera e il pettegolezzo lo sono sempre stati tra i figli degli uomini.
Della sua vita in questi anni più tardi non ho preteso di raccontare neppure il poco che c’è da raccontare. Coloro che lo considerano un mero egotista in cerca di autopubblicità potrebbero sorprendersi nell’udire che forse non c’è uomo della cui vita privata un estraneo potrebbe dire positivamente meno. Persino coloro che lo conoscono possono fare poco più di una congettura su ciò che è stato dietro questa splendida distesa di autoespressione intellettuale; io non faccio che la mia congettura come tutti gli altri. Penso che la prima grande svolta nella vita di Shaw (dopo le prime cose di cui ho parlato, la macchia dell’alcool nella casa astemia, o la prima lotta con la povertà) sia stata la mortale malattia che lo colpì, al termine della sua prima folgorante carriera come recensore del Saturday Review. So che spingerebbe Shaw alla follia suggerire che la malattia possa averlo addolcito. È per questo che lo suggerisco. Ma dico, a sua consolazione, che credo l’abbia anche indurito; se può chiamarsi indurimento ciò che è solo il rafforzarsi delle nostre anime per affrontare qualche terribile realtà. Almeno è certo che le più grandi ambizioni spirituali, il desiderio di trovare una fede e di fondare una chiesa, vengono dopo quel tempo. Lo menziono anche perché non c’è quasi nient’altro da menzionare; la sua vita è singolarmente priva di punti di riferimento, mentre la sua letteratura è così stranamente piena di sorprese. Il suo matrimonio con la signorina Payne-Townsend, avvenuto non molto dopo la sua malattia, fu una di quelle cose del tutto riuscite che sono completamente silenziose. La placidità della sua vita coniugale può essere sufficientemente indicata dicendo che (per quanto riesco a capire) gli eventi più importanti in essa furono litigi sull’Esecutivo della Fabian Society. Se simili increspature non esprimono una vita ferma e lacustre, non so che cosa lo farebbe. Onestamente, l’unica cosa nella sua carriera più tarda che possa chiamarsi un evento è la resistenza opposta da Shaw tra i Fabiani all’improvviso assalto del signor H. G. Wells, che, dopo scene di splendide esasperazioni, terminò con le dimissioni di Wells. Ci fu un altro leggero increspamento della calma quando Bernard Shaw disse alcune cose assai sensate su Sir Henry Irving. Ma nel complesso ci troviamo di fronte alla compostezza di chi è entrato in possesso di ciò che gli spetta.
The method of his life has remained mostly unchanged. And there is a great deal of method in his life; I can hear some people murmuring something about method in his madness. He is not only neat and business-like; but, unlike some literary men I know, does not conceal the fact. Having all the talents proper to an author, he delights to prove that he has also all the talents proper to a publisher; or even to a publisher’s clerk. Though many looking at his light brown clothes would call him a Bohemian, he really hates and despises Bohemianism; in the sense that he hates and despises disorder and uncleanness and irresponsibility. All that part of him is peculiarly normal and efficient. He gives good advice; he always answers letters, and answers them in a decisive and very legible hand. He has said himself that the only educational art that he thinks important is that of being able to jump off tram-cars at the proper moment. Though a rigid vegetarian, he is quite regular and rational in his meals; and though he detests sport, he takes quite sufficient exercise. While he has always made a mock of science in theory, he is by nature prone to meddle with it in practice. He is fond of photographing, and even more fond of being photographed. He maintained (in one of his moments of mad modernity) that photography was a finer thing than portrait-painting, more exquisite and more imaginative; he urged the characteristic argument that none of his own photographs were like each other or like him. But he would certainly wash the chemicals off his hands the instant after an experiment; just as he would wash the blood off his hands the instant after a Socialist massacre. He cannot endure stains or accretions; he is of that temperament which feels tradition itself to be a coat of dust; whose temptation it is to feel nothing but a sort of foul accumulation or living disease even in the creeper upon the cottage or the moss upon the grave. So thoroughly are his tastes those of the civilised modern man that if it had not been for the fire in him of justice and anger he might have been the most trim and modern among the millions whom he shocks: and his bicycle and brown hat have been no menace in Brixton. But God sent among those suburbans one who was a prophet as well as a sanitary inspector. He had every qualification for living in a villa—except the necessary indifference to his brethren living in pigsties. But for the small fact that he hates with a sickening hatred the hypocrisy and class cruelty, he would really accept and admire the bathroom and the bicycle and asbestos-stove, having no memory of rivers or of roaring fires. In these things, like Mr. Straker, he is the New Man. But for his great soul he might have accepted modern civilisation; it was a wonderful escape. This man whom men so foolishly call crazy and anarchic has really a dangerous affinity to the fourth-rate perfections of our provincial and Protestant civilisation. He might even have been respectable if he had had less self-respect.
His fulfilled fame and this tone of repose and reason in his life, together with the large circle of his private kindness and the regard of his fellow-artists, should permit us to end the record in a tone of almost patriarchal quiet. If I wished to complete such a picture I could add many touches: that he has consented to wear evening dress; that he has supported the TIMES Book Club; and that his beard has turned grey; the last to his regret, as he wanted it to remain red till they had completed colour-photography. He can mix with the most conservative statesmen; his tone grows continuously more gentle in the matter of religion. It would be easy to end with the lion lying down with the lamb, the wild Irishman tamed or taming everybody, Shaw reconciled to the British public as the British public is certainly largely reconciled to Shaw.
But as I put these last papers together, having finished this rude study, I hear a piece of news. His latest play, The Showing Up of Blanco Posnet, has been forbidden by the Censor. As far as I can discover, it has been forbidden because one of the characters professes a belief in God and states his conviction that God has got him. This is wholesome; this is like one crack of thunder in a clear sky. Not so easily does the prince of this world forgive. Shaw’s religious training and instinct is not mine, but in all honest religion there is something that is hateful to the prosperous compromise of our time. You are free in our time to say that God does not exist; you are free to say that He exists and is evil; you are free to say (like poor old Renan) that He would like to exist if He could. You may talk of God as a metaphor or a mystification; you may water Him down with gallons of long words, or boil Him to the rags of metaphysics; and it is not merely that nobody punishes, but nobody protests. But if you speak of God as a fact, as a thing like a tiger, as a reason for changing one’s conduct, then the modern world will stop you somehow if it can. We are long past talking about whether an unbeliever should be punished for being irreverent. It is now thought irreverent to be a believer. I end where I began: it is the old Puritan in Shaw that jars the modern world like an electric shock. That vision with which I meant to end, that vision of culture and common-sense, of red brick and brown flannel, of the modern clerk broadened enough to embrace Shaw and Shaw softened enough to embrace the clerk, all that vision of a new London begins to fade and alter. The red brick begins to burn red-hot; and the smoke from all the chimneys has a strange smell. I find myself back in the fumes in which I started… . Perhaps I have been misled by small modernities. Perhaps what I have called fastidiousness is a divine fear. Perhaps what I have called coldness is a predestinate and ancient endurance. The vision of the Fabian villas grows fainter and fainter, until I see only a void place across which runs Bunyan’s Pilgrim with his fingers in his ears.
Il metodo della sua vita è rimasto per lo più immutato. E c’è un gran metodo nella sua vita; posso udire alcuni mormorare qualcosa a proposito di metodo nella sua follia. Egli non è soltanto ordinato e sbrigativo negli affari; ma, a differenza di certi letterati che conosco, non lo nasconde. Avendo tutti i talenti propri di un autore, si diletta a provare di avere anche tutti i talenti propri di un editore; o persino di un commesso d’editore. Sebbene molti, guardando i suoi abiti marrone chiaro, lo chiamerebbero un bohémien, egli in realtà odia e disprezza il bohémianismo; nel senso che odia e disprezza il disordine, la sudiceria e l’irresponsabilità. Tutta quella parte di lui è particolarmente normale ed efficiente. Dà buoni consigli; risponde sempre alle lettere, e vi risponde con mano decisa e assai leggibile. Ha detto egli stesso che l’unica arte educativa che ritiene importante è quella di saper saltare giù dai tram al momento opportuno. Sebbene rigido vegetariano, è del tutto regolare e razionale nei suoi pasti; e sebbene detesti lo sport, prende esercizio del tutto sufficiente. Mentre ha sempre fatto beffe della scienza in teoria, è per natura incline a immischiarvisi in pratica. Ama fotografare, e ancor più ama essere fotografato. Sosteneva (in uno dei suoi momenti di folle modernità) che la fotografia fosse cosa più raffinata della ritrattistica, più squisita e più fantasiosa; adduceva l’argomento caratteristico che nessuna delle sue proprie fotografie somigliava alle altre né a lui. Ma certamente si laverebbe le sostanze chimiche dalle mani l’istante dopo un esperimento; proprio come si laverebbe il sangue dalle mani l’istante dopo un massacro socialista. Non sopporta le macchie o le incrostazioni; è di quel temperamento che sente la tradizione stessa come uno strato di polvere; la cui tentazione è di non sentire altro che una sorta di lurida sedimentazione o di viva malattia persino nel rampicante sul cottage o nel muschio sulla tomba. A tal punto i suoi gusti sono quelli dell’uomo moderno civilizzato che, se non fosse stato per il fuoco di giustizia e di ira che è in lui, egli avrebbe potuto essere il più lindo e moderno tra i milioni che scandalizza: e la sua bicicletta e il suo cappello marrone non sono stati una minaccia a Brixton. Ma Dio mandò tra quei suburbani uno che era un profeta oltre che un ispettore sanitario. Egli aveva ogni qualifica per vivere in una villa, tranne la necessaria indifferenza verso i suoi fratelli che vivono in porcili. Ma per il piccolo fatto che odia con odio nauseante l’ipocrisia e la crudeltà di classe, egli accetterebbe e ammirerebbe davvero il bagno, la bicicletta e la stufa d’amianto, non avendo alcuna memoria di fiumi o di fuochi ruggenti. In queste cose, come il signor Straker, egli è l’Uomo Nuovo. Ma se non fosse per la sua grande anima avrebbe potuto accettare la civiltà moderna; fu una meravigliosa scampata. Quest’uomo che gli uomini così scioccamente chiamano folle e anarchico ha in realtà una pericolosa affinità con le perfezioni di quart’ordine della nostra civiltà provinciale e protestante. Avrebbe potuto persino essere rispettabile se avesse avuto meno rispetto di sé.
La sua fama compiuta e questo tono di riposo e ragione nella sua vita, insieme all’ampio cerchio della sua bontà privata e alla stima dei suoi colleghi artisti, dovrebbero permetterci di chiudere il resoconto in un tono di quiete quasi patriarcale. Se volessi completare un simile quadro potrei aggiungere molti tocchi: che ha acconsentito a indossare l’abito da sera; che ha sostenuto il TIMES Book Club; e che la sua barba è ingrigita; l’ultima cosa con suo rammarico, poiché voleva che restasse rossa finché non avessero perfezionato la fotografia a colori. Egli può frequentare gli statisti più conservatori; il suo tono si fa continuamente più mite in materia di religione. Sarebbe facile terminare col leone che si sdraia accanto all’agnello, l’irlandese selvaggio addomesticato o che addomestica tutti, Shaw riconciliato col pubblico britannico come il pubblico britannico è certamente in gran parte riconciliato con Shaw.
Ma mentre metto insieme queste ultime carte, avendo terminato questo rozzo studio, odo una notizia. La sua ultima commedia, La Rivelazione di Blanco Posnet, è stata proibita dal Censore. Per quanto riesco a scoprire, è stata proibita perché uno dei personaggi professa una fede in Dio e afferma la sua convinzione che Dio l’abbia preso. Questo è salutare; è come un colpo di tuono in un cielo sereno. Non così facilmente il principe di questo mondo perdona. L’educazione e l’istinto religioso di Shaw non sono i miei, ma in ogni religione onesta c’è qualcosa che è odioso al prospero compromesso del nostro tempo. Nel nostro tempo siete liberi di dire che Dio non esiste; siete liberi di dire che esiste ed è malvagio; siete liberi di dire (come il povero vecchio Renan) che a Lui piacerebbe esistere, se potesse. Potete parlare di Dio come di una metafora o di una mistificazione; potete annacquarLo con galloni di paroloni, o farLo bollire fino a ridurLo a brandelli di metafisica; e non solo nessuno vi punisce, ma nessuno protesta. Ma se parlate di Dio come di un fatto, come di una cosa simile a una tigre, come di una ragione per mutare la propria condotta, allora il mondo moderno vi fermerà in qualche modo, se può. Siamo da lungo tempo oltre il discutere se un miscredente debba essere punito per l’irriverenza. Ora è ritenuto irriverente essere un credente. Finisco dove ho cominciato: è il vecchio puritano in Shaw che scuote il mondo moderno come una scossa elettrica. Quella visione con cui intendevo terminare, quella visione di cultura e di buon senso, di mattone rosso e di flanella marrone, del moderno impiegato abbastanza allargato da abbracciare Shaw e di Shaw abbastanza ammorbidito da abbracciare l’impiegato, tutta quella visione di una nuova Londra comincia a sbiadire e a mutare. Il mattone rosso comincia a bruciare rovente; e il fumo di tutti i camini ha uno strano odore. Mi ritrovo di nuovo tra i fumi da cui ero partito… . Forse sono stato tratto in inganno da piccole modernità. Forse ciò che ho chiamato schizzinosità è un divino timore. Forse ciò che ho chiamato freddezza è una predestinata e antica resistenza. La visione delle ville fabiane si fa sempre più fioca, finché non vedo che uno spazio vuoto attraverso il quale corre il Pellegrino di Bunyan con le dita nelle orecchie.
Bernard Shaw has occupied much of his life in trying to elude his followers. The fox has enthusiastic followers, and Shaw seems to regard his in much the same way. This man whom men accuse of bidding for applause seems to me to shrink even from assent. If you agree with Shaw he is very likely to contradict you; I have contradicted Shaw throughout, that is why I come at last almost to agree with him. His critics have accused him of vulgar self-advertisement; in his relation to his followers he seems to me rather marked with a sort of mad modesty. He seems to wish to fly from agreement, to have as few followers as possible. All this reaches back, I think, to the three roots from which this meditation grew. It is partly the mere impatience and irony of the Irishman. It is partly the thought of the Calvinist that the host of God should be thinned rather than thronged; that Gideon must reject soldiers rather than recruit them. And it is partly, alas, the unhappy Progressive trying to be in front of his own religion, trying to destroy his own idol and even to desecrate his own tomb. But from whatever causes, this furious escape from popularity has involved Shaw in some perversities and refinements which are almost mere insincerities, and which make it necessary to disentangle the good he has done from the evil in this dazzling course. I will attempt some summary by stating the three things in which his influence seems to me thoroughly good and the three in which it seems bad. But for the pleasure of ending on the finer note I will speak first of those that seem bad.
The primary respect in which Shaw has been a bad influence is that he has encouraged fastidiousness. He has made men dainty about their moral meals. This is indeed the root of his whole objection to romance. Many people have objected to romance for being too airy and exquisite. Shaw objects to romance for being too rank and coarse. Many have despised romance because it is unreal; Shaw really hates it because it is a great deal too real. Shaw dislikes romance as he dislikes beef and beer, raw brandy or raw beefsteaks. Romance is too masculine for his taste. You will find throughout his criticisms, amid all their truth, their wild justice or pungent impartiality, a curious undercurrent of prejudice upon one point: the preference for the refined rather than the rude or ugly. Thus he will dislike a joke because it is coarse without asking if it is really immoral. He objects to a man sitting down on his hat, whereas the austere moralist should only object to his sitting down on someone else’s hat. This sensibility is barren because it is universal. It is useless to object to man being made ridiculous. Man is born ridiculous, as can easily be seen if you look at him soon after he is born. It is grotesque to drink beer, but it is equally grotesque to drink soda-water; the grotesqueness lies in the act of filling yourself like a bottle through a hole. It is undignified to walk with a drunken stagger; but it is fairly undignified to walk at all, for all walking is a sort of balancing, and there is always in the human being something of a quadruped on its hind legs. I do not say he would be more dignified if he went on all fours; I do not know that he ever is dignified except when he is dead. We shall not be refined till we are refined into dust. Of course it is only because he is not wholly an animal that man sees he is a rum animal; and if man on his hind legs is in an artificial attitude, it is only because, like a dog, he is begging or saying thank you.
Everything important is in that sense absurd from the grave baby to the grinning skull; everything practical is a practical joke. But throughout Shaw’s comedies, curiously enough, there is a certain kicking against this great doom of laughter. For instance, it is the first duty of a man who is in love to make a fool of himself; but Shaw’s heroes always seem to flinch from this, and attempt, in airy, philosophic revenge, to make a fool of the woman first. The attempts of Valentine and Charteris to divide their perceptions from their desires, and tell the woman she is worthless even while trying to win her, are sometimes almost torturing to watch; it is like seeing a man trying to play a different tune with each hand. I fancy this agony is not only in the spectator, but in the dramatist as well. It is Bernard Shaw struggling with his reluctance to do anything so ridiculous as make a proposal. For there are two types of great humorist: those who love to see a man absurd and those who hate to see him absurd. Of the first kind are Rabelais and Dickens; of the second kind are Swift and Bernard Shaw.
So far as Shaw has spread or helped a certain modern reluctance or MAUVAISE HONTE in these grand and grotesque functions of man I think he has definitely done harm. He has much influence among the young men; but it is not an influence in the direction of keeping them young. One cannot imagine him inspiring any of his followers to write a war-song or a drinking-song or a love-song, the three forms of human utterance which come next in nobility to a prayer. It may seem odd to say that the net effect of a man so apparently impudent will be to make men shy. But it is certainly the truth. Shyness is always the sign of a divided soul; a man is shy because he somehow thinks his position at once despicable and important. If he were without humility he would not care; and if he were without pride he would not care. Now the main purpose of Shaw’s theoretic teaching is to declare that we ought to fulfil these great functions of life, that we ought to eat and drink and love. But the main tendency of his habitual criticism is to suggest that all the sentiments, professions, and postures of these things are not only comic but even contemptibly comic, follies and almost frauds. The result would seem to be that a race of young men may arise who do all these things, but do them awkwardly. That which was of old a free and hilarious function becomes an important and embarrassing necessity. Let us endure all the pagan pleasures with a Christian patience. Let us eat, drink, and be serious.
Bernard Shaw ha occupato gran parte della sua vita nel tentativo di sfuggire ai suoi seguaci. La volpe ha entusiasti seguaci, e Shaw sembra considerare i propri press’a poco allo stesso modo. Quest’uomo che gli uomini accusano di far la corte all’applauso mi sembra rifuggire persino dall’assenso. Se siete d’accordo con Shaw, è assai probabile che egli vi contraddica; io ho contraddetto Shaw dall’inizio alla fine, ed è per questo che giungo infine quasi a essere d’accordo con lui. I suoi critici l’hanno accusato di volgare autopromozione; nel suo rapporto con i seguaci mi sembra piuttosto segnato da una sorta di folle modestia. Sembra desiderare di fuggire dal consenso, di avere quanti meno seguaci possibile. Tutto ciò risale, credo, alle tre radici da cui questa meditazione è cresciuta. È in parte la mera impazienza e ironia dell’irlandese. È in parte il pensiero del calvinista che la schiera di Dio debba essere assottigliata piuttosto che affollata; che Gedeone debba respingere soldati piuttosto che reclutarli. Ed è in parte, ahimè, l’infelice progressista che cerca di stare davanti alla propria religione, che cerca di distruggere il proprio idolo e persino di profanare la propria tomba. Ma da qualunque causa provenga, questa furiosa fuga dalla popolarità ha coinvolto Shaw in alcune perversità e raffinatezze che sono quasi mere insincerità, e che rendono necessario districare il bene che egli ha fatto dal male in questo abbagliante percorso. Tenterò un qualche compendio enunciando le tre cose in cui la sua influenza mi sembra pienamente buona e le tre in cui mi sembra cattiva. Ma per il piacere di terminare sulla nota più fine parlerò prima di quelle che sembrano cattive.
Il primo rispetto in cui Shaw è stato una cattiva influenza è che ha incoraggiato la schizzinosità. Ha reso gli uomini difficili circa i loro pasti morali. Questa è in verità la radice di tutta la sua avversione per il romanticismo. Molti hanno obiettato al romanticismo di essere troppo aereo e squisito. Shaw obietta al romanticismo di essere troppo rigoglioso e grossolano. Molti hanno disprezzato il romanticismo perché è irreale; Shaw in realtà lo odia perché è fin troppo reale. Shaw non ama il romanticismo come non ama il manzo e la birra, l’acquavite pura o le bistecche al sangue. Il romanticismo è troppo mascolino per il suo gusto. Troverete in tutte le sue critiche, in mezzo a tutta la loro verità, alla loro selvaggia giustizia o pungente imparzialità, una curiosa corrente sotterranea di pregiudizio su un punto: la preferenza per il raffinato piuttosto che per il rozzo o il brutto. Così a lui non piacerà una battuta perché è grossolana, senza chiedersi se sia davvero immorale. Obietta a un uomo che si siede sul proprio cappello, mentre l’austero moralista dovrebbe obiettare soltanto al suo sedersi sul cappello di qualcun altro. Questa sensibilità è sterile perché è universale. È inutile obiettare all’uomo l’essere reso ridicolo. L’uomo nasce ridicolo, come si può facilmente vedere se lo si guarda poco dopo che è nato. È grottesco bere birra, ma è ugualmente grottesco bere acqua di soda; la grottesca sta nell’atto di riempirsi come una bottiglia attraverso un foro. È indegno camminare con l’andatura barcollante dell’ubriaco; ma è abbastanza indegno camminare del tutto, poiché ogni camminare è una sorta di equilibrismo, e c’è sempre nell’essere umano qualcosa di un quadrupede sulle zampe posteriori. Non dico che sarebbe più dignitoso se andasse a quattro zampe; non so che egli sia mai dignitoso se non quando è morto. Non saremo raffinati finché non saremo raffinati in polvere. Naturalmente è soltanto perché non è del tutto un animale che l’uomo vede di essere un buffo animale; e se l’uomo sulle zampe posteriori è in un atteggiamento artificiale, è soltanto perché, come un cane, sta implorando o ringraziando.
Ogni cosa importante è in tal senso assurda, dal serio neonato al teschio ghignante; ogni cosa pratica è uno scherzo pratico. Ma in tutte le commedie di Shaw, per quanto curioso, c’è un certo scalciare contro questa grande condanna della risata. Per esempio, è il primo dovere di un uomo che è innamorato fare di sé uno sciocco; ma gli eroi di Shaw sembrano sempre trarsi indietro da ciò, e tentare, in un’aerea, filosofica vendetta, di fare prima una sciocca della donna. I tentativi di Valentine e di Charteris di separare le loro percezioni dai loro desideri, e di dire alla donna che ella è senza valore persino mentre cercano di conquistarla, sono talvolta quasi tormentosi da guardare; è come vedere un uomo che cerca di suonare una melodia diversa con ciascuna mano. Immagino che questa agonia non sia soltanto nello spettatore, ma anche nel drammaturgo. È Bernard Shaw che lotta con la sua riluttanza a fare qualcosa di così ridicolo come una proposta di matrimonio. Poiché vi sono due tipi di grande umorista: quelli che amano vedere un uomo assurdo e quelli che odiano vederlo assurdo. Del primo tipo sono Rabelais e Dickens; del secondo tipo sono Swift e Bernard Shaw.
Nella misura in cui Shaw ha diffuso o favorito una certa moderna riluttanza, una certa MAUVAISE HONTE in queste grandiose e grottesche funzioni dell’uomo, penso che egli abbia decisamente fatto del male. Ha molta influenza tra i giovani; ma non è un’influenza nella direzione di mantenerli giovani. Non si riesce a immaginarlo mentre ispira qualcuno dei suoi seguaci a scrivere un canto di guerra o un canto conviviale o un canto d’amore, le tre forme dell’espressione umana che vengono subito dopo una preghiera in nobiltà. Può sembrare strano dire che l’effetto netto di un uomo così apparentemente sfacciato sarà quello di rendere gli uomini timidi. Ma è certamente la verità. La timidezza è sempre il segno di un’anima divisa; un uomo è timido perché in qualche modo pensa che la sua posizione sia insieme spregevole e importante. Se fosse privo di umiltà non se ne curerebbe; e se fosse privo di orgoglio non se ne curerebbe. Ora, lo scopo principale dell’insegnamento teorico di Shaw è dichiarare che dovremmo adempiere queste grandi funzioni della vita, che dovremmo mangiare e bere e amare. Ma la tendenza principale della sua critica abituale è suggerire che tutti i sentimenti, le professioni e le pose di queste cose siano non solo comici, ma persino spregevolmente comici, follie e quasi frodi. Il risultato sembrerebbe essere che possa sorgere una stirpe di giovani che fanno tutte queste cose, ma le fanno goffamente. Ciò che un tempo era una funzione libera e ilare diviene una necessità importante e imbarazzante. Sopportiamo tutti i piaceri pagani con pazienza cristiana. Mangiamo, beviamo, e siamo seri.
The second of the two points on which I think Shaw has done definite harm is this: that he has (not always or even as a rule intentionally) increased that anarchy of thought which is always the destruction of thought. Much of his early writing has encouraged among the modern youth that most pestilent of all popular tricks and fallacies; what is called the argument of progress. I mean this kind of thing. Previous ages were often, alas, aristocratic in politics or clericalist in religion; but they were always democratic in philosophy; they appealed to man, not to particular men. And if most men were against an idea, that was so far against it. But nowadays that most men are against a thing is thought to be in its favour; it is vaguely supposed to show that some day most men will be for it. If a man says that cows are reptiles, or that Bacon wrote Shakespeare, he can always quote the contempt of his contemporaries as in some mysterious way proving the complete conversion of posterity. The objections to this theory scarcely need any elaborate indication. The final objection to it is that it amounts to this: say anything, however idiotic, and you are in advance of your age. This kind of stuff must be stopped. The sort of democrat who appeals to the babe unborn must be classed with the sort of aristocrat who appeals to his deceased great-grandfather. Both should be sharply reminded that they are appealing to individuals whom they well know to be at a disadvantage in the matter of prompt and witty reply. Now although Bernard Shaw has survived this simple confusion, he has in his time greatly contributed to it. If there is, for instance, one thing that is really rare in Shaw it is hesitation. He makes up his mind quicker than a calculating boy or a county magistrate. Yet on this subject of the next change in ethics he has felt hesitation, and being a strictly honest man has expressed it.
“I know no harder practical question than how much selfishness one ought to stand from a gifted person for the sake of his gifts or on the chance of his being right in the long run. The Superman will certainly come like a thief in the night, and be shot at accordingly; but we cannot leave our property wholly undefended on that account. On the other hand, we cannot ask the Superman simply to add a higher set of virtues to current respectable morals; for he is undoubtedly going to empty a good deal of respectable morality out like so much dirty water, and replace it by new and strange customs, shedding old obligations and accepting new and heavier ones. Every step of his progress must horrify conventional people; and if it were possible for even the most superior man to march ahead all the time, every pioneer of the march towards the Superman would be crucified.”
When the most emphatic man alive, a man unmatched in violent precision of statement, speaks with such avowed vagueness and doubt as this, it is no wonder if all his more weak-minded followers are in a mere whirlpool of uncritical and unmeaning innovation. If the superior person will be apparently criminal, the most probable result is simply that the criminal person will think himself superior. A very slight knowledge of human nature is required in the matter. If the Superman may possibly be a thief, you may bet your boots that the next thief will be a Superman. But indeed the Supermen (of whom I have met many) have generally been more weak in the head than in the moral conduct; they have simply offered the first fancy which occupied their minds as the new morality. I fear that Shaw had a way of encouraging these follies. It is obvious from the passage I have quoted that he has no way of restraining them.
The truth is that all feeble spirits naturally live in the future, because it is featureless; it is a soft job; you can make it what you like. The next age is blank, and I can paint it freely with my favourite colour. It requires real courage to face the past, because the past is full of facts which cannot be got over; of men certainly wiser than we and of things done which we could not do. I know I cannot write a poem as good as LYCIDAS. But it is always easy to say that the particular sort of poetry I can write will be the poetry of the future.
This I call the second evil influence of Shaw: that he has encouraged many to throw themselves for justification upon the shapeless and the unknown. In this, though courageous himself, he has encouraged cowards, and though sincere himself, has helped a mean escape. The third evil in his influence can, I think, be much more shortly dealt with. He has to a very slight extent, but still perceptibly, encouraged a kind of charlatanism of utterance among those who possess his Irish impudence without his Irish virtue. For instance, his amusing trick of self-praise is perfectly hearty and humorous in him; nay, it is even humble; for to confess vanity is itself humble. All that is the matter with the proud is that they will not admit that they are vain. Therefore when Shaw says that he alone is able to write such and such admirable work, or that he has just utterly wiped out some celebrated opponent, I for one never feel anything offensive in the tone, but, indeed, only the unmistakable intonation of a friend’s voice. But I have noticed among younger, harder, and much shallower men a certain disposition to ape this insolent ease and certitude, and that without any fundamental frankness or mirth. So far the influence is bad. Egoism can be learnt as a lesson like any other “ism.” It is not so easy to learn an Irish accent or a good temper. In its lower forms the thing becomes a most unmilitary trick of announcing the victory before one has gained it.
When one has said those three things, one has said, I think, all that can be said by way of blaming Bernard Shaw. It is significant that he was never blamed for any of these things by the Censor. Such censures as the attitude of that official involves may be dismissed with a very light sort of disdain. To represent Shaw as profane or provocatively indecent is not a matter for discussion at all; it is a disgusting criminal libel upon a particularly respectable gentleman of the middle classes, of refined tastes and somewhat Puritanical views. But while the negative defence of Shaw is easy, the just praise of him is almost as complex as it is necessary; and I shall devote the last few pages of this book to a triad corresponding to the last one—to the three important elements in which the work of Shaw has been good as well as great.
Il secondo dei due punti su cui penso che Shaw abbia fatto un male preciso è questo: che egli ha (non sempre e neppure di regola intenzionalmente) accresciuto quell’anarchia del pensiero che è sempre la distruzione del pensiero. Molti dei suoi primi scritti hanno incoraggiato tra la gioventù moderna il più pestilenziale di tutti i trucchi e le fallacie popolari; ciò che si chiama l’argomento del progresso. Intendo questo genere di cosa. Le età precedenti erano spesso, ahimè, aristocratiche in politica o clericaliste in religione; ma erano sempre democratiche in filosofia; si appellavano all’uomo, non a uomini particolari. E se la maggior parte degli uomini era contro un’idea, ciò era finora contro di essa. Ma oggigiorno il fatto che la maggior parte degli uomini sia contro una cosa è ritenuto a suo favore; si suppone vagamente che ciò mostri che un giorno la maggior parte degli uomini sarà a suo favore. Se un uomo dice che le mucche sono rettili, o che Bacone scrisse Shakespeare, egli può sempre citare il disprezzo dei suoi contemporanei come prova, in qualche modo misterioso, della completa conversione dei posteri. Le obiezioni a questa teoria non hanno quasi bisogno di alcuna elaborata indicazione. L’obiezione finale ad essa è che si riduce a questo: di’ qualsiasi cosa, per quanto idiota, e sei in anticipo sulla tua età. Questa sorta di roba dev’essere fermata. Il tipo di democratico che si appella al bimbo non ancora nato va classificato col tipo di aristocratico che si appella al proprio bisnonno defunto. Entrambi dovrebbero essere seccamente ricordati che si stanno appellando a individui che ben sanno essere svantaggiati in materia di pronta e arguta replica. Ora, sebbene Bernard Shaw sia sopravvissuto a questa semplice confusione, egli vi ha ai suoi tempi grandemente contribuito. Se c’è, per esempio, una cosa che è davvero rara in Shaw, è l’esitazione. Egli si decide più rapidamente di un ragazzo calcolatore o di un magistrato di contea. Eppure su questo tema del prossimo mutamento nell’etica egli ha provato esitazione, ed essendo un uomo rigorosamente onesto l’ha espressa.
«Non conosco questione pratica più ardua di quanto egoismo si debba sopportare da una persona dotata per amore dei suoi doni o sulla probabilità che egli abbia ragione a lungo andare. Il Superuomo verrà certamente come un ladro nella notte, e sarà preso a fucilate di conseguenza; ma non possiamo per questo lasciare la nostra proprietà del tutto indifesa. D’altra parte, non possiamo chiedere al Superuomo semplicemente di aggiungere un più alto insieme di virtù alla corrente morale rispettabile; poiché egli senza dubbio verserà via una buona parte della rispettabile moralità come tanta acqua sporca, e la sostituirà con costumi nuovi e strani, gettando via vecchi obblighi e accettandone di nuovi e più gravosi. Ogni passo del suo progresso dovrà inorridire la gente convenzionale; e se fosse possibile persino all’uomo più superiore marciare avanti per tutto il tempo, ogni pioniere della marcia verso il Superuomo verrebbe crocifisso.»
Quando l’uomo più enfatico che sia vivo, un uomo senza pari nella violenta precisione dell’affermazione, parla con una vaghezza e un dubbio così dichiarati come questi, non c’è da stupirsi se tutti i suoi seguaci più deboli di mente si trovano in un mero gorgo di innovazione acritica e priva di significato. Se la persona superiore apparirà criminale, il risultato più probabile è semplicemente che la persona criminale si crederà superiore. In questa faccenda si richiede una conoscenza assai scarsa della natura umana. Se il Superuomo può eventualmente essere un ladro, potete scommetterci le scarpe che il prossimo ladro sarà un Superuomo. Ma in verità i Superuomini (di cui ne ho incontrati molti) sono stati generalmente più deboli di testa che di condotta morale; hanno semplicemente offerto la prima fantasia che occupava la loro mente come la nuova moralità. Temo che Shaw avesse un modo di incoraggiare queste follie. È ovvio dal passo che ho citato che egli non ha modo di frenarle.
La verità è che tutti gli spiriti fiacchi vivono naturalmente nel futuro, perché esso è privo di lineamenti; è un lavoro facile; puoi farne ciò che ti pare. L’età ventura è vuota, e posso dipingerla liberamente col mio colore favorito. Occorre vero coraggio per affrontare il passato, perché il passato è pieno di fatti che non si possono aggirare; di uomini certamente più saggi di noi e di cose fatte che noi non sapremmo fare. So di non poter scrivere un poema buono come LYCIDAS. Ma è sempre facile dire che quel particolare genere di poesia che io so scrivere sarà la poesia del futuro.
Questa io la chiamo la seconda cattiva influenza di Shaw: che egli ha incoraggiato molti a gettarsi, per giustificarsi, sull’informe e sull’ignoto. In questo, sebbene egli stesso coraggioso, ha incoraggiato i codardi, e sebbene egli stesso sincero, ha favorito una meschina scappatoia. Il terzo male nella sua influenza può, credo, essere trattato assai più brevemente. Egli ha, in misura assai lieve ma pur percettibilmente, incoraggiato una sorta di ciarlataneria di espressione tra coloro che possiedono la sua sfacciataggine irlandese senza la sua virtù irlandese. Per esempio, il suo divertente vezzo di lodare se stesso è in lui perfettamente sincero e umoristico; anzi, è persino umile; poiché confessare la vanità è di per sé umile. Tutto il male che c’è negli orgogliosi è che essi non vogliono ammettere di essere vanitosi. Perciò quando Shaw dice che egli solo è capace di scrivere questa o quella ammirevole opera, o che ha appena del tutto annientato qualche celebre avversario, io per primo non trovo mai nulla di offensivo nel tono, ma, in verità, solo l’inconfondibile intonazione della voce di un amico. Ma ho notato tra uomini più giovani, più duri e assai più superficiali una certa disposizione a scimmiottare questa insolente disinvoltura e sicurezza, e ciò senza alcuna fondamentale franchezza o allegria. In tal misura l’influenza è cattiva. L’egoismo può essere appreso come una lezione al pari di qualsiasi altro «ismo». Non è così facile apprendere un accento irlandese o un buon carattere. Nelle sue forme più basse la cosa diventa un vezzo quanto mai poco militare, quello di annunciare la vittoria prima di averla conseguita.
Quando si sono dette queste tre cose, si è detto, credo, tutto ciò che si può dire a biasimo di Bernard Shaw. È significativo che egli non sia mai stato biasimato per nessuna di queste cose dal Censore. Simili censure quali quelle implicate nell’atteggiamento di quel funzionario possono essere liquidate con una sorta di sdegno assai leggero. Rappresentare Shaw come profano o provocatoriamente indecente non è affatto materia di discussione; è una disgustosa e criminale calunnia contro un gentiluomo particolarmente rispettabile della classe media, di gusti raffinati e di vedute alquanto puritane. Ma mentre la difesa negativa di Shaw è facile, la giusta lode di lui è quasi altrettanto complessa quanto è necessaria; e dedicherò le ultime pagine di questo libro a una triade corrispondente all’ultima: ai tre importanti elementi in cui l’opera di Shaw è stata buona oltre che grande.
In the first place, and quite apart from all particular theories, the world owes thanks to Bernard Shaw for having combined being intelligent with being intelligible. He has popularised philosophy, or rather he has re-popularised it, for philosophy is always popular, except in peculiarly corrupt and oligarchic ages like our own. We have passed the age of the demagogue, the man who has little to say and says it loud. We have come to the age of the mystagogue or don, the man who has nothing to say, but says it softly and impressively in an indistinct whisper. After all, short words must mean something, even if they mean filth or lies; but long words may sometimes mean literally nothing, especially if they are used (as they mostly are in modern books and magazine articles) to balance and modify each other. A plain figure 4, scrawled in chalk anywhere, must always mean something; it must always mean 2 + 2. But the most enormous and mysterious algebraic equation, full of letters, brackets, and fractions, may all cancel out at last and be equal to nothing. When a demagogue says to a mob, “There is the Bank of England, why shouldn’t you have some of that money?” he says something which is at least as honest and intelligible as the figure 4. When a writer in the TIMES remarks, “We must raise the economic efficiency of the masses without diverting anything from those classes which represent the national prosperity and refinement,” then his equation cancels out; in a literal and logical sense his remark amounts to nothing.
There are two kinds of charlatans or people called quacks to-day. The power of the first is that he advertises—and cures. The power of the second is that though he is not learned enough to cure he is much too learned to advertise. The former give away their dignity with a pound of tea; the latter are paid a pound of tea merely for being dignified. I think them the worse quacks of the two. Shaw is certainly of the other sort. Dickens, another man who was great enough to be a demagogue (and greater than Shaw because more heartily a demagogue), puts for ever the true difference between the demagogue and the mystagogue in DR. MARIGOLD: “Except that we’re cheap-jacks and they’re dear-jacks, I don’t see any difference between us.” Bernard Shaw is a great cheap-jack, with plenty of patter and I dare say plenty of nonsense, but with this also (which is not wholly unimportant), with goods to sell. People accuse such a man of self-advertisement. But at least the cheap-jack does advertise his wares, whereas the don or dear-jack advertises nothing except himself. His very silence, nay his very sterility, are supposed to be marks of the richness of his erudition. He is too learned to teach, and sometimes too wise even to talk. St. Thomas Aquinas said: “In auctore auctoritas.” But there is more than one man at Oxford or Cambridge who is considered an authority because he has never been an author.
Against all this mystification both of silence and verbosity Shaw has been a splendid and smashing protest. He has stood up for the fact that philosophy is not the concern of those who pass through Divinity and Greats, but of those who pass through birth and death. Nearly all the most awful and abstruse statements can be put in words of one syllable, from “A child is born” to “A soul is damned.” If the ordinary man may not discuss existence, why should he be asked to conduct it? About concrete matters indeed one naturally appeals to an oligarchy or select class. For information about Lapland I go to an aristocracy of Laplanders; for the ways of rabbits to an aristocracy of naturalists or, preferably, an aristocracy of poachers. But only mankind itself can bear witness to the abstract first principles of mankind, and in matters of theory I would always consult the mob. Only the mass of men, for instance, have authority to say whether life is good. Whether life is good is an especially mystical and delicate question, and, like all such questions, is asked in words of one syllable. It is also answered in words of one syllable, and Bernard Shaw (as also mankind) answers “yes.”
This plain, pugnacious style of Shaw has greatly clarified all controversies. He has slain the polysyllable, that huge and slimy centipede which has sprawled over all the valleys of England like the “loathly worm” who was slain by the ancient knight. He does not think that difficult questions will be made simpler by using difficult words about them. He has achieved the admirable work, never to be mentioned without gratitude, of discussing Evolution without mentioning it. The good work is of course more evident in the case of philosophy than any other region; because the case of philosophy was a crying one. It was really preposterous that the things most carefully reserved for the study of two or three men should actually be the things common to all men. It was absurd that certain men should be experts on the special subject of everything. But he stood for much the same spirit and style in other matters; in economics, for example. There never has been a better popular economist; one more lucid, entertaining, consistent, and essentially exact. The very comicality of his examples makes them and their argument stick in the mind; as in the case I remember in which he said that the big shops had now to please everybody, and were not entirely dependent on the lady who sails in “to order four governesses and five grand pianos.” He is always preaching collectivism; yet he does not very often name it. He does not talk about collectivism, but about cash; of which the populace feel a much more definite need. He talks about cheese, boots, perambulators, and how people are really to live. For him economics really means housekeeping, as it does in Greek. His difference from the orthodox economists, like most of his differences, is very different from the attacks made by the main body of Socialists. The old Manchester economists are generally attacked for being too gross and material. Shaw really attacks them for not being gross or material enough. He thinks that they hide themselves behind long words, remote hypotheses or unreal generalisations. When the orthodox economist begins with his correct and primary formula, “Suppose there is a Man on an Island—” Shaw is apt to interrupt him sharply, saying, “There is a Man in the Street.”
Anzitutto, e del tutto a prescindere da ogni particolare teoria, il mondo deve gratitudine a Bernard Shaw per aver saputo unire l’essere intelligente con l’essere intelligibile. Egli ha reso popolare la filosofia, o meglio l’ha resa nuovamente popolare, giacché la filosofia è sempre popolare, salvo in età particolarmente corrotte e oligarchiche come la nostra. Abbiamo oltrepassato l’età del demagogo, l’uomo che ha poco da dire e lo dice ad alta voce. Siamo giunti all’età del mistagogo, o dotto, l’uomo che non ha nulla da dire, ma lo dice sommessamente e con solennità in un bisbiglio indistinto. Dopotutto, le parole brevi devono pur significare qualcosa, anche se significano lordura o menzogna; ma le parole lunghe possono talvolta non significare letteralmente nulla, specialmente se sono usate (come per lo più accade nei libri moderni e negli articoli di rivista) a bilanciarsi e modificarsi a vicenda. Una semplice cifra 4, scarabocchiata col gesso in un punto qualsiasi, deve sempre significare qualcosa; deve sempre significare 2 + 2. Ma la più enorme e misteriosa equazione algebrica, piena di lettere, parentesi e frazioni, può alla fine annullarsi tutta ed essere uguale a nulla. Quando un demagogo dice a una folla: «Ecco la Banca d’Inghilterra, perché non dovreste avere un po’ di quel denaro?», dice qualcosa che è almeno tanto onesto e intelligibile quanto la cifra 4. Quando uno scrittore del TIMES osserva: «Dobbiamo elevare l’efficienza economica delle masse senza distogliere alcunché da quelle classi che rappresentano la prosperità e la raffinatezza nazionali», allora la sua equazione si annulla; in senso letterale e logico la sua osservazione equivale a nulla.
Vi sono oggi due specie di ciarlatani, o di gente chiamata cerretani. La forza del primo sta nel fatto che si fa pubblicità—e guarisce. La forza del secondo sta nel fatto che, pur non essendo abbastanza dotto da guarire, è troppo dotto per farsi pubblicità. I primi svendono la loro dignità con una libbra di tè; ai secondi si paga una libbra di tè semplicemente perché siano dignitosi. Li ritengo i peggiori ciarlatani dei due. Shaw è certamente dell’altra specie. Dickens, un altro uomo abbastanza grande da essere un demagogo (e più grande di Shaw perché più cordialmente demagogo), fissa per sempre la vera differenza fra il demagogo e il mistagogo in DR. MARIGOLD: «Salvo che noi siamo cheap-jack e loro dear-jack, non vedo alcuna differenza fra noi». Bernard Shaw è un gran cheap-jack, con abbondante cantilena da imbonitore e, oserei dire, abbondante scempiaggine, ma anche con questo (che non è del tutto irrilevante), con merce da vendere. Si accusa un uomo simile di sé-pubblicità. Ma almeno il cheap-jack reclamizza la sua mercanzia, mentre il dotto o dear-jack non reclamizza nulla se non se stesso. Il suo stesso silenzio, anzi la sua stessa sterilità, si suppongono segni della ricchezza della sua erudizione. È troppo dotto per insegnare, e talvolta troppo saggio persino per parlare. San Tommaso d’Aquino disse: «In auctore auctoritas». Ma c’è più d’un uomo a Oxford o a Cambridge che è considerato un’autorità perché non è mai stato un autore.
Contro tutta questa mistificazione, tanto del silenzio quanto della verbosità, Shaw è stato una protesta splendida e fragorosa. Ha difeso il fatto che la filosofia non è affare di coloro che passano per Divinity e Greats, ma di coloro che passano per la nascita e la morte. Quasi tutte le affermazioni più tremende e astruse possono essere espresse in parole di una sola sillaba, da «Un bambino nasce» a «Un’anima è dannata». Se all’uomo comune non è concesso discutere l’esistenza, perché gli si chiede di condurla? Su questioni concrete, in verità, ci si rivolge naturalmente a un’oligarchia o a una classe eletta. Per informazioni sulla Lapponia mi rivolgo a un’aristocrazia di Lapponi; per le abitudini dei conigli a un’aristocrazia di naturalisti o, preferibilmente, a un’aristocrazia di bracconieri. Ma solo l’umanità stessa può testimoniare i primi princìpi astratti dell’umanità, e in materia di teoria consulterei sempre la folla. Solo la massa degli uomini, per esempio, ha l’autorità di dire se la vita sia buona. Se la vita sia buona è una questione particolarmente mistica e delicata, e, come tutte le questioni di tal genere, è posta in parole di una sola sillaba. Anche la risposta è data in parole di una sola sillaba, e Bernard Shaw (come pure l’umanità) risponde «sì».
Questo stile piano e battagliero di Shaw ha grandemente chiarito tutte le controversie. Ha ucciso il polisillabo, quell’enorme e viscido millepiedi che si era disteso strisciando su tutte le valli d’Inghilterra come il «verme immondo» che fu ucciso dall’antico cavaliere. Egli non crede che le questioni difficili si rendano più semplici usando parole difficili a loro riguardo. Ha compiuto l’ammirevole impresa, mai da menzionare senza gratitudine, di discutere l’Evoluzione senza menzionarla. La buona opera è naturalmente più evidente nel caso della filosofia che in ogni altro campo, perché il caso della filosofia era clamoroso. Era davvero assurdo che le cose più gelosamente riservate allo studio di due o tre uomini fossero in realtà le cose comuni a tutti gli uomini. Era assurdo che certi uomini fossero esperti nella materia speciale di ogni cosa. Ma egli sostenne pressoché il medesimo spirito e stile in altre materie; in economia, per esempio. Non c’è mai stato un miglior economista popolare; più lucido, divertente, coerente ed essenzialmente esatto. La comicità stessa dei suoi esempi fa sì che essi e il loro argomento restino impressi nella mente; come nel caso che ricordo in cui disse che i grandi magazzini dovevano ormai accontentare tutti, e non dipendevano interamente dalla signora che entra veleggiando «per ordinare quattro governanti e cinque pianoforti a coda». Egli predica sempre il collettivismo; eppure non lo nomina molto spesso. Non parla di collettivismo, ma di contante; di cui il popolino sente un bisogno assai più preciso. Parla di formaggio, di stivali, di carrozzine, e di come la gente debba realmente vivere. Per lui l’economia significa davvero governo della casa, come in greco. La sua differenza dagli economisti ortodossi, come la maggior parte delle sue differenze, è assai diversa dagli attacchi mossi dal corpo principale dei socialisti. I vecchi economisti di Manchester sono generalmente attaccati per essere troppo grossolani e materiali. Shaw in realtà li attacca per non essere grossolani o materiali abbastanza. Ritiene che si nascondano dietro parole lunghe, ipotesi remote o generalizzazioni irreali. Quando l’economista ortodosso comincia con la sua formula corretta e primaria, «Supponiamo che ci sia un Uomo su un’Isola—», Shaw è incline a interromperlo bruscamente, dicendo: «C’è un Uomo per la Strada».
The second phase of the man’s really fruitful efficacy is in a sense the converse of this. He has improved philosophic discussions by making them more popular. But he has also improved popular amusements by making them more philosophic. And by more philosophic I do not mean duller, but funnier; that is more varied. All real fun is in cosmic contrasts, which involve a view of the cosmos. But I know that this second strength in Shaw is really difficult to state and must be approached by explanations and even by eliminations. Let me say at once that I think nothing of Shaw or anybody else merely for playing the daring sceptic. I do not think he has done any good or even achieved any effect simply by asking startling questions. It is possible that there have been ages so sluggish or automatic that anything that woke them up at all was a good thing. It is sufficient to be certain that ours is not such an age. We do not need waking up; rather we suffer from insomnia, with all its results of fear and exaggeration and frightful waking dreams. The modern mind is not a donkey which wants kicking to make it go on. The modern mind is more like a motor-car on a lonely road which two amateur motorists have been just clever enough to take to pieces, but are not quite clever enough to put together again. Under these circumstances kicking the car has never been found by the best experts to be effective. No one, therefore, does any good to our age merely by asking questions—unless he can answer the questions. Asking questions is already the fashionable and aristocratic sport which has brought most of us into the bankruptcy court. The note of our age is a note of interrogation. And the final point is so plain; no sceptical philosopher can ask any questions that may not equally be asked by a tired child on a hot afternoon. “Am I a boy?—Why am I a boy?—Why aren’t I a chair?—What is a chair?” A child will sometimes ask questions of this sort for two hours. And the philosophers of Protestant Europe have asked them for two hundred years.
If that were all that I meant by Shaw making men more philosophic, I should put it not among his good influences but his bad. He did do that to some extent; and so far he is bad. But there is a much bigger and better sense in which he has been a philosopher. He has brought back into English drama all the streams of fact or tendency which are commonly called undramatic. They were there in Shakespeare’s time; but they have scarcely been there since until Shaw. I mean that Shakespeare, being interested in everything, put everything into a play. If he had lately been thinking about the irony and even contradiction confronting us in self-preservation and suicide, he put it all into HAMLET. If he was annoyed by some passing boom in theatrical babies he put that into HAMLET too. He would put anything into HAMLET which he really thought was true, from his favourite nursery ballads to his personal (and perhaps unfashionable) conviction of the Catholic purgatory. There is no fact that strikes one, I think, about Shakespeare, except the fact of how dramatic he could be, so much as the fact of how undramatic he could be.
In this great sense Shaw has brought philosophy back into drama— philosophy in the sense of a certain freedom of the mind. This is not a freedom to think what one likes (which is absurd, for one can only think what one thinks); it is a freedom to think about what one likes, which is quite a different thing and the spring of all thought. Shakespeare (in a weak moment, I think) said that all the world is a stage. But Shakespeare acted on the much finer principle that a stage is all the world. So there are in all Bernard Shaw’s plays patches of what people would call essentially undramatic stuff, which the dramatist puts in because he is honest and would rather prove his case than succeed with his play. Shaw has brought back into English drama that Shakespearian universality which, if you like, you can call Shakespearian irrelevance. Perhaps a better definition than either is a habit of thinking the truth worth telling even when you meet it by accident. In Shaw’s plays one meets an incredible number of truths by accident.
To be up to date is a paltry ambition except in an almanac, and Shaw has sometimes talked this almanac philosophy. Nevertheless there is a real sense in which the phrase may be wisely used, and that is in cases where some stereotyped version of what is happening hides what is really happening from our eyes. Thus, for instance, newspapers are never up to date. The men who write leading articles are always behind the times, because they are in a hurry. They are forced to fall back on their old-fashioned view of things; they have no time to fashion a new one. Everything that is done in a hurry is certain to be antiquated; that is why modern industrial civilisation bears so curious a resemblance to barbarism. Thus when newspapers say that the TIMES is a solemn old Tory paper, they are out of date; their talk is behind the talk in Fleet Street. Thus when newspapers say that Christian dogmas are crumbling, they are out of date; their talk is behind the talk in public-houses. Now in this sense Shaw has kept in a really stirring sense up to date. He has introduced into the theatre the things that no one else had introduced into a theatre—the things in the street outside. The theatre is a sort of thing which proudly sends a hansom-cab across the stage as Realism, while everybody outside is whistling for motor-cabs.
Consider in this respect how many and fine have been Shaw’s intrusions into the theatre with the things that were really going on. Daily papers and daily matinees were still gravely explaining how much modern war depended on gunpowder. ARMS AND THE MAN explained how much modern war depends on chocolate. Every play and paper described the Vicar who was a mild Conservative. CANDIDA caught hold of the modern Vicar who is an advanced Socialist. Numberless magazine articles and society comedies describe the emancipated woman as new and wild. Only YOU NEVER CAN TELL was young enough to see that the emancipated woman is already old and respectable. Every comic paper has caricatured the uneducated upstart. Only the author of MAN AND SUPERMAN knew enough about the modern world to caricature the educated upstart—the man Straker who can quote Beaumarchais, though he cannot pronounce him. This is the second real and great work of Shaw—the letting in of the world on to the stage, as the rivers were let in upon the Augean Stable. He has let a little of the Haymarket into the Haymarket Theatre. He has permitted some whispers of the Strand to enter the Strand Theatre. A variety of solutions in philosophy is as silly as it is in arithmetic, but one may be justly proud of a variety of materials for a solution. After Shaw, one may say, there is nothing that cannot be introduced into a play if one can make it decent, amusing, and relevant. The state of a man’s health, the religion of his childhood, his ear for music, or his ignorance of cookery can all be made vivid if they have anything to do with the subject. A soldier may mention the commissariat as well as the cavalry; and, better still, a priest may mention theology as well as religion. That is being a philosopher; that is bringing the universe on the stage.
La seconda fase della fecondità davvero efficace di quest’uomo è, in un certo senso, il rovescio di questa. Egli ha migliorato le discussioni filosofiche rendendole più popolari. Ma ha anche migliorato i divertimenti popolari rendendoli più filosofici. E per «più filosofici» non intendo più tediosi, ma più spassosi; cioè più vari. Ogni vero spasso sta nei contrasti cosmici, i quali implicano una visione del cosmo. Ma so che questa seconda forza di Shaw è davvero difficile da enunciare e va accostata per spiegazioni e persino per eliminazioni. Dirò subito che non stimo affatto Shaw, né chiunque altro, per il solo fatto di recitare l’audace scettico. Non credo che egli abbia fatto alcun bene, né pure ottenuto alcun effetto, semplicemente ponendo domande sconcertanti. È possibile che vi siano state età così torpide o automatiche che qualunque cosa le destasse era una buona cosa. Basta essere certi che la nostra non è un’età siffatta. Non abbiamo bisogno di essere destati; soffriamo piuttosto d’insonnia, con tutte le sue conseguenze di paura, esagerazione e spaventosi sogni a occhi aperti. La mente moderna non è un asino che voglia calci per farlo procedere. La mente moderna somiglia piuttosto a un’automobile su una strada solitaria che due automobilisti dilettanti sono stati appena abbastanza bravi da smontare in pezzi, ma non abbastanza bravi da rimettere insieme. In tali circostanze i migliori esperti non hanno mai trovato che prendere a calci la macchina serva a qualcosa. Nessuno, dunque, fa del bene alla nostra età limitandosi a porre domande—a meno che non sappia rispondere alle domande. Il porre domande è già lo sport alla moda e aristocratico che ha portato la maggior parte di noi al tribunale della bancarotta. La nota della nostra età è una nota interrogativa. E il punto finale è così evidente; nessun filosofo scettico può porre domande che non possano ugualmente essere poste da un bambino stanco in un pomeriggio afoso. «Sono un bambino?—Perché sono un bambino?—Perché non sono una sedia?—Che cos’è una sedia?». Un bambino talvolta pone domande di questa specie per due ore. E i filosofi dell’Europa protestante le hanno poste per duecento anni.
Se questo fosse tutto ciò che intendo dicendo che Shaw rende gli uomini più filosofici, lo porrei non fra le sue buone influenze ma fra le cattive. Egli lo fece in una certa misura; e in tal senso è cattivo. Ma c’è un senso assai più ampio e migliore in cui egli è stato un filosofo. Egli ha ricondotto nel dramma inglese tutte quelle correnti di fatto o di tendenza che comunemente si dicono non drammatiche. Vi erano ai tempi di Shakespeare; ma da allora fino a Shaw non vi sono state quasi più. Voglio dire che Shakespeare, essendo interessato a ogni cosa, metteva ogni cosa in un dramma. Se di recente aveva riflettuto sull’ironia e persino sulla contraddizione che ci confrontano nella autoconservazione e nel suicidio, la riversava tutta nell’AMLETO. Se lo irritava qualche effimero clamore intorno ai fanciulli-prodigio del teatro, metteva anche quello nell’AMLETO. Metteva nell’AMLETO qualunque cosa ritenesse davvero vera, dalle sue predilette filastrocche per bambini fino alla sua personale (e forse poco alla moda) convinzione del purgatorio cattolico. Non v’è fatto che colpisca, credo, riguardo a Shakespeare, salvo il fatto di quanto sapesse essere drammatico, tanto quanto il fatto di quanto sapesse essere non drammatico.
In questo grande senso Shaw ha ricondotto la filosofia nel dramma—la filosofia nel senso di una certa libertà della mente. Questa non è una libertà di pensare ciò che si vuole (il che è assurdo, poiché si può pensare soltanto ciò che si pensa); è una libertà di pensare intorno a ciò che si vuole, cosa affatto diversa e sorgente di ogni pensiero. Shakespeare (in un momento di debolezza, credo) disse che tutto il mondo è un palcoscenico. Ma Shakespeare agì secondo il principio assai più nobile che un palcoscenico è tutto il mondo. Così vi sono in tutti i drammi di Bernard Shaw certe chiazze di ciò che la gente chiamerebbe materia essenzialmente non drammatica, che il drammaturgo v’inserisce perché è onesto e preferisce dimostrare la sua tesi piuttosto che riuscire col suo dramma. Shaw ha ricondotto nel dramma inglese quella universalità shakespeariana che, se volete, potete chiamare irrilevanza shakespeariana. Forse una definizione migliore di entrambe è l’abitudine di ritenere la verità degna d’essere detta anche quando la si incontra per caso. Nei drammi di Shaw si incontra per caso un numero incredibile di verità.
Essere aggiornati è un’ambizione meschina salvo che in un almanacco, e Shaw ha talvolta professato questa filosofia da almanacco. Nondimeno vi è un senso reale in cui la frase può essere saggiamente usata, ed è nei casi in cui una qualche versione stereotipata di ciò che accade nasconde ai nostri occhi ciò che realmente accade. Così, per esempio, i giornali non sono mai aggiornati. Gli uomini che scrivono gli articoli di fondo sono sempre indietro rispetto ai tempi, perché hanno fretta. Sono costretti a ripiegare sulla loro visione antiquata delle cose; non hanno tempo di foggiarne una nuova. Tutto ciò che si fa in fretta è certo di essere antiquato; ecco perché la moderna civiltà industriale porta una così curiosa rassomiglianza con la barbarie. Così, quando i giornali dicono che il TIMES è un solenne vecchio giornale conservatore, sono fuori tempo; il loro discorso è indietro rispetto a quello di Fleet Street. Così, quando i giornali dicono che i dogmi cristiani si sgretolano, sono fuori tempo; il loro discorso è indietro rispetto a quello delle osterie. Ora, in questo senso Shaw si è mantenuto, in un senso davvero stimolante, aggiornato. Ha introdotto nel teatro le cose che nessun altro aveva introdotto in un teatro—le cose che stanno nella strada, fuori. Il teatro è una di quelle cose che manda orgogliosamente attraverso il palcoscenico una carrozzella a nolo come Realismo, mentre là fuori tutti fischiano per chiamare un’automobile pubblica.
Si consideri sotto questo riguardo quante e quanto felici siano state le intrusioni di Shaw nel teatro con le cose che realmente accadevano. I quotidiani e i matinée quotidiani ancora spiegavano gravemente quanto la guerra moderna dipendesse dalla polvere da sparo. LE ARMI E L’UOMO spiegò quanto la guerra moderna dipenda dalla cioccolata. Ogni dramma e ogni giornale descriveva il Vicario che era un mite conservatore. CANDIDA afferrò il Vicario moderno che è un socialista avanzato. Innumerevoli articoli di rivista e commedie di società descrivono la donna emancipata come nuova e sfrenata. Solo NON SI PUÒ MAI DIRE fu abbastanza giovane da vedere che la donna emancipata è già vecchia e rispettabile. Ogni giornale umoristico ha caricaturato il parvenu incolto. Solo l’autore di UOMO E SUPERUOMO ne sapeva abbastanza del mondo moderno da caricaturare il parvenu colto—l’uomo Straker che sa citare Beaumarchais, benché non sappia pronunciarlo. Questa è la seconda opera reale e grande di Shaw—il far entrare il mondo sulla scena, come i fiumi furono immessi nelle Stalle di Augia. Ha fatto entrare un po’ dello Haymarket nel Teatro dello Haymarket. Ha permesso ad alcuni bisbigli dello Strand di entrare nel Teatro dello Strand. Una varietà di soluzioni in filosofia è tanto sciocca quanto lo è in aritmetica, ma di una varietà di materiali per una soluzione ci si può giustamente vantare. Dopo Shaw, si può dire, non c’è nulla che non possa essere introdotto in un dramma, purché lo si sappia rendere decoroso, divertente e pertinente. Lo stato di salute di un uomo, la religione della sua fanciullezza, il suo orecchio per la musica, o la sua ignoranza in fatto di cucina possono tutti essere resi vividi se hanno qualcosa a che fare col soggetto. Un soldato può menzionare il servizio dei viveri altrettanto bene quanto la cavalleria; e, meglio ancora, un prete può menzionare la teologia altrettanto bene quanto la religione. Questo significa essere un filosofo; questo significa portare l’universo sulla scena.
Lastly, he has obliterated the mere cynic. He has been so much more cynical than anyone else for the public good that no one has dared since to be really cynical for anything smaller. The Chinese crackers of the frivolous cynics fail to excite us after the dynamite of the serious and aspiring cynic. Bernard Shaw and I (who are growing grey together) can remember an epoch which many of his followers do not know: an epoch of real pessimism. The years from 1885 to 1898 were like the hours of afternoon in a rich house with large rooms; the hours before tea-time. They believed in nothing except good manners; and the essence of good manners is to conceal a yawn. A yawn may be defined as a silent yell. The power which the young pessimist of that time showed in this direction would have astonished anyone but him. He yawned so wide as to swallow the world. He swallowed the world like an unpleasant pill before retiring to an eternal rest. Now the last and best glory of Shaw is that in the circles where this creature was found, he is not. He has not been killed (I don’t know exactly why), but he has actually turned into a Shaw idealist. This is no exaggeration. I meet men who, when I knew them in 1898, were just a little too lazy to destroy the universe. They are now conscious of not being quite worthy to abolish some prison regulations. This destruction and conversion seem to me the mark of something actually great. It is always great to destroy a type without destroying a man. The followers of Shaw are optimists; some of them are so simple as even to use the word. They are sometimes rather pallid optimists, frequently very worried optimists, occasionally, to tell the truth, rather cross optimists: but they [are] not pessimists; they can exult though they cannot laugh. He has at least withered up among them the mere pose of impossibility. Like every great teacher, he has cursed the barren fig-tree. For nothing except that impossibility is really impossible.
I know it is all very strange. From the height of eight hundred years ago, or of eight hundred years hence, our age must look incredibly odd. We call the twelfth century ascetic. We call our own time hedonist and full of praise and pleasure. But in the ascetic age the love of life was evident and enormous, so that it had to be restrained. In an hedonist age pleasure has always sunk low, so that it has to be encouraged. How high the sea of human happiness rose in the Middle Ages, we now only know by the colossal walls that they built to keep it in bounds. How low human happiness sank in the twentieth century our children will only know by these extraordinary modern books, which tell people that it is a duty to be cheerful and that life is not so bad after all. Humanity never produces optimists till it has ceased to produce happy men. It is strange to be obliged to impose a holiday like a fast, and to drive men to a banquet with spears. But this shall be written of our time: that when the spirit who denies besieged the last citadel, blaspheming life itself, there were some, there was one especially, whose voice was heard and whose spear was never broken.
THE END
Da ultimo, egli ha cancellato il puro cinico. È stato tanto più cinico di chiunque altro per il pubblico bene, che nessuno ha più osato da allora essere davvero cinico per qualcosa di più piccolo. I petardi cinesi dei cinici frivoli non riescono più a eccitarci dopo la dinamite del cinico serio e aspirante. Bernard Shaw e io (che incanutiamo insieme) possiamo ricordare un’epoca che molti dei suoi seguaci non conoscono: un’epoca di reale pessimismo. Gli anni dal 1885 al 1898 furono come le ore del pomeriggio in una ricca dimora dalle grandi sale; le ore prima del tè. Non credevano in nulla tranne le buone maniere; e l’essenza delle buone maniere è celare uno sbadiglio. Uno sbadiglio si può definire un urlo silenzioso. Il potere che il giovane pessimista di quel tempo mostrava in questa direzione avrebbe stupito chiunque tranne lui. Sbadigliava tanto largo da inghiottire il mondo. Inghiottì il mondo come una pillola sgradevole prima di ritirarsi a un eterno riposo. Ora l’ultima e migliore gloria di Shaw è che nei circoli dove questa creatura si trovava, essa non è. Non è stata uccisa (non so esattamente perché), ma si è di fatto trasformata in un idealista alla Shaw. Non è esagerazione. Incontro uomini che, quando li conobbi nel 1898, erano appena un po’ troppo pigri per distruggere l’universo. Ora sono consapevoli di non essere del tutto degni di abolire qualche regolamento di prigione. Questa distruzione e conversione mi paiono il segno di qualcosa di davvero grande. È sempre grande distruggere un tipo senza distruggere un uomo. I seguaci di Shaw sono ottimisti; alcuni di essi sono tanto semplici da usare persino la parola. Sono talvolta ottimisti piuttosto pallidi, spesso ottimisti assai preoccupati, occasionalmente, a dire il vero, ottimisti piuttosto irritati: ma [non] sono pessimisti; possono esultare benché non possano ridere. Egli ha almeno inaridito tra loro la mera posa dell’impossibilità. Come ogni grande maestro, ha maledetto il fico sterile. Poiché nulla, tranne quell’impossibilità, è davvero impossibile.
So che è tutto molto strano. Dall’altezza di ottocento anni fa, o di ottocento anni a venire, la nostra epoca deve apparire incredibilmente bizzarra. Chiamiamo il dodicesimo secolo ascetico. Chiamiamo il nostro tempo edonista e colmo di lode e di piacere. Ma nell’età ascetica l’amore per la vita era evidente ed enorme, tanto che doveva essere frenato. In un’età edonista il piacere è sempre affondato in basso, tanto che deve essere incoraggiato. Quanto in alto salì il mare della felicità umana nel Medioevo, lo sappiamo ora solo dalle colossali mura che essi eressero per tenerlo entro i confini. Quanto in basso affondò la felicità umana nel ventesimo secolo i nostri figli lo sapranno solo da questi straordinari libri moderni, che dicono alla gente che è un dovere essere allegri e che la vita, dopotutto, non è così brutta. L’umanità non produce mai ottimisti finché non ha cessato di produrre uomini felici. È strano essere costretti a imporre una festa come un digiuno, e a spingere gli uomini a un banchetto con le lance. Ma questo sarà scritto del nostro tempo: che quando lo spirito che nega assediò l’ultima cittadella, bestemmiando la vita stessa, ve ne furono alcuni, ve ne fu uno soprattutto, la cui voce fu udita e la cui lancia non fu mai spezzata.
FINE
THE LATER PHASES*
- Specially written for this edition, 1935
SOMEBODY suggested that I should write a series with some such title as “Second Thoughts”; being a reconsideration of old controversies. Whether or no second thoughts are best, I fear they are not always brightest. It does not normally occur to us that the word “revision” contains the blazing word “vision.” And it may be that a vision does not come twice, even if it be only the first impression of a poor little literary gent upon the (sometimes) depressing topic of the literature of his time. But if second thoughts are not always the brightest, it may be maintained that they are generally the broadest. And in making these notes on the later phases of Mr. Bernard Shaw, I know the necessity of breadth; because I have argued with him nearly all my life; and the campaign has always depended on the tactic of outflanking or encirclement, which means being broader than your enemy.
The first joy of conflict is to congratulate Mr. Bernard Shaw on the fact that he is still emphatically not only alive, but kicking. In some cases, as in that of Capitalism, I think he is kicking what thoroughly deserves to be kicked. In other cases, as in that of Catholicism, I think he is kicking against the pricks; like another very controversial person on the road to Damascus. But at least it is delightful, after this stretch of years, to offer oneself to be kicked by one still capable of that all too neglected gesture.
In the same way, I have been asked to add a postscript to my long, argumentative and even abusive book about my friend Mr. Bernard Shaw. I recoiled from it at first with horror; because it seemed to involve two especially terrible conditions. The first was that I should read all Mr. Bernard Shaw’s later works. The second, and far more ghastly duty, was that I should read one of my own earlier works. I am not going to pretend that I have discharged either of these duties in detail. A liar must have a good memory, to remember what he has said; but a bigot, a fanatic, a man fixed in one dogmatic scheme of faith (like Bernard Shaw and myself) need not bother to remember what he has written. He knows that it was all true; because he has not altered his fundamental test of truth. Thus it will be found that politicians anxiously re-read their old speeches; but priests are buoyantly free from the burden of reading their old sermons. Mr. Shaw and I agree that agreement is more practical than appreciation. In other words, we agree that it is worth while to disagree. This is not what is meant by agreeing to differ; because it is agreeing to dispute.
Heaven knows how long ago it is that I wrote this rather crude and juvenile piece of controversy; which Mr. Bernard Shaw, in a typically handsome manner, described by saying, “This book is, as everyone expected it to be, the best critical study I have yet produced.” And the first fact to be hailed with a sort of abstract joy, by all who are interested in Life even if they do not trouble to call it a Life-Force, is the joyful energy and enthusiasm with which Bernard Shaw has taken that long stretch of time in his giant stride. He still achieves the noblest natural triumph of man; which is to find exuberance merely in existence. This is a victory which more than balances all that can be criticised on the merely theoretical side. Bernard Shaw is an old man who is still young; in an age when the young men are most of them very old. There is a real score for his negative eccentricities, when we can still see him making merry over cold water and cabbages, while men who might be his grandsons or great-grandsons are making themselves miserable over cocktails and champagne. In whatever sense we call him a sceptic, nobody could ever call him a pessimist; and he has lived to see a race of youths who are too pessimistic even to call themselves pessimists. That first fact alone must be affirmed to his great glory; whatever may be meant by being a Pacifist in the Great War, he has never been a Defeatist in the Holy War, which has been called the Battle of Life. Hope, hearty conviction, the fighting spirit— these are things not so abounding among the youth of our time, that we can fail to salute them in the chief literary veteran of the age.
The second great quality he always possessed, and has never lost, is this: and it is a paradox. He has largely defended what are called Modern Ideas; and yet he is not dull. The Modern Ideas in question are now nearly two hundred years old, when they are not merely as old as the world; and as they are expressed by everybody else, their dullness is devastating. Shaw has seldom allowed them to be dull; because he has cultivated a certain art or manÅ“uvre, which may be called the Surprise Attack. He does besiege the old castle, whether of conventions or convictions, but he never scales it on the same side as its other enemies. An excellent example of this was the play of St. Joan. What a wilderness of wearisome plays might have littered the world, on the ordinary anti-clerical theme as developed by the ordinary anti-clerical denouncing the clerics who condemn the popular and patriotic heroine. And what a wind of refreshment, scattering all such waste paper, to find one anti-clerical who is clever enough to base his case on defending the clerics, instead of denouncing the clerics. Then he can draw the deduction that clericalism at its best was bound to condemn a heroine; because a heroine was bound to be a heretic. The new argument is quite as fallacious as the old argument; but how bracing a relief to find such a prodigy as a Modernist who really has a new argument! For outside this charming perversity of G. B. S., the Modernists have made the modern world a desert of dusty monotony and dull repetition. Shaw still talks a great deal of nonsense, and some of it I fear serious nonsense; but always something that awakens us with bravado and does not merely send us to sleep with familiarity. Never will you hear that amiable Irish voice saying, with a hundred voices on the platform or over the wireless, “The modern mind has surely outgrown creeds and dogmas as it has outgrown cannibalism and the tyranny of the Stuarts; and institutions not suited to our modern conditions… .” You will never hear it intoning those ancient and almost pathetic words, “When we remember that our ancestors burned witches, that they tolerated negro slavery, until the genius of John Brown and Abraham Lincoln… .” If Bernard Shaw did say anything about the Stuarts or the witches or the negroes, at least it would not be something that ten million men had said before.
LE FASI SUCCESSIVE*
Scritto appositamente per questa edizione, 1935
QUALCUNO mi ha suggerito di scrivere una serie con un titolo come “Secondi Pensieri”; una riconsiderazione delle vecchie controversie. Che i secondi pensieri siano migliori o no, temo che non siano sempre i più luminosi. Normalmente non ci viene in mente che la parola “revisione” contiene la parola scintillante “visione”. E può darsi che una visione non arrivi due volte, anche se si tratta solo della prima impressione di un povero letterato sul (a volte) deprimente argomento della letteratura del suo tempo. Ma se i secondi pensieri non sono sempre i più luminosi, si può sostenere che siano generalmente i più ampi. E nel fare queste note sulle fasi successive di Mr. Bernard Shaw, conosco la necessità dell’ampiezza; perché ho discusso con lui quasi tutta la vita; e la campagna è sempre dipesa dalla tattica del aggiramento o dell’accerchiamento, che significa essere più ampio del tuo nemico.
La prima gioia del conflitto è congratularsi con il signor Bernard Shaw per il fatto che egli sia ancora non solo vivissimo, ma anche scalmanato. In alcuni casi, come quello del capitalismo, penso che stia calciando qualcosa che merita benissimo di essere calciato. In altri casi, come quello del cattolicesimo, credo che stia calciando contro i denti acuti; come un’altra persona molto controversa sulla strada per Damasco. Ma almeno è delizioso, dopo questo lasso di anni, offrirsi di essere scalciati da uno ancora capace di quel gesto troppo trascurato.
Nello stesso modo mi è stato chiesto di aggiungere un post scriptum al mio lungo libro polemico e persino invettivo sul mio amico Mr. Bernard Shaw. All’inizio ho indietreggiato con orrore, perché sembrava comportasse due condizioni particolarmente terribili. La prima era che avrei dovuto leggere tutte le opere successive di Mr. Bernard Shaw. Il secondo e molto più spaventoso dovere era che avrei dovuto rileggere una delle mie opere precedenti. Non pretenderò di aver adempiuto a uno qualsiasi di questi doveri nei dettagli. Un bugiardo deve avere buona memoria, per ricordare ciò che ha detto; ma un bigotto, un fanatico, un uomo fissato in un sistema dogmatico di fede (come Bernard Shaw e me stesso) non deve preoccuparsi di ricordare ciò che ha scritto. Sa che tutto era vero; perché non ha cambiato il suo test fondamentale di verità. Così si scopre che i politici rileggono con ansia i loro vecchi discorsi; ma i preti sono serenamente liberi dal peso di leggere le loro vecchie prediche. Mr. Shaw e io concordiamo sul fatto che l’accordo sia più pratico dell’apprezzamento. In altre parole, siamo d’accordo sul fatto che valga la pena dissentire. Questo non è ciò che si intende per convenire di differire; perché significa convenire di disputare.
Il cielo sa quanto tempo fa sia che io scrissi questo pezzo piuttosto grezzo e giovanile di controversia; che il signor Bernard Shaw, con la sua tipica magnanimità, descrisse dicendo: «Questo libro è, come tutti si aspettavano che fosse, lo studio critico migliore che io abbia finora prodotto». E il primo fatto da accogliere con una specie di gioia astratta, per tutti coloro che sono interessati alla Vita anche se non si preoccupano di chiamarla Forza Vitale, è l’energia gioiosa e l’entusiasmo con cui Bernard Shaw ha coperto quell’ampio tratto di tempo con il suo passo da gigante. Egli ottiene ancora il più nobile trionfo naturale dell’uomo, che è trovare l’esuberanza semplicemente nell’esistenza. Questa è una vittoria che compensa più che altro ciò che può essere criticato sul lato puramente teorico. Bernard Shaw è un vecchio che è ancora giovane; in un’epoca in cui i giovani sono per la maggior parte molto vecchi. C’è una vera vittoria per le sue eccentricità negative, quando possiamo ancora vederlo fare festa con l’acqua fredda e i cavoli, mentre uomini che potrebbero essere suoi nipoti o pronipoti si rendono infelici con cocktail e champagne. In qualsiasi senso lo chiamiamo scettico, nessuno potrebbe mai chiamarlo pessimista; ed egli ha vissuto abbastanza a lungo da vedere una razza di giovani che sono troppo pessimisti anche per chiamarsi pessimisti. Quel primo fatto solo deve essere affermato alla sua grande gloria; qualunque cosa si voglia intendere per essere un pacifista nella Grande Guerra, egli non è mai stato un sconfessionista nella Guerra Santa, che è stata chiamata la Battaglia della Vita. Speranza, convinzione sincera, lo spirito combattivo— queste sono cose non così abbondanti tra i giovani del nostro tempo, che non possiamo mancare di salutarle nel principale veterano letterario dell’epoca.
La seconda grande qualità che ha sempre posseduto e non ha mai perso è questa: ed è un paradosso. Ha ampiamente difeso ciò che sono chiamate le Idee Moderne; eppure non è noioso. Le Idee Moderne in questione hanno ormai quasi duecento anni, quando non sono semplicemente vecchie quanto il mondo; e poiché sono espresse da tutti gli altri, la loro noia è devastante. Shaw ha raramente permesso che fossero noiose; perché ha coltivato una certa arte o manovra, che può essere chiamata l’Attacco a Sorpresa. Assedia il vecchio castello, sia delle convenzioni che delle convinzioni, ma non lo scalda mai dallo stesso lato dei suoi altri nemici. Un ottimo esempio di ciò è stato il dramma di Sant’Joan. Quanti deserti di opere noiose avrebbero potuto disseminare il mondo, sul tema anticlericale ordinario sviluppato dall’anticlericale ordinario che denuncia i chierici che condannano l’eroina popolare e patriottica. E quale vento di refrigerio, disperdendo tutti questi rifiuti, trovare un anticlericale abbastanza intelligente da basare il suo caso sulla difesa dei chierici, invece che sul denunciarli. Allora può trarre la deduzione che il clericalismo nel suo meglio era destinato a condannare un’eroina; perché un’eroina era destinata ad essere eretica. Il nuovo argomento è altrettanto fallace del vecchio; ma quale confortante sollievo trovare una tale prodezza in un Modernista che ha davvero un nuovo argomento! Perché al di fuori di questa affascinante perversità di G. B. S., i Modernisti hanno reso il mondo moderno un deserto di monotonia polverosa e ripetizione noiosa. Shaw continua a dire molte sciocchezze, e alcune temo io che siano sciocchezze serie; ma sempre qualcosa che ci risveglia con bravura e non ci manda semplicemente a dormire per familiarità. Non sentirete mai quella amabile voce irlandese dire, insieme a cento voci sul palco o alla radio: “La mente moderna ha certamente superato i credi e i dogmi come ha superato il cannibalismo e la tirannia degli Stuart; e le istituzioni non adatte alle nostre condizioni moderne…” Non lo sentirete mai intonare quelle parole antiche e quasi patetiche: “Quando ricordiamo che i nostri antenati bruciavano streghe, che tolleravano la schiavitù dei negri, fino al genio di John Brown e di Abraham Lincoln…” Se Bernard Shaw dicesse qualcosa sugli Stuart o sulle streghe o sui negri, almeno non sarebbe qualcosa che dieci milioni di uomini hanno detto prima.
As I have lightly and even irresponsibly hinted, I have not the slightest intention of following my hero’s later career step by step, in the manner of a good and faithful biographer. I am much too interested in what he really means to bother myself about everything that he merely says. Even in my old book the biographical and chronological sequence is sufficiently vague; and I shall not in this appendix deal in detail with each of the works which appeared after the date when my book was published. Shaw has done a vast amount of fine work, and had a vast amount of fun, since that date; but none of it seems to me to negative my general view of him, except for those who would disagree with me on the earlier work as much as on the later. In a play like Getting Married he demonstrated that drama can be dramatic, by dialogue rather than action. But that is only another way of saying that public debates are popular. And as mobs of men will go to hear party leaders discussing unreal differences on a platform it is not so strange that they will go to hear a man of genius expressing real differences on the old popular stage. He proved his talent in the trick I have mentioned, that of the surprise attack, by making an attack on marriage come, not from a mere free lover, but from a celibate priest. But he also proved his ignorance of the creed held by the celibate priests. Fanny’s First Play had a certain freshness expressed in its title; but it was not Shaw’s first play nor his last; nor does it mark any very fundamental transition or turning point in his work. The two plays which do represent something real in this way are St. Joan and The Apple-Cart.
The Apple-Cart is important as showing how many million miles he is still ahead of the Progressives; how much more Modern he is than the Modernists. He has realised that the really Modern thing is Monarchy. It does not in the least follow that because it is the modern thing, it is the right thing. I never accepted Democracy merely because it was Modern; and I shall not accept Monarchy for any such unreasonable reason. It may not be very important to be up-to-date; but at least Bernard Shaw in his old age is up-to-date. He understands the political change and challenge of our time. He horrified all the other Socialists by expressing approval of the Fascists. Indeed his last political phase seems to be largely a general loathing of anarchy; and a disposition to accept whatever can reduce it to rational order, whether it be Fascism or Bolshevism. But in The Apple-Cart he brings out many truths that his merely progressive critics were too conventional to see. They missed the fact that the play is a tragedy rather than a comedy The King scores by playing the one piece he really has; which is the King. He hits popular government in its one really weak spot; that it is not popular. But it is a shallow view to suppose that he ends with the vulgarity of victory. He ends fighting against the stars and fates and forces of the modern world like any of the tragic heroes; sed victa Catoni. But Cato fought against Cæsar and this King fought against some thing queer and very different. Here again, Shaw is admirable in seizing a real modern fact. Critics supposed that the Prime Minister was meant merely for a clumsy buffoon with a bad temper. They did not realise that his bad temper was good policy. The King represented the old dignified diplomacy, which was unruffled. The Prime Minister represented the much more secret diplomacy which is ruffled whenever it finds it convenient to be ruffled. That is the point of modern politics; that we are deceived by frankness, and swindled in a heart-to-heart talk. Emotions disguise motives.
I have already mentioned St. Joan, which any atheist might have made a eulogy on the Saint, but only Shaw would have made a defence of the Inquisition. As to his pretence of finding a Protestant in Joan of Arc, I think it sufficient answer to ask him why he did not write about Joanna Southcott. The fact is that we do distinguish between Joan and Joanna; not by whether they used private judgment, but by whether they are judged by history and humanity to have been rightly related to a Last Judgment. If there is nothing external that can judge Joan or Joanna, why then Joanna is just as likely to be right as Joan. If our brightest Bolshie remembers Joan after five hundred years, and forgets Joanna after a hundred years, it is because there is something beyond private judgment; which is public judgment. It is the judgment of the world, if it is not the judgment of the Church. But, as a fact, in the case of St. Joan, the judgment of the Church put itself right centuries before the judgment of the world.
But I do not profess, as I have said, to be doing justice to these particular dramatic triumphs; though the two last mentioned certainly were dramatic triumphs. I am most concerned about works I have not yet mentioned; because I am interested in basic things like theology. And in practice every man is a theologian, even when he is not a theist. The great later work of Shaw is in Back to Methuselah; in which he says men must live three hundred years. And I say that if he did live three hundred years he would be a Catholic.
I see no reason to retract, or even revise, what may be called the basic thesis of this old piece of pre-war journalism; which was that whatever else Mr. Bernard Shaw is, he is an orphan. There is something in the image of that motherless child, his pale face turned pathetically to the moon amid the slow snow-flakes of a Victorian melodrama, which I know would appeal to him in a soothing manner. By this I do not mean to reflect at all on his actual origin in the Dublin middle class; which was highly respectable ; far, far too respectable. That is part of the point; that he was exiled from Ireland in the very act of being born in Ireland. It was precisely because he was born in the Ascendancy Party in Ireland that he was bound to join the Revolutionary Party in England. Where he was born, he was born to be a Unionist; he had to seek a strange land, a very strange land; in which he could be a Revolutionist without being a Nationalist. About the same time, I suppose, another middle-class Dublin man was born, and accepted his Imperial destiny and petered out under the name of “Northcliffe.” Bernard Shaw at least escaped the Calvinist predestination which has ended mostly in a sort of suburban Toryism. He escaped to England, the land of sportsmen, where even revolution has always been a sport. But the result was that he was not really born in either of the two countries. And I should now say more strongly, what I said much more stumblingly, in this old book of mine. He is so alive that we might fancy he would never die. But he still suffers, even down to his splendid old age, from the annoying omission of having never been born.
Come ho leggermente e persino irresponsabilmente accennato, non ho la minima intenzione di seguire passo passo la carriera più tarda del mio eroe, alla maniera di un buon e fedele biografo. Sono troppo interessato a ciò che egli realmente intende per darmi pena di tutto ciò che egli meramente dice. Persino nel mio vecchio libro la sequenza biografica e cronologica è abbastanza vaga; e in questa appendice non tratterò in dettaglio ciascuna delle opere apparse dopo la data in cui il mio libro fu pubblicato. Shaw ha compiuto una vasta mole di ottimo lavoro, e si è vastamente divertito, dopo quella data; ma nulla di ciò mi sembra smentire la mia visione generale di lui, salvo per coloro che dissentirebbero da me tanto sull’opera anteriore quanto su quella posteriore. In un dramma come Il matrimonio egli dimostrò che il dramma può essere drammatico per mezzo del dialogo anziché dell’azione. Ma questo è solo un altro modo di dire che i pubblici dibattiti sono popolari. E poiché folle di uomini vanno ad ascoltare i capi di partito discutere differenze irreali da una tribuna, non è poi così strano che vadano ad ascoltare un uomo di genio esprimere differenze reali sul vecchio palcoscenico popolare. Provò il suo talento nel trucco che ho menzionato, quello dell’attacco a sorpresa, facendo sì che un attacco al matrimonio venisse non da un semplice libero amante, ma da un prete celibe. Ma provò anche la sua ignoranza del credo professato dai preti celibi. La prima commedia di Fanny aveva una certa freschezza espressa nel titolo; ma non era né la prima commedia di Shaw né la sua ultima; né segna alcuna transizione o svolta davvero fondamentale nella sua opera. I due drammi che rappresentano davvero qualcosa di reale in tal senso sono Santa Giovanna e Il carro delle mele.
Il carro delle mele è importante in quanto mostra quanti milioni di miglia egli sia ancora avanti ai Progressisti; quanto egli sia più Moderno dei Modernisti. Ha compreso che la cosa davvero Moderna è la Monarchia. Non ne segue affatto che, poiché è la cosa moderna, sia la cosa giusta. Non ho mai accettato la Democrazia solo perché era Moderna; e non accetterò la Monarchia per una così irragionevole ragione. Può non essere molto importante essere aggiornati; ma almeno Bernard Shaw nella sua vecchiaia è aggiornato. Egli comprende il mutamento e la sfida politica del nostro tempo. Ha inorridito tutti gli altri socialisti esprimendo approvazione per i fascisti. In verità la sua ultima fase politica sembra consistere largamente in un generale aborrimento dell’anarchia; e in una disposizione ad accettare qualunque cosa possa ridurla a un ordine razionale, sia essa il fascismo o il bolscevismo. Ma ne Il carro delle mele egli fa emergere molte verità che i suoi critici meramente progressisti erano troppo convenzionali per vedere. Non colsero il fatto che il dramma è una tragedia più che una commedia. Il Re vince giocando l’unica carta che davvero possiede; ossia il Re. Colpisce il governo popolare nel suo unico punto davvero debole; il fatto che non è popolare. Ma è una visione superficiale supporre che egli finisca con la volgarità della vittoria. Egli finisce combattendo contro le stelle e i fati e le forze del mondo moderno come uno qualunque degli eroi tragici; sed victa Catoni. Ma Catone combatté contro Cesare e questo Re combatté contro qualcosa di strano e assai diverso. Anche qui Shaw è ammirevole nell’afferrare un reale fatto moderno. I critici supposero che il Primo Ministro fosse inteso solo come un goffo buffone dal cattivo carattere. Non compresero che il suo cattivo carattere era buona politica. Il Re rappresentava la vecchia diplomazia dignitosa, che era imperturbabile. Il Primo Ministro rappresentava la diplomazia assai più segreta che si scompone ogni qualvolta trovi conveniente scomporsi. Questo è il punto della politica moderna; che siamo ingannati dalla franchezza, e imbrogliati in un colloquio a cuore aperto. Le emozioni mascherano i moventi.
Ho già menzionato Santa Giovanna, di cui qualsiasi ateo avrebbe potuto fare un elogio della Santa, ma solo Shaw ne avrebbe fatto una difesa dell’Inquisizione. Quanto alla sua pretesa di trovare una protestante in Giovanna d’Arco, ritengo risposta sufficiente domandargli perché non abbia scritto di Joanna Southcott. Il fatto è che noi distinguiamo tra Giovanna e Joanna; non in base al fatto che si servirono del giudizio privato, ma in base al fatto che dalla storia e dall’umanità sono giudicate essere state rettamente rapportate a un Giudizio Ultimo. Se non c’è nulla di esterno che possa giudicare Giovanna o Joanna, allora Joanna ha esattamente la stessa probabilità di aver ragione quanto Giovanna. Se il nostro più brillante bolscevico ricorda Giovanna dopo cinquecento anni, e dimentica Joanna dopo cento anni, è perché c’è qualcosa che va oltre il giudizio privato; ossia il giudizio pubblico. È il giudizio del mondo, se non è il giudizio della Chiesa. Ma, di fatto, nel caso di Santa Giovanna, il giudizio della Chiesa si mise nel giusto secoli prima del giudizio del mondo.
Ma non pretendo, come ho detto, di rendere giustizia a questi particolari trionfi drammatici; benché i due ultimi menzionati fossero certamente trionfi drammatici. Mi stanno più a cuore le opere che non ho ancora menzionato; perché mi interessano le cose fondamentali come la teologia. E in pratica ogni uomo è un teologo, anche quando non è un teista. La grande opera tarda di Shaw è in Ritorno a Matusalemme; in cui egli dice che gli uomini devono vivere trecento anni. E io dico che se davvero vivesse trecento anni diventerebbe cattolico.
Non vedo alcuna ragione di ritrattare, e neppure di rivedere, ciò che può dirsi la tesi fondamentale di questo vecchio pezzo di giornalismo prebellico; ossia che, qualunque altra cosa sia il signor Bernard Shaw, egli è un orfano. C’è qualcosa nell’immagine di quel fanciullo senza madre, il suo pallido volto rivolto pateticamente alla luna tra i lenti fiocchi di neve di un melodramma vittoriano, che so lo lusingherebbe in modo consolante. Con ciò non intendo affatto riflettere sulla sua reale origine nella classe media di Dublino; che era altamente rispettabile; troppo, troppo rispettabile. Questo fa parte del punto; che egli fu esiliato dall’Irlanda nell’atto stesso di nascere in Irlanda. Fu precisamente perché nacque nel Partito dell’Ascendancy in Irlanda che fu costretto a unirsi al Partito Rivoluzionario in Inghilterra. Là dove nacque, nacque per essere un Unionista; dovette cercare una terra straniera, una terra assai straniera; nella quale potesse essere un Rivoluzionario senza essere un Nazionalista. Press’a poco nello stesso tempo, suppongo, nacque un altro dublinese della classe media, e accettò il suo destino imperiale e si spense sotto il nome di «Northcliffe». Bernard Shaw almeno sfuggì alla predestinazione calvinista che è finita per lo più in una sorta di conservatorismo suburbano. Sfuggì in Inghilterra, la terra degli sportivi, dove persino la rivoluzione è sempre stata uno sport. Ma il risultato fu che egli non nacque realmente in nessuno dei due paesi. E ora direi con più forza ciò che dissi assai più incespicando in questo mio vecchio libro. Egli è così vivo che potremmo immaginare che non morirà mai. Ma egli soffre ancora, persino nella sua splendida vecchiaia, per la fastidiosa omissione di non essere mai nato.
Never being born might be great fun, if we could really live in those bloodless extravagances, which Bernard Shaw meant to make attractive in Back to Methuselah, and a younger and more advanced writer obviously meant to make repulsive in Brave New World. But as things are in any known state, there is a fallacy in the universal notion of not being born any where. The lost child finds his limitations: only they are worse limitations. The child may forget the family; but the orphan remembers the orphanage. He is not free because he is lost; he is not a cherub surveying the world from the sky. He is either born in a house or in a workhouse; he is either born in a home or in a Home. So the Poor Exile of Erin (under which sentiment figure Mr. Shaw will instantly recognise himself) did in fact begin to accumulate first impressions; and many of them do in fact remain to the last. The trouble is that they were not old impressions of Ireland, but new impressions of England; or rather of the extraordinary gang of new international idealists, cranks and crooks from every country, who always found their favourite club in England. They also were uprooted people: in other words, the Communist Club was very like an orphanage. That, I still think, is the starting-point of Bernard Shaw; and the explanation of most things about him. He did not start from home, but from homelessness. By which I do not mean the homelessness of the poor, for the poor always remember the home they never had. If Mr. Shaw, instead of being the son of solid Protestant parents in the respectable quarter of Dublin, had been the son of peasants evicted from a cottage in Connaught, and sent tramping aimlessly across the whole world, he would have been the greatest of all champions of Domesticity and the Family.
Thus we can only sum up by a paradox or double statement. We may repeat that Bernard Shaw had no traditions; and yet it is traditions that have entangled him and entangle him still. Only they are not the traditions of merely old things. They are the traditions of those horrible old things, that were quite recently new. The lessons normally to be learnt at his mother’s knee he learnt at the knee of the Lady Anarchist, whom I have mentioned in the previous text. I mean seriously that the first things that counted with Bernard Shaw were negative and anarchic things; where for most men the first things at least are positive. We may lose those positive beliefs or affections, especially for a time, but we have had them and I do not believe that George Bernard Shaw ever had them. And the proof of it is that, being one of the most genial and generous men in the world, he still cannot understand them. That was the whole substance of my criticism of Shaw, even in this very crude early criticism; the things which Shaw did not, or apparently could not, understand.
Any Latin, or member of the living and permanent culture of Europe, would sum up all I say in one word; that Shaw has never had Piety. No one, I hope, will entertain the extraordinary idea that Piety means being pious; in the popular sense of religious. Piety is still practised by thousands of French and Italian atheists, and has been praised by great writers like Maurice Barres or even Clemenceau, who had no creed in particular or no creed at all. They had nothing except fathers and mothers. The cult of the land, the cult of the dead, the cult of that most living memory by which the dead are alive, the permanence of all that has made us, that is what the Latins meant by Pietas ; and that is what I meant by the thing from which an Irish Protestant of genius was so tragically cut off. Shaw had really a great deal of Religion in the sense of spirituality: he has Religion but no Piety.
He started with the Prejudices of Progress, so much more cramping than the prejudices of memory, because memory is mixed of a thousand things. The past is infinitely varied; and if we would not draw from one old inspiration, we can draw from another. But the Future is always atrociously simple. We can only predict along lines of mathematical fate; and there is there no liberty except in ignorance. Now, with all the sympathy I feel, I can never see Shaw except as trailing behind him the clanking fetters of certain traditions; which are everything except old. For instance, he cannot believe that a man can believe in a miracle. Why not? There has never been a philosophical answer to that question which really refers to any scheme of contemporary philosophy; and still less of contemporary science. If he really still believes in the Monism of the late Professor Haeckel, I would refer him to his friend Professor Einstein. The whole business of cause and effect, personality and impersonality, even reason and unreason, is all hung up just now, so far as scientific speculation goes, and very much in the old Scriptural sense in which He has hanged the world upon nothing.
We are solemnly reminded still that there are laws of nature, when there are no longer laws even of logic. A philosopher would believe in miracles long before be believed in mathematical contradictions. Only in Mr. Shaw’s youth there were no mathematical contradictions; but there were miracles to be contradicted. He therefore, like a good conservative, goes on contradicting them. The old notion that miracles are impossible was simply a part of the old notion that Materialism was inevitable; though it is no longer inevitable, and hardly even possible. But this sort of prejudice is not imposed on a man by any man older than himself. It is still imposed on him by a man younger than himself, by himself when he was young.
I should still justify, therefore, what I said about his being actually retarded by his revolutionary origins; and especially by having no other real origins. He still stands for all that an advanced young man was supposed to state in the ‘eighties and ‘nineties. And in these matters the advanced young man has not advanced. The other form of Piety, which we call Patriotism, still honestly bewilders him, though he has now seen about two-thirds of Europe reawaken, with much too wild an energy, to reassert the reality of that idea. In his youth, the world was supposed to have left behind all such drums and trumpets; the rising generation was supposed to have survived war like slavery (and equally untruly); yet it has gone beyond even drums and trumpets in that great scientific state which had so large a Socialist Party and has made so careful a study of Bernard Shaw. For all his Futurist generation, the test was the Future; and it is now the Present. In those old days he began by proclaiming Ibsen, and quoting the progressive proverb about the new generation knocking at the door. He hardly expected it to knock entirely with police-clubs and Prussian sabres.
Non nascere mai potrebbe essere un gran divertimento, se potessimo davvero vivere in quelle esangui stravaganze che Bernard Shaw intese rendere attraenti in Ritorno a Matusalemme, e che uno scrittore più giovane e più avanzato intese evidentemente rendere ripugnanti ne Il mondo nuovo. Ma stando le cose come stanno in qualunque condizione nota, c’è una fallacia nella nozione universale di non nascere in alcun luogo. Il fanciullo smarrito trova i suoi limiti: solo che sono limiti peggiori. Il fanciullo può dimenticare la famiglia; ma l’orfano ricorda l’orfanotrofio. Egli non è libero perché è smarrito; non è un cherubino che contempla il mondo dal cielo. Egli nasce o in una casa o in un ospizio dei poveri; nasce o in un focolare o in un Istituto. Così il Povero Esule di Erin (in quale figura sentimentale il signor Shaw riconoscerà istantaneamente se stesso) cominciò in effetti ad accumulare le prime impressioni; e molte di esse in effetti restano fino all’ultimo. Il guaio è che non erano vecchie impressioni dell’Irlanda, ma nuove impressioni dell’Inghilterra; o piuttosto della straordinaria masnada di nuovi idealisti internazionali, fanatici e imbroglioni di ogni paese, che trovarono sempre il loro club prediletto in Inghilterra. Anch’essi erano gente sradicata: in altre parole, il Club Comunista somigliava molto a un orfanotrofio. Questo, lo penso ancora, è il punto di partenza di Bernard Shaw; e la spiegazione della maggior parte delle cose che lo riguardano. Egli non partì dal focolare, ma dalla mancanza di focolare. Con ciò non intendo la mancanza di casa dei poveri, poiché i poveri ricordano sempre il focolare che non ebbero mai. Se il signor Shaw, invece di essere figlio di solidi genitori protestanti nel rispettabile quartiere di Dublino, fosse stato figlio di contadini sfrattati da una casetta nel Connaught, e mandato a vagabondare senza meta per il mondo intero, sarebbe stato il più grande di tutti i campioni della Domesticità e della Famiglia.
Così possiamo riassumere solo mediante un paradosso o una duplice affermazione. Possiamo ripetere che Bernard Shaw non aveva tradizioni; eppure sono le tradizioni che lo hanno irretito e ancora lo irretiscono. Solo che non sono le tradizioni di cose meramente vecchie. Sono le tradizioni di quelle orribili cose vecchie, che erano affatto di recente nuove. Le lezioni che normalmente si apprendono sulle ginocchia della madre egli le apprese sulle ginocchia della Signora Anarchica, che ho menzionato nel testo precedente. Intendo sul serio che le prime cose che contarono per Bernard Shaw furono cose negative e anarchiche; laddove per la maggior parte degli uomini le prime cose sono almeno positive. Possiamo perdere quelle credenze o affezioni positive, specie per un tempo, ma le abbiamo avute, e io non credo che George Bernard Shaw le abbia mai avute. E la prova di ciò è che, pur essendo uno degli uomini più geniali e generosi del mondo, egli tuttora non riesce a comprenderle. Questa era tutta la sostanza della mia critica a Shaw, persino in questa assai rozza critica giovanile; le cose che Shaw non capiva, o apparentemente non poteva capire.
Qualsiasi latino, o membro della viva e permanente cultura d’Europa, riassumerebbe tutto ciò che dico in una sola parola; che Shaw non ha mai avuto la Pietas. Nessuno, spero, accarezzerà la straordinaria idea che Pietas significhi essere pii; nel senso popolare di religiosi. La Pietas è ancora praticata da migliaia di atei francesi e italiani, ed è stata lodata da grandi scrittori come Maurice Barrès o persino Clemenceau, che non avevano alcun credo in particolare o nessun credo affatto. Non avevano nulla se non padri e madri. Il culto della terra, il culto dei morti, il culto di quella vivissima memoria per cui i morti sono vivi, la permanenza di tutto ciò che ci ha fatti, ecco ciò che i latini intendevano per Pietas; ed ecco ciò che intendevo io con la cosa da cui un protestante irlandese di genio era così tragicamente reciso. Shaw aveva davvero moltissima Religione nel senso di spiritualità: ha la Religione ma non la Pietas.
Egli cominciò con i Pregiudizi del Progresso, tanto più costrittivi dei pregiudizi della memoria, perché la memoria è mescolata di mille cose. Il passato è infinitamente vario; e se non volessimo attingere a una vecchia ispirazione, possiamo attingere a un’altra. Ma il Futuro è sempre atrocemente semplice. Possiamo predire solo lungo linee di destino matematico; e lì non c’è libertà se non nell’ignoranza. Ora, con tutta la simpatia che provo, non riesco mai a vedere Shaw se non come uno che si trascina dietro le ceppa cigolanti di certe tradizioni; le quali sono tutto tranne che vecchie. Per esempio, egli non riesce a credere che un uomo possa credere in un miracolo. Perché no? Non c’è mai stata una risposta filosofica a quella domanda che si riferisca realmente a un qualche sistema di filosofia contemporanea; e ancor meno di scienza contemporanea. Se egli crede davvero ancora nel Monismo del defunto professor Haeckel, lo rimanderei al suo amico professor Einstein. Tutta la faccenda della causa e dell’effetto, della personalità e dell’impersonalità, persino della ragione e della irragionevolezza, è tutta in sospeso proprio ora, per quanto concerne la speculazione scientifica, e molto nel vecchio senso scritturale in cui Egli ha appeso il mondo sul nulla.
Ci si rammenta ancora solennemente che vi sono leggi di natura, quando non vi sono più nemmeno leggi di logica. Un filosofo crederebbe ai miracoli assai prima di credere alle contraddizioni matematiche. Solo che nella giovinezza del signor Shaw non c’erano contraddizioni matematiche; ma c’erano miracoli da contraddire. Egli dunque, da buon conservatore, continua a contraddirli. La vecchia nozione che i miracoli siano impossibili era semplicemente una parte della vecchia nozione che il Materialismo fosse inevitabile; benché non sia più inevitabile, e a stento persino possibile. Ma questo genere di pregiudizio non è imposto a un uomo da alcun uomo più vecchio di lui. Gli è ancora imposto da un uomo più giovane di lui, da lui stesso quando era giovane.
Giustificherei dunque ancora ciò che dissi circa il suo essere effettivamente ritardato dalle sue origini rivoluzionarie; e specialmente dal non avere altre origini reali. Egli sta ancora per tutto ciò che un giovane avanzato doveva sostenere negli anni Ottanta e Novanta. E in queste materie il giovane avanzato non è avanzato. L’altra forma di Pietas, che chiamiamo Patriottismo, tuttora onestamente lo sconcerta, benché egli abbia ormai visto circa due terzi d’Europa risvegliarsi, con energia fin troppo sfrenata, a riaffermare la realtà di quell’idea. Nella sua giovinezza, si supponeva che il mondo si fosse lasciato alle spalle tutti quei tamburi e quelle trombe; si supponeva che la generazione nascente fosse sopravvissuta alla guerra come alla schiavitù (e con altrettanta falsità); eppure essa è andata oltre persino i tamburi e le trombe in quel grande stato scientifico che aveva un così vasto Partito Socialista e ha fatto uno studio così accurato di Bernard Shaw. Per tutta la sua generazione Futurista, la prova era il Futuro; e ora è il Presente. In quei vecchi giorni egli cominciò proclamando Ibsen, e citando il proverbio progressista sulla nuova generazione che bussa alla porta. Ben poco si aspettava che essa bussasse interamente con manganelli di polizia e sciabole prussiane.
The moral of all this is, I repeat, that he had a less direct vision of the Future for having no direct tradition of the Past. The lesson of Piety is the very simple one; that religion and romance and patriotism are not dead, or even dying; that they are not nonsense, and that nothing is nonsense except the notion that they will die. So far I should completely support the case I made in this book against Mr. Shaw’s depreciation of chivalry or the romantic tradition. There is a case for saying that romance will reappear in a damaging or dangerous form; there is no case at all for saying it will disappear. I mean that there is no case on the cold facts; which prove a perpetual rebirth of the hot fancies. Anybody of course is free to say that it ought to disappear; as I am free to say that the opposite heresy, the dull monomania of Marxism ought to disappear. I only say, as a fact, that the facts which do appear show the world going quite as wild in the romantic as in the realistic direction. This applies, curiously enough, even to many moral and domestic ideas Mr. Shaw would have called romantic. The Roman Matron of Mussolini, and even the German Woman (who does not smoke), is a daughter or granddaughter of Candida or Gloria. She is the real Rising Generation now knocking on the door— and demanding to be let into the Doll’s House.
I would never ask him to confess it, but I think it is true that he and his associates all assumed from the start that the world was sweeping forward on some great evolutionary or revolutionary curve to certain great simplifications, leaving behind already all that could really interrupt such a simplification; moving towards The International; Disarmament; Free Love; and in his case, as in many others, Prohibition and Vegetarianism. It is amusing by the way, that even in tracing this curve of Progress, they cut clean across the curve already made by the last and no less innocent innovators and friends of Progress. The age of Herbert Spencer demanded Free Trade and was horrified at Free Love; the age of Bernard Shaw demanded Free Love and vehemently vetoed Free Trade. Nor have I ever understood why laxity in sex should so often have been coupled with severity in diet. I do not see why a man should be restricted in the matter of his own liquor, and unrestricted in his loves which affected other people’s lives. But the point is that these notions or nostrums, however incongruous, were chained together; and Bernard Shaw, merely as a young Revolutionist, was chained to them; and he is still dragging the whole length of the chain. All these things were supposed to go together, or rather to come together, and they were to come together fairly soon.
In this sweeping social anticipation, there have been two great setbacks; which measure the history of Shaw since the period of which I wrote. One was the Great War, about which he uttered a great many of those splendid half-truths which are his speciality but largely gave a general impression of something that was simply not true. For instance, he said that British and German officers and aristocrats were all of the same sort. He ignored a fact, which all Europe and most of Germany had felt from the first; that the Junker is not merely an aristocrat; and not merely a soldier. He is a Prussian and a peculiar product of one place and time. If he meant that a British officer was as bad as a Prussian Officer, he had a right to his opinion and might in many cases be right. If he meant that a British officer was like a Prussian officer he was quite wrong. There was the same falsifying half-truth in his pose as the practical man, calling a scrap of paper a scrap of paper. In fact, to scrap every scrap of paper, in the way of contract or treaty, would be about the most unpractical action in the world.
But it was from the first the boast of Shaw to be an Opportunist; it was also his boast to be always inopportune. It was his sincere ambition to show that he was the only sensible man in the world; and he has very nobly and heroically earned, through that ambition, the reputation of being out of his senses. It may be worth while to say a word here upon this point of Opportunism, because it was the philosophy with which he actually started, and I noted it in my book in connection with one of his earliest books. With characteristic shyness and modesty, he called it Ibsenism. He also wrote a similar book called The Perfect Wagnerite, but I am sure it really described The Perfect Shavian. But it is a much more interesting point that he began with Opportunism, even while he was moving faster and faster towards Socialism; and it never seems to have struck him that Opportunism is a very extreme form of Individualism. It was the whole point of his Ibsenism that Ibsen could solve any private problem without reference to public or general ideals. A man must do what is best in the particular case; in the private problem. If so, there seems no mortal reason why he should not apply private property to the private problem. He must not bother about conforming to any general ideal. If so, there seems no reason why he should bother about conforming to the Socialist ideal. The fact is that men like Mr. Shaw, by abandoning an internal ideal, were driven to cling to a mere external rule; in the very definite sense of a rule ruling the State. He cast out contemptuously in his youth the idea of an ideal, in the sense of a conscience working from within; and has nothing left except compulsion working from without. That is how he became a State Socialist. As I have remarked elsewhere, he started by saying there is no Golden Rule, and ends by asserting that there must be an Iron Rule.
Here, however, apart from this parenthesis, we follow only a very interesting political career. In the great matter of the War, Shaw was upon one point absolutely and admirably right. He was wrong, as I think, in lumping England along with Prussia, or pretending that the English popular indignation was all hypocrisy; but he was right in one calculation about the English character. He was right in supposing that the popular anger would pass. For the English are a moody and a fickle people; contrasted in that with the Irish, who carry constancy to the point of a mortal sin; the sin of mere hatred. In a few years, all the tales told against the Germans had gone to join the tales told against the Russians in the Crimean War or the French in the Napoleonic War. A strong Pacifist reaction set in; and Shaw had all the benefit of the reaction. Shaw and Wells, in a sense, both treated the thing as The War That Would End War; but Wells because it was right and Shaw because it was wrong. That (I may remark in passing) happens to be an excellent proof of what I say about Shaw being without roots or origin. Wells in many ways is more Pacifist than Shaw; but Wells is English. He is not the son of a cricketer for nothing, nor a man without subconscious loyalties, such as are upheaved by an earthquake like 1914. Therefore he was a practical patriot even in being a theoretical pacifist; and Mr. Britling did make some attempts to see it through. Mr. Shaw was quite content with believing that he could see through it.
La morale di tutto questo è, lo ripeto, che egli ebbe una visione meno diretta del Futuro per il fatto di non avere alcuna tradizione diretta del Passato. La lezione della Pietà è la più semplice che vi sia: che la religione e il romanticismo e il patriottismo non sono morti, e nemmeno morenti; che non sono sciocchezze, e che nulla è sciocchezza tranne l’idea che essi moriranno. Fin qui dovrei sostenere in pieno la tesi che ho costruito in questo libro contro il disprezzo del signor Shaw per la cavalleria o per la tradizione romantica. Vi è motivo per dire che il romanticismo riapparirà in una forma dannosa o pericolosa; non vi è motivo alcuno per dire che scomparirà. Intendo che non vi è motivo alcuno sui freddi fatti; i quali provano una perpetua rinascita delle fantasie ardenti. Chiunque, s’intende, è libero di dire che dovrebbe scomparire; come io sono libero di dire che l’eresia opposta, la ottusa monomania del marxismo, dovrebbe scomparire. Dico soltanto, come fatto, che i fatti che effettivamente appaiono mostrano il mondo impazzire tanto nella direzione romantica quanto in quella realistica. Questo si applica, per quanto curioso, perfino a molte idee morali e domestiche che il signor Shaw avrebbe definito romantiche. La Matrona Romana di Mussolini, e perfino la Donna Tedesca (che non fuma), è figlia o nipote di Candida o di Gloria. Ella è la vera Generazione Nascente che ora bussa alla porta— e pretende di essere ammessa nella Casa di Bambola.
Non gli chiederei mai di confessarlo, ma credo sia vero che egli e i suoi sodali diedero tutti per scontato fin dal principio che il mondo stesse precipitando in avanti su qualche grande curva evolutiva o rivoluzionaria verso certe grandi semplificazioni, lasciandosi già alle spalle tutto ciò che potesse realmente interrompere una simile semplificazione; muovendo verso L’Internazionale; il Disarmo; il Libero Amore; e nel suo caso, come in molti altri, il Proibizionismo e il Vegetarianismo. È divertente, per inciso, che perfino nel tracciare questa curva del Progresso essi tagliassero di netto la curva già tracciata dagli ultimi e non meno innocenti innovatori e amici del Progresso. L’età di Herbert Spencer esigeva il Libero Scambio ed era inorridita dal Libero Amore; l’età di Bernard Shaw esigeva il Libero Amore e poneva un veto veemente sul Libero Scambio. Né ho mai capito perché la licenza in materia di sesso dovesse così spesso accompagnarsi al rigore nella dieta. Non vedo perché un uomo debba essere limitato nella questione dei propri liquori, e illimitato nei propri amori, che toccavano le vite di altre persone. Ma il punto è che queste nozioni o panacee, per quanto incongrue, erano incatenate insieme; e Bernard Shaw, semplicemente in quanto giovane Rivoluzionario, era incatenato ad esse; e ancora si trascina dietro l’intera lunghezza della catena. Tutte queste cose si supponeva dovessero andare insieme, o piuttosto venire insieme, e sarebbero venute insieme assai presto.
In questa travolgente anticipazione sociale vi sono stati due grandi arretramenti; che misurano la storia di Shaw dal periodo di cui ho scritto. Uno fu la Grande Guerra, sulla quale egli pronunciò moltissime di quelle splendide mezze verità che sono la sua specialità ma che in gran parte diedero un’impressione generale di qualcosa che semplicemente non era vero. Per esempio, disse che gli ufficiali e gli aristocratici britannici e tedeschi erano tutti della stessa specie. Ignorò un fatto, che tutta l’Europa e la maggior parte della Germania avevano sentito fin dal principio; che lo Junker non è meramente un aristocratico; e non meramente un soldato. Egli è un Prussiano e un prodotto peculiare di un luogo e di un tempo particolari. Se intendeva che un ufficiale britannico fosse cattivo quanto un ufficiale prussiano, aveva diritto alla sua opinione e in molti casi poteva avere ragione. Se intendeva che un ufficiale britannico fosse simile a un ufficiale prussiano, aveva del tutto torto. Vi era la stessa falsificante mezza verità nella sua posa di uomo pratico, quando definiva un pezzo di carta un pezzo di carta. In verità, stracciare ogni pezzo di carta, in fatto di contratto o di trattato, sarebbe l’azione più impraticabile del mondo.
Ma fu fin dal principio il vanto di Shaw l’essere un Opportunista; fu del pari il suo vanto l’essere sempre inopportuno. Fu sua sincera ambizione mostrare che egli era l’unico uomo assennato del mondo; e assai nobilmente ed eroicamente si è guadagnato, mediante quell’ambizione, la reputazione di essere fuori di senno. Può valere la pena di spendere qui una parola su questo punto dell’Opportunismo, poiché fu la filosofia con cui egli effettivamente esordì, e la annotai nel mio libro a proposito di uno dei suoi primissimi libri. Con caratteristica timidezza e modestia, la chiamò Ibsenismo. Scrisse anche un libro simile intitolato Il Perfetto Wagneriano, ma sono certo che esso descrivesse in realtà Il Perfetto Shaviano. Ma è un punto assai più interessante che egli esordisse con l’Opportunismo, pur muovendo sempre più rapidamente verso il Socialismo; e non sembra mai avergli attraversato la mente che l’Opportunismo sia una forma estremissima di Individualismo. Era l’intero punto del suo Ibsenismo che Ibsen potesse risolvere qualsiasi problema privato senza riferimento ad alcun ideale pubblico o generale. Un uomo deve fare ciò che è meglio nel caso particolare; nel problema privato. Se così è, non sembra esservi ragione mortale per cui egli non debba applicare la proprietà privata al problema privato. Non deve preoccuparsi di conformarsi ad alcun ideale generale. Se così è, non sembra esservi ragione per cui debba preoccuparsi di conformarsi all’ideale socialista. Il fatto è che uomini come il signor Shaw, abbandonando un ideale interno, furono spinti ad aggrapparsi a una mera regola esterna; nel senso ben definito di una regola che governa lo Stato. Egli scacciò con disprezzo, in gioventù, l’idea di un ideale, nel senso di una coscienza operante dall’interno; e nulla gli resta se non la costrizione operante dall’esterno. Fu così che divenne un Socialista di Stato. Come ho osservato altrove, egli cominciò col dire che non vi è alcuna Regola d’Oro, e finisce con l’affermare che vi deve essere una Regola di Ferro.
Qui, tuttavia, a prescindere da questa parentesi, seguiamo soltanto una carriera politica assai interessante. Nella grande questione della Guerra, Shaw fu su un punto assolutamente e mirabilmente nel giusto. Aveva torto, come io credo, nell’accomunare l’Inghilterra alla Prussia, o nel pretendere che l’indignazione popolare inglese fosse tutta ipocrisia; ma aveva ragione in un calcolo circa il carattere inglese. Aveva ragione nel supporre che la collera popolare sarebbe passata. Poiché gli inglesi sono un popolo lunatico e volubile; in ciò contrapposto agli irlandesi, che spingono la costanza fino al punto di un peccato mortale; il peccato del mero odio. In pochi anni, tutte le storie raccontate contro i tedeschi erano andate a raggiungere le storie raccontate contro i russi nella Guerra di Crimea o i francesi nella Guerra Napoleonica. Subentrò una forte reazione pacifista; e Shaw ebbe tutto il beneficio della reazione. Shaw e Wells, in un certo senso, trattarono entrambi la cosa come La Guerra Che Avrebbe Posto Fine alla Guerra; ma Wells perché era giusto e Shaw perché era sbagliato. Ciò (posso osservarlo di sfuggita) si dà il caso sia una prova eccellente di quanto dico circa Shaw, che è privo di radici o di origine. Wells per molti versi è più pacifista di Shaw; ma Wells è inglese. Non è figlio di un giocatore di cricket per niente, né un uomo senza lealtà subconsce, quali sono sollevate da un terremoto come quello del 1914. Perciò egli fu un patriota pratico pur nell’essere un pacifista teorico; e il signor Britling fece davvero qualche tentativo di portarla a compimento. Il signor Shaw si accontentò pienamente di credere di poterci vedere chiaro.
Anyhow, nearly everybody was a Pacifist soon after the War. We must forgive our enemies. We must forgive practically everybody except our friends—and especially our Allies. After all, it was just as easy to impute militarism to Frenchmen as to Germans, or to Eskimos for that matter; and it could be quaintly pretended that all French soldiers are black. Well, it seems almost cruel to insist on the sequel. Just when the World was really moving towards the World State, just when everybody agreed that Bernard Shaw had been right in denouncing that war or any war, just when the notion that Prussia is not England and that Junkers were really dangerous was completely covered with the contempt that it deserved— there suddenly appeared the great Second Setback to the huge humanitarian reunion, which would show that everybody was like everybody else, only more so. I remembered, with a melancholy smile, how Mr. Bernard Shaw had endeavoured to prove to my brother that Prussia did not really exist in history; that Frederick the Great and Louis the Fourteenth were very much alike, especially Louis the Fourteenth. And then came the shock that has changed all the politics of the West. Steel Helmets and Storm Troops swept a whole vast civilisation like a storm. The world resounded with the wildest praises of War as War such as have not been heard since barbarous times, if then. And where did this happen? Did it break out in the negro population of Paris ? Was it a feature of the ruthless militarism of Belgium, or of Britain and America and the other Allies? No, the second setback occurred exactly where my brother and I and all our group had always said that such things would occur: in the Prussianised countries that are an alien thing in Christendom. It happened in Germany, in spite of the widespread influence of Mr. Bernard Shaw’s plays.
In short, in that great difference between Mr. Shaw and myself, which grew out of the Great War and developed after my book was written, I never felt any real doubt that I was right and he was wrong; and I feel even less doubt about it now. But I hope I always recognised that he was conspicuously courageous and splendidly sincere; and I often wished that I were in the minority with him, as, during the Boer War, he might well have wished to be in the minority with me. For there is no doubt that he likes being in a minority; and prefers, if possible, to be in a minority of one. I make no apology for having put first this matter of political philosophy and foreign policy. It is the great historical event on which many things will turn; possibly including the merely artistic, ethical and spiritual things, which I will now consider.
There have always been many who said that Shaw could not be taken seriously; that he was too frivolous; but my own instinct has always been that he was too serious. There is nothing Rabelaisian about his laughter; and even in being immoral, he would never be indecent. There is a certain Puritanism even in what many would call his lapses, theoretical or practical, into the philosophy of Nudism. He has given practical provocative expression to a vague but very widespread modern notion that nothing ought to be hidden; whether in the form of being photographed like an artist’s model, or of publishing the love letters of an actress with whom the whole world was in love. These are acts of bad taste; but not of inconsistency and certainly not merely of levity. They are all part of the theory; and a very thin and insufficient theory it is. The Nudist feels the obligation of Nudism rather more earnestly than the normal man feels the obligation of wearing clothes. That is why I never could feel that Shaw’s lapses in this manner were immoralities invalidating respect or friendship. But it is only right to say that his intellectual consistency was a good deal puffed up by vanity. It must be admitted that much of Shaw might be rewritten as Show; in the sense of showing off. The character would not be complete without this almost childish weakness; but again, it has a touch of a childish innocence. There is nothing vicious about Shaw, even when he happens to hold vicious theories about virtue. But I will here pass from the question of his morality to the more important question of his religion.
Shaw’s general creed, or view of the cosmos, he calls Creative Evolution; and it is first necessary to note the genuine value and controversial courage of this distinction. Primarily, he means to distinguish Creative Evolution from Darwinism; which may be called blind or blundering evolution. In the technical terms of the cheap encyclopædia, Shaw upholds Lamarck against Darwin. It is better to say (freeing ourselves for a moment from the modern scientific passion for invoking authority, or the mere names of authorities) that Shaw conceives of will as being an almost divinely directing power in evolution; even if it be not only the divine will, but the human will, or the animal or even vegetable will: some effort resembling will in the worm or even the weed. In this sense he is fully justified in calling his evolution creative; in a sense it would be creative even without a creator. He is also fully justified in calling it a flat contradiction of the involuntary and undetermined evolution of Darwin. For what is now called Determinism means the absence of determination. It does quite coldly and seriously mean that no god, angel, animal or vegetable ever determined to do anything. Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection is confessedly a chapter of accidents. The trouble is that, like something in the novels of his fellow-Victorians, it is also a chapter of coincidences. The hero happening to meet the heroine for the first time at the one moment when he can rescue her from robbers— the mother happening to speak to the one ragged tramp who turns out to be her son and the long-lost heir—these are quite moderate and probable coincidences compared with the coincidence which Darwin demands at every step of his argument; that animals should grow organs which are useful at the moment, while at the same moment they grow organs that will be useful centuries hence; that one accidental oddity should give a creature a complete triumph, when all its other oddities or ordinary qualities are just as likely as not to whelm it in defeat— these are coincidences fitted, not so much for the Victorian novel as for the Victorian melodrama. These facts are being more and more widely recognised in Europe; and the official defence of Darwinism is wearing very thin even in England. It had its most conspicuous collapse in the astonishing incident of the encounter between Sir Arthur Keith and Mr. Belloc. If our public opinion were enlightened about the latest scientific news, that encounter would be recognised as a decisive battle. Mr. Wells had suggested that there was no scientific reaction against Darwin. Mr. Belloc gave him more than a score of scientific names and quotations to the contrary; including one from Vialleton. Mr. Wells seemed to be sufficiently soothed by finding that the printer had misspelt the name of Vialleton on one particular page. He was easily pleased. Sir Arthur Keith did make some attempt to deal with the matter in dispute; and his contribution was a flat contradiction; he said that Vialleton had never said anything of the sort. It was then discovered, to the wonder of the world, that Mr. Belloc, that obscure amateur, was talking about the last and most important book by Vialleton, of which Sir Arthur Keith, that supreme specialist, had never even heard. Our specialists are very fortunate. Reputations are ruined for ever by that sort of thing, when it happens on the Continent.
Comunque, quasi tutti erano pacifisti poco dopo la guerra. Dobbiamo perdonare i nostri nemici. Dobbiamo perdonare praticamente tutti tranne i nostri amici — e specialmente i nostri Alleati. In fin dei conti, era altrettanto facile attribuire il militarismo ai francesi quanto ai tedeschi, o agli eschimesi del resto; e si poteva pretesamente sostenere che tutti i soldati francesi fossero neri. Beh, sembra quasi crudele insistere sul seguito. Proprio quando il mondo stava davvero muovendosi verso lo Stato Mondiale, proprio quando tutti concordavano che Bernard Shaw avesse ragione nel denunciare quella guerra o qualsiasi guerra, proprio quando l’idea che la Prussia non fosse l’Inghilterra e che i Junker fossero davvero pericolosi era completamente ricoperta del disprezzo che meritava — è apparsa improvvisamente la grande Seconda Battuta d’Arresto alla enorme riunione umanitaria, che avrebbe dimostrato che tutti erano uguali agli altri, solo di più. Ricordai, con un sorriso malinconico, come il signor Bernard Shaw si fosse sforzato di provare a mio fratello che la Prussia non esisteva davvero nella storia; che Federico il Grande e Luigi XIV erano molto simili, specialmente Luigi XIV. E poi è arrivato lo shock che ha cambiato tutta la politica dell’Occidente. Capi elmetti d’acciaio e truppe d’assalto hanno spazzato via un’intera vasta civiltà come una tempesta. Il mondo ha risuonato di selvagge lodi della Guerra in quanto tale, quali non si erano udite da tempi barbarici, se mai. E dove è successo tutto questo? È scoppiato nella popolazione nera di Parigi ? Era una caratteristica del militarismo spietato del Belgio, o della Gran Bretagna e dell’America e degli altri Alleati? No, la seconda battuta d’arresto è avvenuta esattamente dove mio fratello ed io e tutto il nostro gruppo avevamo sempre detto che sarebbe successo: nei paesi prussianizzati che sono una cosa aliena nel Cristianesimo. È accaduto in Germania, nonostante l’influenza diffusa delle opere del signor Bernard Shaw.
In breve, in quella grande differenza tra il signor Shaw e me stesso, che è nata dalla Grande Guerra e si è sviluppata dopo che il mio libro era stato scritto, non ho mai avuto alcun vero dubbio di avere ragione io e torto lui; e ne ho ancora meno adesso. Ma spero di aver sempre riconosciuto che egli è stato in modo evidente coraggioso e splendido sinceramente; e spesso avrei voluto essere nella minoranza con lui, come durante la guerra boera, forse bene avrebbe potuto desiderare di essere nella minoranza con me. Perché non c’è alcun dubbio che gli piaccia trovarsi in una minoranza; e preferisca, se possibile, trovarsi in una minoranza di uno. Non mi scuso per aver messo prima questa questione della filosofia politica e della politica estera. È il grande evento storico su cui molte cose dipenderanno; possibilmente anche le cose artistiche, etiche e spirituali, che ora considererò.
Ci sono sempre stati molti che dicevano che Shaw non poteva essere preso sul serio; che era troppo frivolo; ma il mio istinto è stato sempre che fosse troppo serio. Non c’è nulla di Rabelais nella sua risata; e anche nel comportarsi in modo immorale, non sarebbe mai indecente. C’è un certo puritanesimo anche in quello che molti chiamerebbero i suoi lapsus, teorici o pratici, nella filosofia del nudismo. Ha dato espressione provocatoria e pratica a una vaga ma molto diffusa idea moderna che nulla dovrebbe essere nascosto; sia sotto forma di essere fotografati come un modello d’arte, o di pubblicare le lettere d’amore di un’attrice con cui tutto il mondo era innamorato. Si tratta di atti di cattivo gusto; ma non di incoerenza e certamente non solo di leggerezza. Fanno tutti parte della teoria; ed è una teoria molto sottile e insufficiente. Il nudista sente l’obbligo del nudismo più seriamente di quanto un uomo normale senta l’obbligo di indossare i vestiti. Ecco perché non ho mai potuto pensare che i lapsus di Shaw in questo modo fossero immoralità che invalidassero il rispetto o l’amicizia. Ma è giusto dire che la sua coerenza intellettuale era molto gonfiata dalla vanità. Bisogna ammettere che gran parte di Shaw potrebbe essere riscritta come Show; nel senso di fare sfoggio. Il carattere non sarebbe completo senza questa debolezza quasi infantile; ma, ancora una volta, ha un tocco di innocenza infantile. Non c’è nulla di vizioso in Shaw, anche quando capita che abbia teorie viziate sulla virtù. Ma qui passerò dalla questione della sua moralità alla più importante questione della sua religione.
La dottrina generale di Shaw, o la sua visione del cosmo, lui la chiama Evoluzione Creatrice; e bisogna anzitutto notare il valore genuino e il coraggio controverso di questa distinzione. Prima di tutto vuole distinguere l’Evoluzione Creatrice dal darwinismo; che si può chiamare evoluzione cieca o casuale. Usando i termini tecnici delle enciclopedie popolari, Shaw sostiene Lamarck contro Darwin. È meglio dire (liberandoci per un momento dalla passione scientifica moderna di invocare l’autorità, o semplicemente i nomi degli autorevoli) che Shaw concepisce la volontà come una potenza quasi divina che dirige l’evoluzione; anche se non è solo la volontà divina, ma anche quella umana, animale e persino vegetale: un sforzo simile alla volontà nel verme o addirittura nell’erba. In questo senso ha pieno diritto di chiamare la sua evoluzione creatrice; in un certo senso sarebbe creatrice anche senza un creatore. Ha ugualmente ragione a definirla una contraddizione netta dell’evoluzione involontaria e indeterminata di Darwin. Perché quello che oggi si chiama Determinismo significa l’assenza di determinazione. Vuole dire, freddamente e seriamente, che nessun dio, angelo, animale o pianta ha mai deciso di fare qualcosa. La teoria della Selezione Naturale di Darwin è indubbiamente un capitolo di incidenti. Il guaio è che, come in qualche romanzo dei suoi coetanei vittoriani, è anche un capitolo di coincidenze. L’eroe che incontra la eroina per la prima volta proprio nel momento in cui può salvarla dai ladri; la madre che parla al primo vagabondo stracciato che si rivela suo figlio e l’erede scomparso da tempo: queste sono coincidenze moderate e probabili rispetto alla coincidenza che Darwin esige a ogni passo del suo ragionamento, che gli animali sviluppino organi utili in quel momento mentre nello stesso istante crescono organi che saranno utili secoli dopo; che una stranezza accidentale dia a una creatura un trionfo completo quando tutte le altre sue stranezze o qualità ordinarie sono altrettanto probabili di travolgerla nella sconfitta: queste sono coincidenze adatte non tanto al romanzo vittoriano quanto al melodramma vittoriano. Questi fatti sono sempre più riconosciuti in Europa; e la difesa ufficiale del darwinismo si sta assottigliando anche in Inghilterra. Ha avuto il suo crollo più clamoroso nell’incredibile episodio dell’incontro tra Sir Arthur Keith e Mr. Belloc. Se l’opinione pubblica fosse illuminata sulle ultime novità scientifiche, quell’incontro sarebbe riconosciuto come una battaglia decisiva. Mr. Wells aveva suggerito che non ci fosse reazione scientifica contro Darwin. Mr. Belloc gli ha dato più di venti nomi e citazioni scientifiche contrarie; tra cui uno di Vialleton. Mr. Wells sembrava sufficientemente rassicurato dal trovare che il tipografo aveva sbagliato a scrivere il nome di Vialleton in una pagina particolare. Era facile accontentarlo. Sir Arthur Keith ha fatto qualche tentativo di affrontare la questione in discussione; e il suo contributo è stato un netto contraddittorio: ha detto che Vialleton non aveva mai detto nulla del genere. È allora emerso, con meraviglia del mondo, che Mr. Belloc, quel modesto dilettante, parlava dell’ultimo e più importante libro di Vialleton, di cui Sir Arthur Keith, quell’insigne specialista, non aveva mai neanche sentito parlare. I nostri specialisti hanno molta fortuna. Le reputazioni vengono rovinate per sempre da cose del genere quando succedono sul Continente.
This business about Creative Evolution, noted in my book under the name and topic of Man and Superman, has since taken a much longer stride in the work called Back to Methuselah. It is a very long stride indeed, for the play lasts for two or three nights, as if to prepare its audience for the practice of living for two or three hundred years. Some have questioned whether so large a slice, however, should be claimed by Mr. Shaw out of our present practical life of three-score years and ten. The play contains some excellent dialogue, as do all the other plays; but it is very unequal, and, what is worse, ultimately unequal to its task. For, with numberless passages of wit, and some passages of eloquence, Bernard Shaw does fail to do either of the two things he is supposed to do. He fails to explain why this unaccountably and ever lastingly unfolding universe, this nothing changing into everything for no reason in particular—he does fail to show why this changing world should be, or should be supposed to be, always changing for the better. And he does most definitely fail to make us feel that it is changing for the better. He may like the notion of a world governed by ghostly Tertiaries, of bloodless Struldbugs who kill people for purely sociological considerations; but as a prospect of improvement for the normally complete human being, there is not much to choose between the Paradise of Shaw and the Inferno of Swift. There is nothing at all to choose between the Paradise of Shaw and the Inferno of Aldous Huxley. But Aldous Huxley is a younger man and therefore not so progressive and revolutionary. As Mr. Arnold Lunn has truly remarked, “Progress is dead; and Brave New World is its epitaph.”
But there is a deeper difficulty than any difference of taste about the chilly charms of an Earthly Paradise apparently situated at the North Pole. It is involved in this whole idea of endless evolutionary change, and it can perhaps best be considered under the particular myth or symbol of the Superman. An intimate disciple of Shaw said to me at the time of the earlier play, “Nietzsche is at least right in one sentence: Man is a thing that has to be surpassed.’ ” I replied, ” In one sense the remark is most Christian and orthodox; but unless you have a permanent standard of good, how do you know when he has been surpassed?” The disciple had apparently never thought of this. Or, to put it shortly, suppose six Supermen appear at once and stand in a row, all quite different and departing from the human type in quite contrary directions. Suppose one is a giant, braver but more brutal than men; another a Hindu saint, milder but more ascetic than men ; another a great poet of pleasure, more joyous but more selfish than men ; and so on through any number of quite contrary examples of superior beings beyond the easy imitation of man. How does the Evolutionist know which of these superior beings is superior to the other superior being? How can he possibly know unless he already has a fixed and unalterable ideal of a superior being; and if he has, then the whole metaphysic of mutability falls to pieces. There is something from the beginning which survives all changes to the end; and it is not enough that there is always a beyond, for beyond it there is no beyond.
Finally, there is a fundamental connection between these stark imaginations of strange births and radiant monsters taking the place of men, and those first fads which remain as mere provincial prejudices; even fads as farcical as that of teetotalism. They are connected by a cosmic conception, perhaps so large as to be almost unconscious, which separates men like Mr. Shaw from the older Christian tradition; against which they think they have rebelled, but of which they have never really thought, and indeed, never really heard. Perhaps the shortest way of stating it is this. The older Christian theology stands out against any such newer theory, and indeed against most other religions, in this definite and defiant feature: that it is the one and only philosophy that has refused to despair of Man.
Now Mr. Shaw’s evolutionism, and nearly everybody else’s, is absolutely rooted in a despair about Man. That is what is picturesquely symbolised by a rather vague and evasive enthusiasm about the Superman. What is really meant by the consolation of the beyond, and the expectation of a superior organism? It is simply that the actual animal called Man is to be treated almost as an extinct animal. He is a fossil walking the streets; he is himself a sort of appendix of the cosmos; a superfluous organ. He is one of those remarkable things in evolution which only survive to prove that they have no survival value. “Man is a thing that has to be surpassed.” Now it follows from this view of the cosmic disease as a sort of astral appendicitis, that the process of improvement must be that particular sort of simplification to which we give the name of Amputation. Things that have always been a part of the human being may be, for all anybody knows, obstacles to the formation of the new and name less and simplified superhuman being. Certainly a man is not a complete man without a nose; but, for anything anybody knows about supermen, they may be better without noses. Noses may be nests for germs; or the noise of the blowing of noses may disturb the delicate nervous organism of that Strong Man of the future, who is to be the master of us all, it will be remembered that Aunt Jobiska, in the rhymes of the learned Mr. Lear, took this view and reasoned in this fashion, saying that “everyone knows that a Pobble is better with out his toes.” Aunt Jobiska is a model evolutionist of this school of thought. It consists in first inventing an unknown figure, about which nobody can even imagine anything, such as a Pobble or a Superman, and then saying arbitrarily that he will not need something which everybody we know of needs very much indeed.
Questa faccenda dell’Evoluzione Creatrice, di cui ho preso nota nel mio libro sotto il nome e il tema di Uomo e Superuomo, ha da allora compiuto un passo assai più lungo nell’opera intitolata Torniamo a Matusalemme. È davvero un passo lunghissimo, giacché il dramma dura due o tre serate, quasi a preparare il suo pubblico alla pratica di vivere per due o trecento anni. Alcuni si sono tuttavia domandati se una fetta tanto ampia debba essere pretesa dal signor Shaw a spese della nostra presente vita pratica di settant’anni. Il dramma contiene qualche eccellente dialogo, come del resto tutti gli altri drammi; ma è molto ineguale e, quel che è peggio, alla fine inadeguato al proprio compito. Poiché, con innumerevoli passi di arguzia e alcuni passi di eloquenza, Bernard Shaw non riesce a fare né l’una né l’altra delle due cose che dovrebbe fare. Non riesce a spiegare perché questo universo inspiegabilmente e perennemente in via di dispiegamento, questo nulla che si muta in ogni cosa senza alcuna ragione particolare — non riesce a mostrare perché questo mondo mutevole debba, o si debba supporre che debba, mutarsi sempre in meglio. E non riesce, nel modo più assoluto, a farci sentire che esso si muta in meglio. Può anche piacergli l’idea di un mondo governato da spettrali Terziari, da esangui Struldbrugg che uccidono la gente per pure considerazioni sociologiche; ma come prospettiva di miglioramento per l’essere umano normalmente completo, non c’è molto da scegliere tra il Paradiso di Shaw e l’Inferno di Swift. Non c’è nulla, proprio nulla da scegliere tra il Paradiso di Shaw e l’Inferno di Aldous Huxley. Ma Aldous Huxley è un uomo più giovane e perciò non così progressista e rivoluzionario. Come ha giustamente osservato il signor Arnold Lunn, «Il Progresso è morto; e Il Mondo Nuovo è il suo epitaffio».
Ma vi è una difficoltà più profonda di qualunque divergenza di gusto sui gelidi incanti di un Paradiso Terrestre apparentemente situato al Polo Nord. Essa è implicata in tutta questa idea di un mutamento evolutivo senza fine, e forse la si può considerare al meglio sotto il particolare mito o simbolo del Superuomo. Un intimo discepolo di Shaw mi disse, al tempo del dramma anteriore: «Nietzsche ha almeno ragione in una frase: L’uomo è una cosa che deve essere superata’.» Io risposi: «In un certo senso l’osservazione è quanto mai cristiana e ortodossa; ma se non hai un criterio permanente di bene, come fai a sapere quando egli è stato superato?» Il discepolo, a quanto pare, non ci aveva mai pensato. Oppure, per dirla in breve, supponiamo che sei Superuomini compaiano d’un tratto e si dispongano in fila, tutti del tutto diversi e allontanantisi dal tipo umano in direzioni affatto contrarie. Supponiamo che uno sia un gigante, più coraggioso ma più brutale degli uomini; un altro un santo indù, più mite ma più ascetico degli uomini; un altro un grande poeta del piacere, più gioioso ma più egoista degli uomini; e così via attraverso un qualsiasi numero di esempi del tutto contrari di esseri superiori al di là della facile imitazione dell’uomo. Come fa l’Evoluzionista a sapere quale di questi esseri superiori sia superiore all’altro essere superiore? Come può mai saperlo, se non possiede già un ideale fisso e immutabile di essere superiore; e se lo possiede, allora tutta la metafisica della mutabilità va in pezzi. Vi è qualcosa che, dal principio, sopravvive a tutti i mutamenti fino alla fine; e non basta che vi sia sempre un al di là, poiché al di là di esso non vi è alcun al di là.
Infine, vi è una connessione fondamentale tra queste crude immaginazioni di strane nascite e di raggianti mostri che prendono il posto degli uomini, e quelle prime fisime che permangono come meri pregiudizi provinciali; fisime persino tanto farsesche quanto quella dell’astinenza totale dall’alcol. Esse sono connesse da una concezione cosmica, forse così vasta da essere quasi inconscia, che separa uomini come il signor Shaw dalla più antica tradizione cristiana; contro la quale essi credono di essersi ribellati, ma alla quale non hanno mai realmente pensato e, invero, mai realmente prestato ascolto. Forse il modo più breve di enunciarla è questo. La più antica teologia cristiana si erge contro qualunque teoria più nuova, e invero contro la maggior parte delle altre religioni, in questo tratto netto e sfidante: che essa è l’unica e sola filosofia che ha rifiutato di disperare dell’Uomo.
Ora l’evoluzionismo del signor Shaw, e di quasi tutti gli altri, è assolutamente radicato in una disperazione riguardo all’Uomo. È questo ciò che viene pittorescamente simboleggiato da un entusiasmo alquanto vago ed evasivo per il Superuomo. Che cosa si intende realmente con la consolazione dell’al di là e con l’attesa di un organismo superiore? Si intende semplicemente che l’animale reale chiamato Uomo va trattato quasi come un animale estinto. Egli è un fossile che cammina per le strade; è esso stesso una sorta di appendice del cosmo; un organo superfluo. È una di quelle cose notevoli dell’evoluzione che sopravvivono soltanto per provare di non avere alcun valore di sopravvivenza. «L’uomo è una cosa che deve essere superata.» Ora, da questa visione della malattia cosmica come una sorta di appendicite astrale, consegue che il processo di miglioramento dev’essere quella particolare specie di semplificazione cui diamo il nome di Amputazione. Cose che sono sempre state parte dell’essere umano potrebbero, per quanto chiunque ne sappia, essere ostacoli alla formazione del nuovo e innominato e semplificato essere sovrumano. Certamente un uomo non è un uomo completo senza il naso; ma, per quanto chiunque sappia dei superuomini, essi potrebbero star meglio senza nasi. I nasi potrebbero essere nidi di germi; oppure il rumore del soffiarsi il naso potrebbe disturbare il delicato organismo nervoso di quel Uomo Forte del futuro, che dovrà essere il padrone di tutti noi; si ricorderà che la Zia Jobiska, nelle rime del dotto signor Lear, adottava questa veduta e ragionava in questa maniera, dicendo che «tutti sanno che un Pobble sta meglio senza le dita dei piedi». La Zia Jobiska è un modello di evoluzionista di questa scuola di pensiero. Essa consiste nell’inventare dapprima una figura ignota, sulla quale nessuno può nemmeno immaginare alcunché, come un Pobble o un Superuomo, e poi nell’affermare arbitrariamente che egli non avrà bisogno di qualcosa di cui chiunque noi conosciamo ha invece bisogno moltissimo.
Thus, in the Shavian atmosphere, the philosopher is not trying to get rid of the troubles of men, he is trying to get rid of men because they are the troubles of the philosopher. It is due to Mr. Shaw’s unmatched directness and controversial courage, to say that he very early accepted this reversal of the normal order of means and ends. He most emphatically does not think that the Sabbath was made for Man. He most emphatically does think that Man was made for the Sabbath. And Man having now irrevocably broken the Sabbath, the Superman must create some other sort of Sabbath, even if it be to our eyes as wild as a Witch’s Sabbath. I mean that he did begin very early to say boldly that if the Communist hat would not fit the human head, we must cut off the head and carefully preserve the hat. He did and does hold that if men must really have beef and beer, then we must all set to work to breed a race of gigantic chameleons that can live on light and air. The growth of these dragons is the chief theme of Back to Methuselah. But Mr. Shaw did really take this queer view long before he went back to Methuselah. Where all normal socialists professed fraternity with the working classes, he wrote, “I have never had any feeling about the working-classes except a desire to abolish them, and replace them by sensible people.” It is needless to explain that sensible people are always people who prefer water to wine, cabbages to cutlets, materialism to miracles, and utter subjection to a centralised government to any traditions of human liberty.
Now against all this, as its chief enemy, though he may not know it, stands the old Catholic philosophy of Man. The first and last idea of it is Resurrection, that is the resurrection of the whole of man. It is, as I have said before, a mystical refusal to despair of the original prehistoric monster of that name. It is true that the older creed often demands amputation in the sense of asceticism, as in the text about cutting off the hand to enter Heaven. But the difference is instantly made vivid by the rest of the text, which declares that even such amputation is better than casting the whole body of man into Hell. But the Shavian evolutionist does really want to cast the whole body of man into Chaos. He wants to cast it into the melting-pot, and boil it to nothing, that a new and superior something may at last emerge. This is indeed much more than amputation, it is annihilation. At least it is so for those who still see a sanctity in Man as a potentially complete creature, even if we commonly see him as incomplete. I have concluded upon this point, because it is the crux of the controversy, in what I cannot pretend to be anything but a long series of controversies. Only I understand the crux better than when I began to controvert about it, ave crux, spes unica. We do not believe that man is a mass of mistakes that have to be shed until he has lost everything but shame in the very memory of his manhood. We think they are lower forms and fallen applications of his true powers and instincts, damaged by one great mystical mistake. We do not believe that all property is wrong, though we agree that much money-getting and all money-grabbing is wrong, because we believe that the primary human sense of individual and independent possession is perfectly right. We do not admit that all punishment is wrong, though we warmly agree that all tyranny and mere vindictiveness is wrong, because these are only low and morbid forms of something that is right, whether it be just expiation or even just indignation. We do not admit that all vows of constancy are wrong, though we fully admit that they may be treated wrongly, because we think that even the tragic tradition of them is the remains of the truth concerning a complete and triumphant human love. So the same clue runs through a hundred questions down to trivial questions like the mere forms of festivity or the mere externals of civilised habit. We do not want all fermented liquor abolished because some men are too drunken, any more than we want all clothes abolished because some women are too dressy. For we believe that all that is historic in humanity has its higher forms and its lower forms , and we refuse to prohibit the higher because we happen at some particular place or time to suffer from the lower. But this other school that calls itself Progressive is always Prohibitionist. Marriage must vanish for ever; property must vanish for everybody. The Prohibitionists hoped to produce a younger generation that had never tasted anything but water; the Nudists a generation that had never known any embarrassment in nakedness. For these thinkers there is never anything between abnormality and negation, between abomination and abolition. And it is in vain that we point out that the normal is not only possible but visible, and holds the centre of the stage; that in the central civilisations of the world the abnormalities and abominations have in fact been largely avoided. They are blind to the fact, staring them in the face, that the wine-drinking countries drink very little wine: that the beer-drinking countries drink a remarkably mild beer. For in their hearts they do not believe it is a question of turning human life from abuse to use; it is a question of finding a new use for human life; or rather making it useful to a life that is not human. They are not quite such lunatics as they look, or rather their lunacy is of a larger and more hopeful sort. They do not only want to cut off a man’s legs to cure him of lameness. They really believe that with the loss of his legs he will immediately grow wings—or possibly wheels. This is the great faith which stands facing the ancient faith in the Resurrection of Man, and this sketch is but a small skirmish in the great campaign between those two creeds.
We hear very much in these days of the true essence of true Christianity, and not only, though perhaps most often, from those who are not Christians. But if we really wish to know about it, there was something which is always essential to Christianity, and for a long time was even common to all forms of Christianity. If we will condescend to cast an eye backwards upon those words which are certainly old, and which many rather antiquated sceptics suppose to be antiquated— if we will look at the actual words Redemption and Resurrection and Salvation and the Image of God, we shall see in them quite simply staring us in the face, all that I have said here. It was religion that refused to despair of Man; it is scientific progress and evolution that are already despairing of him. And it is not the Superman but very truly and actually the Son of Man, Who comes in clouds of glory to judge the world.
THE END
Così, nell’atmosfera shaviana, il filosofo non cerca di liberarsi dei guai degli uomini, cerca di liberarsi degli uomini perché essi sono i guai del filosofo. Bisogna riconoscere all’impareggiabile schiettezza del signor Shaw e al suo coraggio polemico, che egli accettò assai per tempo questo rovesciamento dell’ordine normale dei mezzi e dei fini. Egli con la massima enfasi non pensa che il Sabato sia stato fatto per l’Uomo. Egli con la massima enfasi pensa che l’Uomo sia stato fatto per il Sabato. E poiché l’Uomo ha ormai irrevocabilmente infranto il Sabato, il Superuomo deve creare qualche altra sorta di Sabato, foss’anche ai nostri occhi selvaggio come il Sabba di una strega. Voglio dire che egli cominciò assai per tempo a dichiarare arditamente che, se il cappello comunista non si adattava alla testa umana, dobbiamo tagliare la testa e conservare accuratamente il cappello. Egli sosteneva e sostiene che, se gli uomini devono proprio avere carne di manzo e birra, allora tutti dobbiamo metterci all’opera per allevare una razza di camaleonti giganteschi capaci di vivere di luce e d’aria. La crescita di questi draghi è il tema principale di Back to Methuselah. Ma il signor Shaw assunse davvero questa bizzarra concezione molto prima di tornare a Matusalemme. Là dove tutti i socialisti normali professavano fratellanza con le classi lavoratrici, egli scrisse: «Non ho mai provato alcun sentimento verso le classi lavoratrici, se non il desiderio di abolirle e di sostituirle con gente assennata». È superfluo spiegare che la gente assennata è sempre gente che preferisce l’acqua al vino, i cavoli alle cotolette, il materialismo ai miracoli, e la totale sottomissione a un governo centralizzato a qualunque tradizione di libertà umana.
Ora, contro tutto ciò, come suo nemico principale, benché egli forse non lo sappia, sta l’antica filosofia cattolica dell’Uomo. La sua prima e ultima idea è la Resurrezione, cioè la resurrezione dell’uomo intero. Essa è, come ho detto prima, un mistico rifiuto di disperare del mostro originario e preistorico di quel nome. È vero che il credo più antico spesso esige l’amputazione nel senso dell’ascesi, come nel passo sul tagliarsi la mano per entrare nel Cielo. Ma la differenza è resa subito vivida dal resto del passo, che dichiara come persino una simile amputazione sia meglio che gettare l’intero corpo dell’uomo nell’Inferno. Ma l’evoluzionista shaviano vuole davvero gettare l’intero corpo dell’uomo nel Caos. Vuole gettarlo nel crogiuolo e bollirlo fino a ridurlo a nulla, affinché qualcosa di nuovo e superiore possa infine emergere. Questo è invero assai più che amputazione, è annientamento. Almeno lo è per coloro che vedono ancora una santità nell’Uomo come creatura potenzialmente completa, anche se comunemente lo vediamo incompleto. Ho concluso su questo punto, perché esso è il nodo della controversia, in quella che non posso fingere sia altro se non una lunga serie di controversie. Solo che comprendo il nodo meglio di quando cominciai a controvertere su di esso, ave crux, spes unica. Non crediamo che l’uomo sia una massa di errori da dismettere finché non abbia perduto tutto tranne la vergogna nella memoria stessa della sua virilità. Pensiamo che siano forme inferiori e applicazioni decadute delle sue vere facoltà e dei suoi veri istinti, danneggiati da un solo grande errore mistico. Non crediamo che ogni proprietà sia sbagliata, benché conveniamo che molto guadagnar denaro e ogni arraffar denaro sia sbagliato, perché crediamo che il primario senso umano del possesso individuale e indipendente sia perfettamente giusto. Non ammettiamo che ogni punizione sia sbagliata, benché caldamente conveniamo che ogni tirannia e ogni mera vendicatività sia sbagliata, perché queste sono solo forme basse e morbose di qualcosa che è giusto, sia esso la giusta espiazione o persino la giusta indignazione. Non ammettiamo che ogni voto di costanza sia sbagliato, benché ammettiamo pienamente che essi possano essere trattati malamente, perché pensiamo che persino la loro tragica tradizione sia il residuo della verità riguardo a un amore umano completo e trionfante. Così lo stesso filo corre attraverso cento questioni, fino a questioni banali come le mere forme della festività o i meri esterni delle abitudini civili. Non vogliamo che ogni bevanda fermentata sia abolita perché alcuni uomini sono troppo ubriaconi, non più di quanto vogliamo che ogni abito sia abolito perché alcune donne sono troppo agghindate. Poiché crediamo che tutto ciò che è storico nell’umanità abbia le sue forme superiori e le sue forme inferiori, e ci rifiutiamo di proibire le superiori perché ci accade, in qualche luogo o tempo particolare, di soffrire delle inferiori. Ma quest’altra scuola che si autodefinisce Progressista è sempre Proibizionista. Il Matrimonio deve svanire per sempre; la proprietà deve svanire per tutti. I Proibizionisti speravano di produrre una generazione più giovane che non avesse mai assaggiato altro che acqua; i Nudisti una generazione che non avesse mai conosciuto alcun imbarazzo nella nudità. Per questi pensatori non c’è mai nulla tra l’anormalità e la negazione, tra l’abominio e l’abolizione. Ed è vano che facciamo notare come il normale non sia soltanto possibile ma visibile, e tenga il centro della scena; che nelle civiltà centrali del mondo le anormalità e gli abomini siano stati di fatto ampiamente evitati. Sono ciechi al fatto, che li fissa in faccia, che i paesi bevitori di vino bevono pochissimo vino: che i paesi bevitori di birra bevono una birra notevolmente leggera. Poiché nel loro cuore non credono che si tratti di volgere la vita umana dall’abuso all’uso; si tratta di trovare un nuovo uso per la vita umana; o piuttosto di renderla utile a una vita che non è umana. Non sono del tutto tanto folli quanto sembrano, o piuttosto la loro follia è di specie più ampia e più speranzosa. Non vogliono soltanto tagliare le gambe a un uomo per guarirlo dalla zoppìa. Credono davvero che con la perdita delle gambe egli metterà immediatamente le ali — o forse le ruote. Questa è la grande fede che sta di fronte all’antica fede nella Resurrezione dell’Uomo, e questo schizzo non è che una piccola schermaglia nella grande campagna tra quei due credi.
Sentiamo parlare moltissimo in questi giorni della vera essenza del vero Cristianesimo, e non soltanto, benché forse più spesso, da parte di coloro che non sono cristiani. Ma se davvero desideriamo saperne qualcosa, vi era qualcosa che è sempre essenziale al Cristianesimo, e per lungo tempo fu persino comune a tutte le forme di Cristianesimo. Se vorremo degnarci di gettare uno sguardo indietro su quelle parole che sono certamente antiche, e che molti scettici piuttosto antiquati suppongono antiquate — se guarderemo alle parole stesse Redenzione e Resurrezione e Salvezza e Immagine di Dio, vi vedremo, semplicemente fissarci in faccia, tutto ciò che ho detto qui. Fu la religione a rifiutarsi di disperare dell’Uomo; è il progresso scientifico e l’evoluzione che già disperano di lui. E non è il Superuomo, ma veramente e realmente il Figlio dell’Uomo, Colui che viene tra le nubi della gloria a giudicare il mondo.
FINE